Cednìtıt

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Cednìtıt
[ ɕɛtnjʌ̀tʰəʔ ]
Period c. 0 YP
Spoken in Potantrommo Bay, in southeastern Tuysáfa
Total speakers unknown
Writing system unknown
Classification T1 languages
  Cednìtıt
Typology
Basic word order OV/SOV
Morphology agglutinating/polysynthetic with some fusion
Alignment NOM-ACC
Credits
Created by Treskro

Cednìtıt (ca-dnittobcì lit. the-dust-language) is a T1 language spoken in southeastern Tuysáfa. The exact location is located slightly west of the main focus area of Cursed Relay 2, against the southern coastline of a bay area called Potantrommo (potantrommo [pʰotʰantʰommo] lit. it-flows-into-this-place). It is a descendant of Proto-T1 and was created for the reconstruction relay. Though Cednìtıt is actually the endonym of speakers of what they call ca-dnittobcì, due to similarities between the two words it will be referred to as Cednìtıt throughout this article. Cednìtıt is related to West Yalan, East Yalan, Omari, Hkətl’ohnim, Tumetıęk and the Northeastern Bay Language.

The lexicon can be found here.

Phonology

Phoneme inventory

Consonants

Consonants in parentheses are considered allophonic.

labial dental alveolar retroflex velar glottal
plosive p pʰ (t̪ t̪ʰ) t tʰ ʈ ʈʰ k kʰ (ʔ)
nasal m (n̪) n ɳ ŋ
fricative ɸ s̪~θ ɕ ʂ x
liquid ʋ r l


  • /p t̪ t ʈ k/ are written b d d dr g
  • /pʰ t̪ʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ/ are written p t t tr k
  • word final glottal stops are written as aspirated plosives
  • l r are usually pronounced [ʋ], depending on the source word.
  • /ɸ s̪ ɕ ʂ x/ are written f th c sr x
  • /ʋ/ is written w

Vowels

The Cednìtıt vowel inventory is as follows.

front central back
high i u
mid e ə o
low a

Additionally, there are two low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/.

Phonotactics

A basic syllable consists of an onset, nucleus, and coda. Of these, only the vowel is obligatory.

Onset

Valid onsets may consist of the following combinations:

  • nothing
  • any single consonant
  • any fricative followed by any nasal
  • /θ/ followed by any fricative
  • any coronal plosive followed by a fricative at the same POA: /t̪θ t̪ʰθ tɕ tʰɕ ʈʂ tʰʂ/ <dth tth dc tc dsr tsr>. These function basically as a series of coronal affricates.
  • any aspirated plosive followed by a nasal at a different POA.
  • all of the above followed by the glide /ʋ/ <w>
  • <l> is pronounced [ʋ] in onsets

Nucleus

Valid nuclei consist only of single vowels or the low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/. Compounding or affixing that results in two vowels adjacent to each other is resolved by:

  • epenthetic [ʋ~w] is inserted after /a o u/ and spelled <w>
  • epenthetic [a] is inserted after /ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀/ and spelled <a>
  • epenthetic [w] is inserted after /i e/ and spelled <w>

Coda

Valid codas may consist of the following combinations:

  • nothing
  • any single consonant
  • any coronal plosive followed by fricative at same POA
  • <l>, which is pronounced [l]
  • the glide /ʋ/ followed by a nasal
  • nasal followed by plosive at same POA
  • fricative followed by /t/
  • /r/ followed by a plosive


Allophony

Cednìtıt practices coronal harmony, where all coronal consonants in a "word" (including root and bound affixes, but not including clitics) conform to the point of articulation the first coronal consonant in the word. It should be noted that [t̪] and [n̪] are not phonemic and thus trigger alveolar harmony. The three coronal series are as follows:

  • Dental: t̪ t̪ʰ n̪ s̪~θ <d t n th>
  • Alveolar: t tʰ n ɕ <d t n c>
  • Retroflex: ʈ ʈʰ ɳ ʂ <dr tr nr sr>

Because spelling is based on principles of phonemes, the word <owdrubthık> /oʋʈupθək/ is pronounced [oʋʈupʂəʔ].

  • Final plosives become glottal stop [ʔ]
  • /l/ is [ʋ] in all positions except word finally.
  • /r/ is [ʋ] as a coda or in a coda cluster.
  • Some dialects lower high vowels in positions adjacent to velar consonants.
  • Initial plosives are often dropped when found in onset clusters with nasals. The nasal takes the POA of the plosive.
  • unstressed vowels may be diphthongized or centralized; /i u e o ə a/ > [jɪ wʊ jə wə ɔ aj/aw] > [ɪ ʊ ə ə ɔ æ ɒ]
  • word final /i e ə/ are devoiced adjacent to voiceless consonants, and eventually dropped completely.
  • /ɸ/ > [f] adjacent to dental consonants
  • Neutral Vowel Allophony
    • [ɨ] following front vowels and /ɕ/; [ʌ] following /ʋ/
    • Coda morphs:
      • /ə/ > [ʋ] > [w] / [a,o,u]_
      • /ə/ > [a] / [ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀]_
      • /ə/ > Ø / [i, e]_
      • [n t tʰ] > [ɾ] / V_ə
      • [ŋ k kʰ] > [ŋʷ kʷ kʰʷ] / V_ə
    • [ə] elsewhere.
  • Assimilation
    • Sequences of two consecutive plosives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of plosive on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (wit + pnim [stem] > wippnim)
    • Sequences of two consecutive fricatives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of fricative on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (ox [stem] + thu > oxxu)
    • Sequences of obstruent + nasal across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of obstruent and geminate nasal. (it + ne > inne)

Morphology

Nouns

Cednìtıt inflects for animacy/definiteness, and case. These affixes generally follow a simple template of <root>-DEF.A/I-CASE


Animacy and Definiteness

The following chart lists The definite article =ca has largely become an indicator of animacy. It has, in effect, fused with original animate/inanimate affixes to the point that the animacy of the noun is only specified when a specific instance of the noun is being introduced.

Animacy/Definiteness is only specified for third person arguments.

singular plural
Animate -co -ncu*
Inanimate -ca -nca
  • -ncu often becomes -nco by analogy.

Case

Cednìtıt inflects rather simply for case, generally employing only three main affixes.

Nominative (unmarked) used to mark subjects of clauses.
Accusative -(a)n (nasal assimilates to POA of final obstruent -ip > -im. The allomorph -an is used after nasals) used to mark direct objects of transitive clauses
Oblique (after consonants and [i])/-w (after vowels) used to mark secondary objects of ditransitive clauses. Also used in some genitive constructions.

Pronouns

Because pronominal prefixes are present as verbal affixes, pronouns are often dropped in the first and second persons, but can be useful in distinguishing between third person arguments because of their similarity.

Nominative

singular plural
1 dop ithep
2 ıwp nudep
3a both both
3i poth poth

Accusative

singular plural
1 tom thim
2 ìm num
3a om om
3i om om

Oblique

singular plural
1 odci idthi
2 ıdci udci
3a doc doc
3i tco tco

Possessive Prefixes

Possessives in Cednìtıt are indicated by modifying prefixes on the noun, indicating the possessors. Only animate nouns can act as possessors; inanimate nouns form compounds using the genitive construction.

singular plural
1 e de
2 thı di
3a mupu o
  • Note: Nouns beginning with mu-, nu-, or ŋu lose u- when a prefix is attached. ie. nusrip earensrip my ear

Compounding

Compounding is a simple method of combining multiple nominals to form a more complex meaning. The most common construction takes the form of <HEAD>-OBL/GEN-<MODIFIER>, forming a general genitive compound. The genitive marker is often elided when the second part of the compound begins with a vowel, resulting in a simple concatenation of the two nouns.

Examples:

  • dteŋ hair + paxı liondteŋıpaxı mane
  • ar star + cowo summit, peakarıcowo North Star (?)

Verbs

Cednìtıt verbal morphology is significantly more complex than nominal morphology. Verbal complexes are formed using the following template:

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
pronoun modal preverb stem adverb/aspectual marker voice deverbalizer
prefix valence

Pronoun Prefixes

Cednìtıt employs several sets of pronominal prefixes. The first is used for simple subjects, indicating the person, number, and animacy of subjects of intransitive clauses. Tense marking, which is differentiated between nonpast and past tenses, is incorporated into the pronoun prefixes.

Subject Pronouns

Nonpast Past
singular plural singular plural
1 e de 1 tr(u) u
2 ù di 2 a t(u)
3 anim. o o(n) 3 anim. th(ı) ù
inan. o(m) o(n) inan. p(o) ù
  • Additionally, the definite article ca can also be used as a particle which marks appositives and relative clauses when it is prefixed before nominalized predicate.
    • cadnittobcìw onen edadthakıxt.
      ca=dnit-dobcì-w o-ne-n eda-dthak-ıxt
      DEF=dust-language-OBL speak-NOMINALIZER-ACC 1s>3si-have.ability-NEG
      I don't have the ability to speak Cednìtıt.

Subject>Object Pronouns

In transitive and ditransitive clauses, the roles of the subject and primary object must be specified.

Nonpast
subj\obj 1s 1p 2s 2p 3sa 3pa 3si 3pi rflxs rflxp
1s ec(e) ì ec(i) mo no ed(a) ed(a) ece
1p de dc(i) do do dc(ì) dc(ì) dege
2s we w(e) ù ìc ùm ùn ùd(a) ùd(a) ùcı
2p de dc(e) dc(i) dc(a) dc(a) digi
3sa oh ttho io tco om on ot(a) ot(a) oco
3pa ne oth(e) ù oc(i) mo no od(a) od(a) ogo
3si me oth(e) ù oc(i) mo no ob(a) ob(a) onco
3pi ne oth(e) ù oc(i) mo no od(a) od(a) ogo
Past
subj\obj 1s 1p 2s 2p 3sa 3pa 3si) 3pi rflxs rflxp
1s tsr(e) ù tsr tro tro dr(a) dr(a) trucu
1p we u uc(i) mu nu ud(a) ud(a) ugu
2s e ath(e) ù ac(i) ma na ad(a) ad(a) aca
2p te tth(e) tc(i) to to tud(a) tud(a) tugu
3sa the th(e) thù th(i) tho tho thıd(a) thıd(a) thıcı
3pa we w(e) ù ìc ùm ùn ùd(a) ùd(a) ùgı
3si pe pth(e) poc(i) pom pon pth(a) pth(a) poco
3pi we w(e) ù ìc ùm ùn ùd(a) ùd(a) ùgı

Modal Affixes

Cednìtıt employs various modal infixes/particles to provide nuances on the meaning of the verb.

Potential -tthon- denotes ability or potential for action to occur in the future. Often functions as a future tense marker, though it can also be combined with past tense pronoun prefixes.
Volitional -r(u)-

-w(u)-

denotes desire for a nominal, or desire for oneself or someone/thing else to perform an action
Subjunctive -(o)sr- denotes possible future outcome, implies possibility, but not absolute certainty. Certainty is of a lesser and more neutral degree than that which is implied by the Potential modal marker, which is skewed towards the fulfillment of the specified situation.
Imperative -wit- indicates command

Preverbs

Preverbs indicate various relationships between nominal arguments and specify manners in which actions are performed. Many verb stems associate heavily with specific preverbs to form lexicalized idiomatic compounds.

Affix Referent Case Usage
-o- ACC towards, near, antibenefactive
-ath(ga)- ACC away, apart, into pieces, benefactive
-rı(x)- OBL up (imperfect)
-rıw- ACC* above, onto
-gı- OBL down (imperfect)
-gıw- ACC* below, underneath
-t(a)n- ACC* into
-gim- ACC* out of, through
-em-, -en- across, along exterior surface, around, beside (without interaction)
-ut- OBL without
-wot- OBL wavering, no clear direction (also refers to habitual states so overcooked that they are taken to be inalienable truths at the moment of utterance)
-(i)wk- OBL inside, within, with (instrumental)

[*] With transitivizing suffix -(i)nt, if necessary.

Verbal Stems and Aspect Markers (Circumstantials)

Unlike previous affixes, which are generally true prefixes (or infixes for preverbs), circumstantials are fusional in nature and may cause minor stem changes depending on the interaction between the final sounds and circumstantial affixes. In some cases, circumstantial affixes can be used to form lexical verbal compounds. For the most part, Cednìtit uses circumstantials as aspectual markers, indicating level of completion and level of volition.

Indicative

The indicative form is used to describe general events in sequence. It consists of a pronominal marker and the bare form of the stem, though it can never be combined with prefixes marking past tense.

  • wucu pullmupunsrip edawucu I pull on his/her ear

Aspect

Cednìtit differentiates five aspects: prospective, inceptive, imperfective, progressive, and perfective. These can all be used to describe events in the present and past tenses.

Prospective is in anticipatory state which announces an intention for some action to occur.

  • For consonantal stems, -e is suffixed:
    tenir makeedatenire I intend to make (something)
  • For non-consonantal stems, the final vowel is fronted. < i e u > become -i, and all other vowels become -e.
    xene breatheùxeni you intend to breathe
    xwù killthexwe he intended to kill me

Inceptive refers to the point in time in which events have just begun.

  • Consonantal stems: -i is suffixed:
    ıdcap lie downùwıdcapi they started to lie down
  • Coronal stems : final coronal consonant is dropped, -dci is suffixed:
    dcıt stare atudcıdci we started to stare at you
  • Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, -ic is suffixed:
    wınti shine upontthowıntic (the sun) begins to shine down upon us

Imperfective refers to events in progress at the time of reference but not yet completed.

  • Consonantal: is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition: plosive > fricative; nasal/sonorant+plosive > nasal/sonorant(geminate):
    cıt runocıcı they are running
    aŋk apologizeìaŋŋı I'm sorry (to you)
  • Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant:
    noranti wash, cleanwontan donorannı we are washing the dog

Progressive describes events advancing towards a specific goal, or advancing towards the state describe by a stative verb.

  • Consonantal: -a is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition:
    rìwul be drunkerìwulla I am getting (becoming) drunk
    triŋ rule overotriŋŋa he will (soon) be ruling over us
  • Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, -a is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant:
    cuctcu be dryırnca ocuctca the flowers are drying out

Perfective marks actions which have been completed or have ended.

  • Consonantal: -thu is suffixed, assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant.
    exp be tannedexpfu I am completely tanned
    neck climb (a mountain)truneckxu I finished climbing (the mountain)
  • Coronal: -thu is suffixed, again, with th assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant.
    xowt pillageùdaxowtcu they completely pillaged it
  • Non-consonantal: -thu is suffixed:
    xwù killthıxwùthul she was murdered (passive)

Voice

Though lexical verb stems usually have a specific valence with assigned roles for subject and object(s), these can be modified through the use of voice markers, which are affixed to the verb complex. Valence affixes also exist; however, many distinctions are lexical in nature.

-(a)l- stative passive voice marker. Original subject and primary object exchange roles.
-(a)wk- dynamic passive voice marker.
-k(a)- causative for intransitive stems. Also marker for dynamic verbs.
-ca- causative for transitive stems.

Deverbalizer/Valence

-n(i)t- transitivizer for intransitive verbs. Also used as a comparative suffix (see below).

(to be expanded)


Derivational Morphology

Verb > Noun

  • Xne - general verbal nominalizer, the way one Xs (marginal) - -n assimilates to POA of final plosive, if applicable, and causes it to become a geminate nasal
    • thın walk > thınne walking, or thınne gait
  • Xcu, Xtcu, Xdcu - abstract nominalization of X - final syllable removed if it does not end with a coronal plosive or nasal
    • tenir create, make > tencu idea, something that has been created
    • oxtı honor (someone) > oxtcu honor
  • Xmı, Xemı - occupation or person associated with non-stative verb X- m assimilates to POA of final plosives or nasals and causes final plosives to become nasals. The form Xemı replaces final vowels of roots that end in < i e ı>.
    • xwù kill > xwùmı killer, murderer
    • guth dig, farm > guthmı farmer
    • fak hit, fight > faŋŋı fighter, warrior

Noun > Noun

  • X(o)rt - related to X
    • triŋìme king > triŋìmort be kingly, be royal, be regal

Syntax

Basic word order is SOV. Pronouns are usually only present for emphasis or for introducing an actor in a sentence. Third person pronouns are also often used to differentiate between singular, plural, animate and inanimate third person nouns.

Noun Phrases

Noun phrases head consist of a nominal head, inflected for case, which are preceded by modifiers in the form of verbal compounds.

owancu
o-ancu
3s.A.PRS-be_white
aco
a-co-Ø
horse-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM
the white horse
onowp
o-nowp
3p.A.PRS-be_calm
paxı
paxı-Ø
lion-NOM
calm lion(s)

In noun phrases with only a single argument and a stative verb, it is common to attach the uninflected noun directly to the front of the stem, precluding the need for pronominal prefixes on the verb. In this case, definiteness is not marked as a suffix on the noun and is no longer distinguished; instead, emphasis is placed on the entire compound, which gains the relativizer ca= (also c'=) and a nominalizing suffix (usually -ne). Relative clauses will be covered in more detail later.

c'
ca
REL
awancune
a-ancu-ne
horse.DEF.ANIM.SG-be_white.NOMINALIZER
white horse
ca
ca
REL
paxınowmme
paxı-nowp-ne
lion-be_calm-NOMINALIZER
calm lion(s)


Verbal modifiers are not limited to stative verbs.

iowathgathınna
io-athga-thın-a
3s.A.PRS>2s-away-walk-PRG
both
both
3s.a.NOM
the one (person/animal) walking away from you

Though first and second pronouns are generally not necessary, they may be included for emphasis, especially when the noun phrase is to be used as an embedded phrase within a longer sentence.

Numerals

For the most part, numbers and ordinal clauses pattern similarly to stative verbs and adjectival phrases.

Cednìtit has a base-10 counting system.

1. ot 11. otanatr
2. nıt 12. nıtanatr 20. nanıt
3. tha 13. thanatr 30. nantha
4. gep 14. gepanatr 40. naŋep
5. we 15. wenatr 50. nanwe
6. dok 16. dokanatr 60. nanok
7. ù 17. ùnatr 70. nanù
8. fe 18. fenatr 80. name
9. ola 19. olanatr 90. nanola
10. anatr 100. enetr

Numbers from 21-99 are formed by compounding the units digit with the corresponding tens digit. An epethentic <a> is inserted before the tens digit if preceded by a consonant.

21

ot-
one-
ananıt
twenty
otananıt

75

we-
five-
nanù
seventy
wenanù

Values greater than 100 are formed in a similar manner, with the multiplier for the 100s digit preceding enetr hundred.

101

ot-
one-
enetr
hundred
ot enetr

819

olanatr
nineteen
fe-
eight-
enetr
hundred
olanatr fenetr


To specify a specific quantity of a noun, the number root is inflected as a typical verb root, taking the appropriate person agreement prefix. The noun whose quantity is being specified only denotes singular or plural when a definite article is being employed. In any other case, the noun remains uninflected except for case. Note special suppletive vocabulary for definite and ordinal forms for 1 and 5.

paxı lion

Number Definite Ordinal
ot one, un begin paxı owot paxıco owun1 ca paxunne1
nıt two paxı onıt paxıncu onıt ca paxınınne
tha three paxı otha paxıncu otha ca paxıthane
gep four paxı ogep paxıncu ogep ca paxıgemme
we five, fak hit, strike, slap paxı owe paxıncu ofak2 ca paxıfaŋŋe2
dok six paxı odok paxıncu odok ca paxıdoŋŋe
ù seven paxı owù paxıncu owù ca paxùne
fe eight paxı ofe paxıncu ofe ca paxıfene
ola nine paxı owola paxıncu owola ca paxıwola
anatr ten paxı owanatr paxıncu owanatr ca paxıwanannre
nanıt twenty paxı onanıt paxıncu onanıt ca paxınanıt
otananıt twenty-one paxı owotananıt paxıncu owunananıt1 ca paxunananıt1
wenanù seventy-five paxı owenanù paxıncu owenanù (no suppletion) ca paxıwenanù (no suppletion)

1Uses the root un begin
2Uses the root fak hit, strike, slap

Basic Clauses

Intransitive Verbs: the simplest construction consists of an intransitive or stative verb and a single nominal argument.

efwuŋ
e-fwuŋ
1s.PRS-fall
I am falling.
fmolıxtncu
fmolıxt-ncu-Ø
monster-DEF.ANIM.PL-NOM
ùrìwul
ù-rìwul
3p.A.PST-be_drunk
The evil monsters were drunk.

Transitive Verbs take an additional argument, and have polypersonal agreement as per the pronominal prefixes described earlier. Third person nominal arguments take appropriate case suffixes

triŋìmeco
triŋìme-co-Ø
king-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM
ensripan
en-srip-an
1s.POS-ear-ACC
thıddenthık
thıd-denthe-ık
3s.A.PST>3s.I-cut-INTENS
The king sliced my ear off.

Ditransitive Verbs function similarly to transitive verbs, the only difference being that an additional nominal argument is added, taking the role of indirect object (recipient) or instrumental (by means of). Verbal morphology does not receive any affixes to agree with the oblique argument; oblique case pronouns are used instead.

enìbitan
e-nuìbit-an
1s.POS-rope-ACC
doc
doc
3s.A.OBL
draŋuxedthu
dra-ŋuxedı-thu
1s.PST>3p.I-lend-PERF
I lent him my rope.


Relative Clauses

Relative clauses can be thought of as glorified versions of noun phrases. Cednìtit has three relative particles, which precedes the modifier clause. The full relative clause precedes the noun which is being modified.

  • ca is a general use particle, and is found before clauses modifying abstract nominals:
    • ca dìomuìxınal dacuŋŋe the heresy you forced us to perform
  • cin is found before clauses modifying animate nouns:
    • cin oxosr xa bcìm the man who can pick me up
  • sru is used before clauses modifying inanimate concrete nouns:
    • sru owotak ne the cloud that is floating


Comparatives

Cednitıt circumfixes n(u)t- -n(i)t around a bare stative verb stem to form a comparative verb. It should be noted that the two individual parts of this affix fit within the general verbal template, with n(u)t- patterning with as a preverb in the -1 slot and -n(i)t in the +3 valence slot. This essentially forms a transitive verb with the two subjects being compared taking the role of subject and object, where the subject exhibits the quality in question in a greater quantity or intensity.

entthun
en-tthun-Ø
1s.POS-skin-NOM
thıntthunan
thın-tthun-an
2s.POS-skin-ACC
obantıwdint
oba-nt-ıwd-int
3s.I.PRS>3s.I-COMP-be_dark_TRANS
My skin is darker than your skin.
exnutowant
eh-nut-owa-nt
3s.A.PRS>1s-COMP-clean-TRANS
She is cleaner than I am.

Simple comparisons between two noun phrases are not necessarily limited to stative verbs. When other intransitive verbs and transitive verbs are used in comparative constructions, the meaning "more often" or "more" is implied.

othentotint
othe-nt-ot-int
3p.A>1p-COMP-sleep-TRANS
They sleep more than we do.

The original object of a transitive verb is moved to the oblique case, while the original subject of the verb becomes the object of comparison. The noun taking the nominative case is the one that performs the activity in question more often than the original subject.

enunan
en-un-an
1s.POS-brother-ACC
tcotcancaw
tcotca-nca-w
berry-DEF.I.PL-OBL
mantdruxent
ma-nt-druxe-nt
2s.PST>3s.A-COMP-remove-TRANS
You used to pick berries more often than my brother.

Stative Verbs & Adjectivals

The status of adjectivals in Cednìtit is debatable. In many situations, adjectivals function simply as stative verbs, following verbal morphology and using the same derivational affixes. However, there are also situations in which the same roots function independent of the verb template and directly modify nouns or other verbs. Most notably, these situations include but are not limited to comparative constructions and noun modifiers.

Interrogatives

Yes-No Questions

Simple yes-no questions have two forms, depending on whether the expected answer is affirmative or negative. The affirmative form uses the interrogative verb ca after a nominalized verb complex. ca is almost exclusively found in the forms oca or poca (past), which simply prefixes the third person singular inanimate prefix to the verb, which denotes the nominalized verb as subject.

  • Q
acıdci
a-cıt-i
2s.PST-run-INCEP
poca
po-ca
3si.PST-INT.AFF
Did you start to run?
  • A
trucıdci
tru-cıt-dci
1s.PST-run-INCEP
(Yes,) I started to run

The negative equivalent to ca is owk, a transitive verb with a literal meaning to be without. Usage of owk is similar to that of ca, but requires polypersonal agreement. The nominal subject is the same as the subject of the nominalized verb, while the action itself takes the accusative (3si). Because the expected answer is negative, the question is often associated with conveying a sarcastic or exasperated tone.

  • Q
okmart
o-kmart
3sa.NPST-eat
otowk
ota-owk
3sa.NPST>3si-INT.NEG
Does he not eat?
  • A
okmartıxt
o-kmart-ıxt
3sa.NPST-eat-NEG
(No,) he doesn't eat.

For both ca and owk, answers do not necessarily need to repeat the nominalized verb; instead, the interrogative verb can be repeated to answer yes or no. Therefore, in the previous examples, poca (it occurred), and otowk he is without it [the act of eating] are also valid responses.

Content Questions

Questions which expect a more specific response use a series of interrogative particles to denote the type of content expected as a reponse. The most basic of these is the "what" series: tca, tcin, and tsru pattern with the relative clause particles ca (clauses and abstractions), cin (animates), and sru (inanimates). Following the placement of the interrogative verbs in the previous section, the "what" series directly follow the noun phrase or nominalized verb that is being modified. In all three cases, these particles are treated as verbs which take a dummy third person subject that can be either animate or inanimate, singular or plural, depending on the situation.

bcìm
bcìm-Ø
person-NOM
otcin
o-tcin
3a.NPST-Q.A
Who is (that) person? (Which person is that?)
kùdthec
kùdthec-Ø
drink-NOM
otsru
o-tsru
3.NPST-Q.I
What is that drink? (What are those drinks?)
ùdasrıne
ùda-drı-ı-ne
2s.NPST>3si-do-IMPF-VN
otca
o-tca
3si.NPST-Q
What are you doing?

The following is a non-exhaustive list of all interrogative verbs which function similarly to the ones shown above.

[] (animate)
[] (inanimate)
whose (possessive)
tca (generic, clausal)
tcin (animate)
tsru (inanimate)
who, what, which
tin which one (ordinal) [in]
tcam when [camunne]
tekwıt what day [kwıt]
tecbi where [cbi]
teca why, whither (expects a goal as response) [eca]
tra how [ra]
dcıcu how many, how much (coll) [dıcu]

Sample Text

Paxıco
paxı-co-Ø
lion-DEF.A.SG-NOM
ca fmùwuncumbanen
ca fmùwu-ncu-muba-ne-n
REL large_animal-DEF.A.PL-be.all-VN-ACC
onctriŋ
on-c-triŋ
3sa.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule
The lion rules all the beasts
c'odrubthık,
ca o-drubth-ık
REL 3sa.NPST-strong-INTENS
ca mupundcù
ca mupu-nudcù
REL 3sa.POS-chest
obùl,
o-bùl
3si.NPST-thick
ca trì
ca trì
REL waist
okı,
o-kı
3si.NPST-slim
because he is very strong, thick of chest, slim of waist
ca ocınne
ca o-cın-ne-Ø
REL 3sa-run-VN-Ø
otthonethen
o-tthon-ethen
3si.NPST-POT-fast
eca
eca
because
and runs fast.



Ùda
ùda
3s.NPST>3si
paxıco
paxı-co
lion-DEF.A.SG
ofdcomont.
o-fdco-mont
3sa.NPST-young-EVID
Well, there is this young lion.
sru
sru
REL
srowinnew
sro-in-ne-w
day-each-VN-OBL
tmennin
tmen-nin
be.morning-each
petcan
pet-ca-n
forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC
ottanthındci
ot-tan-thın-dci
3s.A.NPST>3si.I-into-walk-INCEP
He always goes out into the forest in the morning
cin
cin
REL
fmùwınnencuw
fmùwu-ıt-ne-ncu-w
large_animal-be.another-VN-DEF.P.A-OBL
ocodrubthkipric
oco-drubth-kiprı-ic
3s.A.RFX.NPST-strength-compare-INCEP
and compares himself to those who are the other beasts with regards to strength.
Sru
sru
REL
srowinnew
sro-in-ne-w
day-each-VN-OBL
cin
cin
REL
pithmocon
pithmo-co-n
victor-DEF.SG.A-ACC
thowotıtuthu
tho-wot-ıt-uthu
3sa.NPST>3sa-PVB-become-PERF
thıcoc.
thı-coc
3sa.PST-return
And every day he would return the victor.
Thıpithtuthu
thı-pitht-uthu
3sa.PST-win-PERF
thıcocucu
thı-coc-uthu
3sa.PST-return-PERF
sroncaw,
sro-nca-w
day-DEF.P.I-OBL
mupuwmım
mupu-ımım-Ø
3s.A.POS-mother-NOM
thomadci
tho-mat-ci
3sa.PST>3sa-praise-INCEP
Every day that he would return victorious, his mother would praise him:
Exwım!
e-ıxwım
1s.POS-child
Thafk
thı-afk-Ø
2s.POS-neck-NOM
obùl!
o-bùl
3si.NPST-thick
Thıtrì
thı-trì-Ø
2s.POS-waist-NOM
okı!
o-kı
3si.NPST-slim
Thındcù
thı-nudcù-Ø
2s.POS-chest-NOM
ofinde!
o-finde
3si.NPST-large
"Gaddrubthan"
Gaddrubth-an
strongman-ACC
ìcowgı!
ì-cowgı
1s.NPST>2s-name
"Son of mine! Thick of neck! Slim of waist! Large of chest! I name you "He-man"!



Ùda
ùda
2s.NPST>3si
srowocı,
sro-ot-ı
morning-one-IMPF
cin
cin
REL
paxıdconeco
paxı-dco-ne-co-Ø
lion-young-VN-DEF.S.A-NOM
nuftan
nuft-an
muscle-ACC
thıdawotsrı,
thıda-wot-tri-ı
3sa.PST>3pi-HAB-stretch-IMPF
But one day, the young lion was stretching as usual,
thomacı:
tho-wot-mat-ı
3sa.PST>3sa-HAB-praise-IMPF
"Thındcù
thı-nudcù-Ø
2s.POS-chest-NOM
ofinde!
o-finde
3si.NPST-large
Thafk
thı-afk-Ø
2s.POS-neck-NOM
obùl!
o-bùl
3si.NPST-thick
Bthacıpaxı
bthacı-paxı-Ø
arm.OBL-lion-NOM
ùwadth!
ù-adth
3pi.NPST-powerful
Thıtrì!"
thı-trì-Ø
2s.POS-waist
okı
o-kı
3si.NPST-slim
and she praised him as usual, "Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Lion-armed! Slim of waist!"


Thomatuthu
tho-mat-uthu
3sa.PST>3sa-praise-PERF
thıwo:
thı-o
3sa.PST-say
"Fmùwathŋŋencon
fmùwu-athŋŋe-nco-n
large_animal-others-DEF.P.A-ACC
ùnutdrubthint
ùn-nt-drubth-int
2s.NPST>3pa-COMP-strong-TRANS
ekoŋ."
e-koŋ
1s.NPST>blindly_follow
She finished praising him and said, "I truly believe that you are the strongest of all the beasts.
Sru
sru
REL
srowinnew
sro-in-ne-w
day-each-VN-OBL
petcan
pet-ca-n
forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC
ottanthın
ot-tan-thın
3s.A.NPST>3s.I-into-walk
ococ
o-coc
3s.A.NPST-return
Every day you go out into the forest and return,
ca
ca
REL
fmùwuncun
fmùwu-ncu-n
large_animal-DEF.A.PL-ACC
ùnctriŋŋe
ùn-c-triŋ-ne
2s.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule-VN
ateneku
atene-ku
truth-that
wewoŋ
we-oŋ
2s.NPST>1s-show
and show me that you are truly king of the beasts.


Ogù,
o-gù
3s.I.NPST-contrary
ca
ca
REL
petcan
pet-ca-n
forest-DEF.S.I-ACC
ùdatthon
ùda-tthon
tanthın
tan-thın
into-go_out
sroca
sro-ca-Ø
day-DEF.S.I-NOM
otthon
o-tthon
3s.I-POT
comfa.
com-a
occur.PROG
But, a day will come when you go out into the forest,
idca
idca
there
cin
cin
REL
otthon
o-tthon
3s.A-POT
wotthınıxt
wot-thın-ıxt
waver-walk-NEG
xi
xi
nor
muputrìxa
mupu-trìxa-Ø
3s.POS-head-NOM
srùw
srù-w
shoulders-OBL
ogıwfdutal
o-gıw-fdut-al
3s.I.NPST>3s-below-carry-PASS
ocoŋ
o-coŋ
3s.A.NPST-small
mìwin
mìwi-n
creature-ACC
ùmosr
um-osr
2s.NPST>3s-SUBJ
ınoxxu.
ınox-thu
meet-PERF
and there you will meet a small creature which walks straight and carries his head above his shoulders.


Wewıppnım,
we-wıt-pnım
2s.NPST>1s-IMP hear
exwım!
e-ıxwım
1s.POS-child
Thındcù
thı-nudcù-Ø
2s.POS-chest-NOM
ofinde!
o-finde
3si.NPST-large
Thafk
thı-afk-Ø
2s.POS-neck-NOM
obùl!
o-bùl
3si.NPST-thick
Thıtrì
thı-trì-Ø
2s.POS-waist
okı!
o-kı
3si.NPST-slim
Listen, Son of mine! Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Slim of waist!,
cin
cin
REL
idrnokucoŋan
idrno-ku-coŋ-an
thing-that-be.small-ACC
ùmtthonınox
ùm-tthon-ınox
2s.NPST>3sa-POT-meet
sro
sro
day
the day you meet that little thing,
srokun
sro-ku-n
day-that-ACC
dricco
dric-co-Ø
sun-DEF.ANIM-NOM
otagimfwuŋŋit,
ota-gim-fwuŋ-nit
3sa.NPST>3si-out.of-fall-TRANS
ùcocowk.
ù-coc-owk
2s.NPST-return-without
on that day the sun will set while you have not returned.
ocoŋ
o-coŋ
3sa.NPST-be.small
idrnoku
idrno-ku
thing-that
"bcìm"
bcìm-Ø
person-NOM
ocowgıl.
o-cowgı-al
3sa.NPST-name-PASS
The name of that little thing is called 'man'.

Source of the sample text: Roy S. Hagman, Nama Hottentot grammar, Bloomington/Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977.