Fallo na Mendia

Fallo na Mendia [ˌfal.lɔ nɐ ˈmɛn.di.ɐ]
Period	c. 1100 YP
Spoken in	Mendia
Total speakers	c. 150,000
Writing system	adapted Fáralo alphabet
Classification	Edastean  Fáralo    Southern Fáralo     Fallo na Mendia
Typology
Basic word order	AuxSOV
Morphology	fusional
Alignment	NOM-ACC
Credits
Created by	Dunomapuka; this dialect: Thedukeofnuke

Fallo na Mendia is the local language of the city of Mendia and the surrounding province of Suhhua c. 1100 YP, descended from a southern variety of Fáralo. It is usually considered a dialect of the more widely used Namɨdu language.

Sound Changes from Fáralo

Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.
1. Coda [r] shifts to [ə].
2. Non-syllabic [ɔ̯] merges with [w].
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: [æ] ➝ [jɛ]; [e] ➝ [jə]; [o] ➝ [wə]. If another vowel follows, then [e] ➝ [jəj]; [o]➝ [wəw].
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: [ij iə] ➝ [iː]; [uw uə] ➝ [uː]; [aw aə] ➝ [aː]; [ɔw ɔə] ➝ [ɔː]; [ɛw ɛə] ➝ [ɛː]; [iw uj] ➝ [yː]; [əw əə] ➝ [əː].
5. [i] before another vowel reduces to [j], and [u] reduces to [w].
6. [j], including any new [j] from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar.
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries.
8. Intervocalic single [ɡ] becomes [j], while the geminate remains [ɡɡ].
9. Intervocalic single [f] becomes [v], while the geminate remains [ff].
10. Final [h], [f] are lost.

Southern Fáralo to Fallo na Mendia ca. 1100.
11. Depalatalization of [ʃ ʧ ʤ] to [s ʦ ʣ].
12. [ŋ] merges with the cluster [nj] before vowels. It remains [ŋ] word-finally and before all consonants other than [j w]. Geminated [ŋŋ] becomes [ŋɡɡ].
13. [jɛ] simplifies to [ɛ] when preceded by a consonant.
14. Short unstressed [ɛ ɔ] merge with [ə] after a vowel.
15. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel, and simplify the geminate if the second half of it cannot be part of a legitimate syllable onset.
16. [ʦ ʣ] lenite to [θ ð] except after a plosive, where they become [s z] instead.
17. [sk ks sr rs] all become [ʃ], [zɡ ɡz zr rz jj] all become [ʒ], [kn ɡn] become [ɲ], and [kl ɡl lk lɡ] all become [ʎ]. The resulting palatals are geminated when they occur directly after a stressed short vowel.
18. Intervocalic obstruent-nasal clusters undergo metathesis (some exceptions occur).
19. [ə əː] merge with [a aː] respectively.
20. Stress moves to the penultimate syllable of the root, although if the root morpheme of a word is monosyllabic it retains stress.
21. Clusters of two plosives, two fricatives, or two approximants assimilate to a geminate version of the second consonant. [jj] formed by this change merges with [ʒ].
22. Word-final clusters simplify: obstruents adjacent to [s] are deleted.
23. Geminated [ww] merges with [v].
24. Coda nasals assimilate to the place of articulation of a following obstruent.
25. Consonant clusters assimilate in voicing to the last obstruent.
26. If a nasal precedes a liquid, a voiced stop agreeing in place of articulation with the nasal is inserted between the two. Geminate nasals in this environment become single.
27. [j] becomes [i] after a consonant except before [i iː yː], where it is elided, and [w] becomes [u], except before [u uː yː], where it is elided.
28. Two identical vowels become a single long vowel. Long vowels simplify: [aː] ➝ [a]; [ɛː] ➝ [ɛ]; [iː] ➝ [i]; [ɔː] ➝ [ɔ]; [uː yː] ➝ [y].

Phonology

Consonants

	labial	dental	alveolar	palatal	velar	glottal
stops	p · b		t · d		k · ɡ
fricatives	f · v	θ · ð	s · z	ʃ · ʒ		h
nasals	m		n	ɲ	ŋ
liquids			r · l	ʎ
semivowels	w			j

• All consonants except /w j/ may occur as geminates. Underlying |ww jj| surface as /v ʒ/.
• /f v/ contrast only in a limited number of environments - mainly initially or when geminated.
• /θ ð ʃ ʒ ɲ ʎ/ are written th dh š ž ñ ly (geminated: tth ddh šš žž ññ lly).
• /w j/ are written w y before a vowel or after /i y u/, and u i otherwise.
• /ŋ/ is written ng. It is only phonemic word-finally; medial ng (geminated ngg) represents [ŋɡ], phonemically /nɡ/.

Vowels

	front	back
high	i · y	u
mid	ɛ	ɔ
low	a

• /y ɛ ɔ/ are written ü e o.

Phonotactics

The basic syllable structure is (C)(C)V(C)(C). Onset clusters are mostly consonant + r l w y, but some other clusters can occur in onset. Coda clusters are restricted word-finally to l m n + consonant; other coda clusters may occur in non-final syllables.

Consonant clusters must agree in voicing with the last obstruent. If two stops, two fricatives, or two approximants occur together, the first also assimilates in place of articulation to the second.

Phonetic Detail

• Fallo na Mendia has a dynamic stress accent, which falls on the penultimate syllable of the root, not counting minor syllables (see below) and grammatical affixes. Compound words take the stress on the penult of the first element.
• A notable feature of Fallo na Mendia is the presence of minor syllables, which have the form C(C) + i, u and only occur before vowels; these are derived from former [j w] between a consonant and a vowel. They do not count as syllables when assigning stress. If one of i u between a consonant and a vowel carries stress, it is marked with an acute accent.
• p t k are lightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
• r is a trill [r] word-initially and when geminated, and a tap [ɾ] elsewhere.
• l is velarised to [ɫ] in coda (intervocalic geminate ll is immune). Speakers from the coast south of the city often merge coda l with w.
• Geminate hh is often pronounced as a pharyngeal [ħː].
• A stop + h cluster coalesces into an aspirated stop.
• The high vowels i ü u are lax [ɪ ʏ ʊ] in closed syllables, and open [i y u] otherwise.
• Speakers in rural areas north of the city often pronounce e o as [e o] word-finally.
• Unstressed a becomes [ɐ] in closed syllables or morpheme-finally.

Nominal Morphology

Although Fallo na Mendia is a Southern Fáralo dialect, it has been strongly influenced by Woltu Falla, the Central dialect spoken in Ussor and the Oltu valley. As a result its morphology has retained some features of Classical Fáralo that have been preserved in Central Fáralo but were lost in most Southern dialects.

Nouns

Nominal morphology is prefixing. Nouns in Fallo na Mendia inflect for number and just two cases; unlike other Southern dialects (including its close relative Farwo n-Abebbu) synthetic genitive and dative cases are lacking.

The citation form is the accusative singular.

buas "ox"

	singular	plural
accusative	buas	azbuas
nominative	buas	kabuas

toba "horn"

	singular	plural
accusative	toba	astoba
nominative	doba	attoba

follyo "workshop"

	singular	plural
accusative	follyo	affollyo
nominative	follyo	akfollyo

aba "mason, metalworker"

	singular	plural
accusative	aba	zaba
nominative	aba	gaba

• The nominative singular is distinguished from the accusative singular only in a number of nouns beginning with /p t k h w/. These nouns form the nominative via the consonant mutation:
  • /p/ ➝ /b/
  • /t/ ➝ /d/
  • /k/ ➝ /ɡ/
  • /h/ ➝ /s/
  • /w/ ➝ /s/

• The accusative plural is formed by adding the prefix z- before vowels and approximants, az- before voiced obstruents and nasals, and as- before unvoiced obstruents. However, some other changes also apply:
  • The semivowels y w change to i u (forming a minor syllable) with the addition of the prefix z-.
  • The fricative of the prefix assimilates in place of articulation to a following fricative.
  • k g palatalise to š ž instead of adding the prefix.

• The nominative plural is formed by adding the prefix g- before vowels and approximants, ka- before voiced obstruents and nasals, and ak- before unvoiced obstruents. Again, some other changes also apply:
  • The semivowels y w change to i u (forming a minor syllable) with the addition of the prefix g-.
  • g lenits to y with the addition of the prefix ka-.
  • The k of the prefix assimilates in place of articulation to a following unvoiced stop.
  • s z l palatalise to š ž ly instead of adding the prefix.

• Nouns beginning in a + a consonant cluster, along with a handful of other nouns, form irregular plurals:

abža "star"

	singular	plural
accusative	abža	azbža
nominative	abža	kabža

Personal Pronouns

Standalone

	nom	acc	gen	dat
1 sg.	i	ibu	yeth	im
2 sg.	leku	lekung	yellyu	lekum
3 sg.	a	yebu	yeya	yem
1 pl.	luki	luzis	yethi	lütam
2 pl.	do	duang	yengu	duam
3 pl.	ak	abu	yeya	yem
interrogative	dheya	dheyung	yedhia	dheyum

Combined

Unlike other Southern dialects, Fallo na Mendia has retained the combined pronouns of Classical Fáralo. They are used when both the subject and direct object are pronouns.

subj.	object
	1 sg.	2 sg.	3 sg.	1 pl.	2 pl.	3 pl.
1 sg.	–	ing	isa	iyis	ius	isas
2 sg.	doi	–	doya	dois	duas	doyas
3 sg.	ai	aung	asi	as	aus	ayas
1 pl.	ithi	iddung	itha	–	iddus	iyas
2 pl.	dothi	doddung	dotha	dothis	–	doyas
3 pl.	athi	addung	atha	athis	addus	asis

Verbal Morphology

The Main Verb

As in Namɨdu, verb phrases generally include an auxiliary and a main verb. The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject.

The singular is unmarked. The plural form is suffixing:

• Verbs ending in a vowel or n ng generally add the suffix -k.
• Verbs ending in s z l generally palatalise these to š ž ly.
• Verbs ending in all other consonants generally add the suffix -ek.

rettu "to hear" ➝ rettuk "to hear" (pl.)
sin "to drink" ➝ sink "to drink" (pl.)
núas "to cheat" ➝ núaš "to cheat" (pl.)
woddel "to carry" ➝ woddely "to carry" (pl.)
tazbem "to imply" ➝ tazbemek "to imply" (pl.)

There are complications, however:

• Monosyllabic verbs (and some polysyllabic verbs) double a final consonant before adding -ek.

tüd "to control" ➝ tüddek "to control" (pl.)
apam "to cry" ➝ apammek "to cry" (pl.)

• Many polysyllabic verbs undergo vowel syncope when forming plurals.

thenniz "to humiliate" ➝ thenzek "to humiliate" (pl.)
diammit "to support" ➝ diantek "to support" (pl.)

Due to these and other irregularities, the plural must be learned individually for the majority of verbs.

Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries inflect for three tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and polarity, but not for number.

	present	preterite	imperfect	negative present	negative preterite	negative imperfect
does (null)	sis	sisen	sised	masis	massen	massed
can	bua	buen	buad	ebua	ebuen	ebuad
must	yeda	yedan	yedad	meda	medan	medad
should	is	isen	ised	mis	misen	mised
will	we	wen	wed	me	men	med
might	uppe	uppen	upped
would	uthis	uthisen	uthised	muthis	muthisen	muthised
seems	ida	idren	idred	mida	midren	midred
wants	so	suan	sod	eso	esuan	esod
starts	hebbe	hebben	hebbed	mebbe	mebben	mebbed
stops	eta	etan	etad	meta	metan	metad
causes	üm	ümen	ümed	müm	mümen	mümed
is going to	nuan	nuanen	nuaned	manuan	manuanen	manuaned
is doing	yedde	yedden	yedded
just did	ta	ten	tad	mata	maten	matad
emphatic	piatta	piattan	piattad	epiatta	epiattan	epiattad
imperative	e			emma

The Copula

The copula is similar to an auxiliary; however, since it is often used without an auxiliary of its own, it also distinguishes number.

	present	preterite	imperfect	negative present	negative preterite	negative imperfect
singular	odu	odun	odud	modu	modun	modud
plural	oduk	odüa	odud	moduk	modüa	modud

Sample

Standard Namɨdu

• Sis Sɨntsen, kros atsak yelos Akozyad, wa amekot yelɨdoł wa yeluñɨb, me bi: Isłu hyeppen i mu lepeło yebodde i epe, sed yak kasyoł ɨm uro esnek.

• [ sis ˈsɨn.ʦɛn | kʰɾʌs ɐˌʦʰak jɛˌlʌs ɐˈkʰʌz.jad | wɐ ɐˈmɛ.kʌt jɛˈlɨ.dʌʟ wɐ jɛˈlu.ɲɨb | mɛ bi ‖ ˈis.ʟu ˈhjɛp.pɛn i mu lɛˈpʰɛ.ʟɔ jɛˈbʌd.dɛ i ˈɛ.pɛ | ˈsɛd jak kɐˈsjʌʟ ɨm ˈu.ɾɔ ˈɛs.nɛk ]

• NULL.AUX Sɨntsen / brave APP-king DAT-land APP-Kasadgad / and APP-younger.brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon / speak QUOT / before start-PAST I on throne DAT-father I sit / NULL.AUX-IMPERF all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile act-PL

Fallo na Mendia

• Piatta Sinthen, kras thak na lu las yem Kazziad, wa mekat na üdol pian ib, ebi sip: Isa sišuama hebben i lu epello na yeth badde rodda, sised ega akhial im thoš oduk.

• [ piˌat.tɐ ˈsɪn.θɛn | kʰɾas θak nɐ lu las jɛm ˈkʰaz.zi.ɐd | wɐ ˈmɛ.kɐt nɐ ˈy.dɔɫ pi.ɐn ˈɪb | ˌɛ.bi ˈsɪp ‖ ˌi.sɐ si.ʃuˌa.mɐ ˌhɛb.bɛn i lu ɛˈpɛl.lɔ nɐ jɛθ ˈbad.dɛ ˌrɔd.dɐ | ˌsi.sɛd ˈɛ.ɡɐ a.kʰiˌaɫ ɪm ˈθɔʃ ˌɔ.dʊk ]

• EMPH.AUX Sinthen / brave king GEN DEF land APP Kasadgad / and younger.brother GEN sun with moon / speak thus / before when.REL start-PAST I DEF throne GEN my father hold / NULL.AUX-IMPERF all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile be-PL

See also

• Namɨdu
• Farwo n-Abebbu