Dumic languages/Sound changes

The sound changes of the Dumic languages.

Below, following abbreviations are used:

• C — any consonant
• N — any nasal consonant
• P — any plosive consonant
• V — any vowel
• # — word boundary
• $ — syllable boundary

Wokatasuto

based on [1]

Vowel shift

• i u → e o / in closed syllables
• o u → ɤ ɯ / unless next to a labial
• aN → ɑ̃ → o / _$

Assimilation

• imi unu → ini umu

Gemination

• r → [ɾ] / V_V, purely allophonic, has no impact on future changes
• C → Cː / _V[+stress], feeding:
  • mː nː → mb nd (→ m n / #_)
  • pː tː kː sː → pf ts kx ʃː → f ts x ʃ
  • wː ðː ɣː rː → bː dː ɡː rː → b d ɡ r
• ts s → s h
• s → ʃ / _i

Approximants shift

• ðVð wVw ɣVɣ → ðVr wVp ɣVk
• ð ɣ → ð̞ ɰ
• ɰ → j / _{e i}

Syllable simplification

• ð̞i ð̞e ð̞ɯ → ə
• wu wo → ʉ
• ɰɯ ɰɤ ɰa → ɑ
• ji je → i

Vowel simplification

• aə iə uə ɯə → aː iː uː ɯː
• aʉ iʉ uʉ → ɤː iː uː
• aɑ iɑ uɑ ɯɑ → aː ia̯ ua̯ ɯː
• ai ii ui ɯi → ai̯ iː ui̯ ɯː

Second vowel shift

• ɯ ɤ ɑ ʉ → ə o o u
• a → ɑ → o / _C[+velar]
• ai̯ → eː
• ð̞ ɰ → ∅ w

Nasalization

• i(ː) e(ː) + m n → ẽː / _$
• ə(ː) a(ː) + m n → ãː / _$
• u(ː) o(ː) + m n → õː / _$

Potonsuti

based on [2]

Reduction of R

• r → ɾ
• V₁ɾV₁ → V₁l
• w ð ɣ ɾ → p t k s / l_

Reduction of N

• V → V[+nasal] / _N$
• n → ∅ / _$
• m → m~n~n̠~ŋ / _C, assimilates wrt the POA
• m → n / _#

Vowel chain shift

• u → o
• ã ĩ ũ → ɑ ɛ ʉ

Transformation of approximants

• ð → ɦ
• ɣ → ɰ
• ɰ → j / i_
• w → β

Kataputi

based on [3]

Consonant changes

• ð → z
• ɣ → h / #_
• ɣ → ∅ / elsewhere

Reduction of vowel clusters — [?]

• aa ii uu → aː iː uː
• ia ua → eː oː
• iu ui → iː / {i} in strong syllable
• iu ui → uː / {u} in strong syllable
• V[-long] → ∅ / in weak syllables
• V[+long] → [-long] / in unstressed syllables

Consonant shift

• p → ɸ → h
• Nh → NN
• ns ms → nts mps → nt mp

Vowel simplification

• Vː → V / _V
• ai au → eː oː

Voicing shift

• t k s → d ɡ z / V_V
• mp nt nk → p t k

Vowel syncope

• V → ∅ / P_{s z r w}, {s z}_{P s z r w}, unstressed
• V → ∅ / h_C, except initially, unstressed
• V → ∅ / C_h

Consonant cluster simplification

• C → [α voicing] / C[α voicing]_ (assimilation to preceding consonant)
• sr zr → sw zw
• hC Ch → Cː
• V → Vː / C_Cː
• Cː → C
• C → ∅ / _#

Trinesian

based on [4]

Consonant changes

• ð ɣ → l ∅
• m → n / _$
• np nt ns nk → b d z ɡ
• nm → m

Palatalization

• k ɡ → s z / _i

Reduction of vowel clusters

• aa ii uu → aː iː uː
• ia ua → eː oː
• iu ui → iː / {i} in strong syllable
• iu ui → uː / {u} in strong syllable
• V[-long] → ∅ / in weak syllables
• V[+long] → [-long] / in unstressed syllables

Reduction of initial consonant clusters

• P → ∅ / #_P
• NP → P[+voiced] / #_
• w r l → u ∅ ∅ / #_C
• s → z / #_{b d ɡ}

Jouki Stəy

based on [5]

Phonemicization of /ɨ/

(common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)

• i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
• w → ∅

Approximant shift

(common to JS and Sw.)

• ɣ → w / kV_, _Vk
• ɣ → j / elsewhere
• ða ði ðu → a ji wu / V_

Nasal changes

(common to JS and Sw.)

• m n → ∅ / V_V
• NC → Cː

Resolving vowel hiatus

• ∅ → {j w} / V_ˈVV, VV_ˈV, {j} after {i}, {w} after {a u}
• aa ii uu → aː iː uː
• ia ai → eː
• iu ui → ɨː
• ua au → oː

Final nasal reduction

• i u → ə / _N#, unstressed
• ən əm → ẽ õ
• am → ãu / _#, stressed
• VN → V[+nasal] / _#

Syncope

• V[-long] → ∅ / _CV[+stress], also in every other preceding syllable

Cluster simplification and metathesis

• pp tt kk → pf ts ks / #_
• ss → ts / #_
• NB jC rC jr → BN Cj Cr rj / B = any obstruent
• Cː → C / _C, C_
• z → s / _C, C_

Intervocalic lenition

• p → f / V_V

Vocalic shift

• aː eː oː iː uː ɨː → au ei ou əi əu əɨ
• ẽ õ → ẽi õu
• a e i o u → ja je ji vo vu / #_
• aja awa → ei ou
• ji → i / C_
• j w → ʝ v / #_, V_V

Swopsoch

based on [6]

Phonemicization of /ɨ/ (-1900 ÷ -1700)

(common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)

• i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
• w → ∅

Approximant shift (-1600)

(common to JS and Sw.)

• ɣ → w / kV_, _Vk
• ɣ → j / elsewhere
• ða ði ðu → a ji wu / V_

Nasal changes (-1550)

(common to JS and Sw.)

• m n → ∅ / V_V
• NC → Cː

Resolving vowel hiatus (-1500)

• aa ai aɨ au → aː aj aj aw
• aˈa iˈa ɨˈa uˈa → aː ja ja wa
• ia ii iɨ iu → eː iː iː iː
• aˈi iˈi ɨˈi uˈi → eː iː je wi
• ɨa ɨi ɨu → eː eː eː
• aˈɨ iˈɨ uˈɨ → eː je wi
• ua ui uɨ uu → oː uː uː uː
• aˈu iˈu ɨˈu uˈu → oː ju ju uː
• Vː → V / unstressed

Loss of /ɨ/ (-1400)

• ˈɨ → eː / _CV, _C#
• ˈɨ → i / _Cː
• ɨ → i

Loss of /ð/ (-1400)

• ð → l

Creation of initial clusters (-1300)

• V → ∅ / {l s r m n}_C, C_{l s r m n}, unstressed
• Cl Cs Cr Cm Cn → lC sC rC mC nC
• Cː → C / C_
• m n → [α place] / _C[α place], assimilation to the following consonant

Tonogenesis (-1100)

• V → V́ / adjacent to {pː tː kː sː}
• V → V̀ / adjacent to {m n}, except when adjacent to {pː tː kː sː}

Voicing — [?]

Labial lenition (-900 ÷ -800)

• m → w / $_{a e i}
• mw → m / $_u
• mb mp → m / #_

Consonant reduction (-700)

• n m → ∅ / _$, includes geminates
• p b → f / _V[+back][+stress]

Short vowel shift (-600)

• ˈa → wa / after labials, velars, {s z}; unless near {i y}
• ˈa → oː / before labials, velars
• ˈa → eː / n_
• ˈa → aː / otherwise
• ˈi → oj / after labials, velars, {s z}
• ˈi → uː / before labials, velars
• ˈi → eː / otherwise
• ˈu → ow / after labials; before labials, velars
• ˈu → wo / after velars, {s z}; unless near {i y}
• ˈu → oː / otherwise

Lenition of geminates (-500)

• Cː → C

Palatalization (-400)

• t k d ɡ s z → tʃ tʃ dʒ dʒ ʃ ʒ / _V[+front]

Loss of final high vowels (-200)

• i u → ∅ / _#
• ij uw → e(j) o(j)

Consonant mergers (-100)

• nt nd nk ng → t t k k
• j → ∅ / next to {tʃ dʒ ʃ ʒ}
• b d ɡ dʒ z ʒ → p t k tʃ s ʃ / _#

Tetey

based on [7]

Phonemicization of /ɨ/ (-1900 ÷ -1750)

(common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)

• i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
• w → ∅

Vowel contraction (-1650)

• ∅ → ʔ / VV_V
• aa aɨ au → aː aɨ̯ au̯
• ia iɨ iu → eː iː ʉː
• ɨa ɨɨ ɨu → əː ɨː ʉː
• ua uɨ uu → oː ʉː uː

Intervocalic lenition (-1650 ÷ -1400)

• p m n → ɸ β l / V_V

Short /ɨ/ dropped, glottal stops added (-1600)

• ɨ → ∅ / #_CV
• ∅ → ʔ / #_V

Nasalization (-1500 ÷ -1400)

(this step generated an intermediate set of nasal vowels that was lost short afterwards, omitted here for readibility)

• oːn → ɵː / _$
• an am → aɨ̯ au̯
• in im ɨn ɨm → iː ɨː iː ɨː
• un um → ʉː uː
• {m n} → ∅ / V_$

Vowel shift (-1450)

• aː aɨ̯ au̯ → æː əː ɑː
• a i u → ɐ ɪ ʊ / _[short]

Second vowel shift (-1350 ÷ -1200)

• ə → ɵ / C[+labial]_
• ʊ → ə / {ʊ uː}C_
• ɪ ʊ ɐ → ɨ u ɜ
• Vː → V

Syncope (-1100)

• P = {p t k ʔ}
• F = {p t k ʔ ɸ s}
• PɨFV → PFV
• PVPɨ → PVP / _$
• pp tt kk ʔʔ → ʔp ʔt ʔk ʔ

Third vowel shift (-1000)

• ɜ ə o ɨ u → e e ɵ i ʉ / _tC, _t$
• ɜ e ə ɨ → o ɵ ɵ ʉ / _pC, _p$
• e i → ə ɨ / _kC, _k$, _ʔC, _ʔ$

Affrication and glottalization (-1000 ÷ -800)

• kt → ktʲ → kts
• {p t k ʔ} + s → ts
• p t k → ʔ / _C (except _ʔ), _$
• ʔp ʔt ʔk ʔts → pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ
• pʔ tʔ kʔ → pʼ tʼ kʼ
• ʔ → ∅ / #_C

/i/ backing (-800)

• i → ɨ / r_

Devoicing and flapping (-700)

• ð ɣ r → θ x ɾ

/ɨ/ reduction (-700)

• ɨ → ə

Second syncope (-600)

• ə → ∅ / {p t k pʼ tʼ kʼ ɸ s θ x}_{β ɾ l}V
• ə → ∅ / β_{ɾ l}V
• ə → ∅ / {ɸ s θ x}_{m n}V
• ɸm ɸβ pβ pʼβ → xm xβ kβ kʼβ

Fourth vowel shift (-500 ÷ -300)

• æ e ɵ ʉ → ja je jo ju
• ɜ ɑ → e a / after -300 YP

Derhotization (-400 ÷ -300)

• ɾ ʔ → ∅ / _j
• ɾ → j / after -300 YP
• ij → iʔ / after -300 YP

Third syncope (-200)

• ə → ∅ / {m n l j ʔ}_$
• ə → ∅ / {m n l j}_ʔ$

/ə/ backing (-100)

• ə → o

/ʔ/ dropping (0)

• ʔ → ∅ / {m n l}_

Tetlo

based on [8]

Phoneme realization (-1900)

• a i u → ɐ ɪ ʊ
• w → β

Nasalization (-1900)

• ɣ → ŋ / _VN$
• ɣ → ŋ / N#_ (on word boundaries when pronounced without a pause)

Palatalization and labialization (-1900)

• C → Cʲ / _ɪ
• C → Cʷ / _ʊ

Sound shift (-1800 ÷ -1700)

• r → l
• sʲ → ɕ → xʲ

Intervocalic lenition (-1700)

• ɣʲ → j / V_V
• ɣʷ → w / V_V
• ɣ → ∅ / V_V

Fortition (-1600)

• β ð ɣ → b d ɡ

Glide elision (-1500)

• VwV → ʊ
• VjV → ɪ

Vowel shift (-1800 ÷ -1400)

• ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɐ ɛ ə → ɐ~ə / _$ ([ɐ] in the initial syllable, [ə] otherwise)
• ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɛ ɪ ə → ɪ / _n$
• ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɔ ɪ ʊ → ʊ / _m$

Velarization and uvularization (-1500 ÷ -1400)

• k ɡ ŋ l → q ɢ ɴ ɫ / except _ʲ
• j → ∅
• kʲ ɡʲ ŋʲ xʲ lʲ → k ɡ ŋ x l

Coda simplification (-1400)

• N → ∅ / _$

Labio-velarization and palatalization of dentals (-1300)

• pʷ bʷ mʷ → kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ
• tʲ dʲ nʲ → c ɟ ɲ
• ɫʷ → w

Coalescence (-1200)

• əə → ə (pairs counted left-to-right)

Palatalization of labials (-1200 ÷ -900)

• pʲ → pc → pʷc → pʷcʷ → cʷ
• bʲ → bɟ → bʷɟ → bʷɟʷ → ɟʷ
• mʲ → mɲ → mʷɲ → mʷɲʷ → ɲʷ

Hiatus elimination (-1100)

• ∅ → ʔ / V_V

Debuccalization of [q ɢ ɴ x] and their labialized equivalents (-1000)

• q ɢ ɴ x → ʔ ʕ ʕ h

Fortition of [w] (-1000)

• w → β

Sound shifts (-900)

• ɫ → ɫʷ
• h → ʔ

Contraction of [ʔʷə] (-800)

• ʔʷə → w / V_{p b m β Cʷ} (sequences of such syllables are treated pairwise counting left-to-right)

Alveolarization of [c ɟ] (-800 ÷ -600)

• c ɟ → ʧ ʤ → ʦ ʣ

Syncope of [ə] (-700)

• ə → ∅ / VC_$, except {ʕ ʕʷ}_
• in each pair of syllables having [ə] as their nuclei, where the intervening onset consonant is not [ʕ(ʷ)], it's the second [ə] that drops (counting left-to-right)

Vowel shift (-600 ÷ -400)

• ɐ~ə ɪ → ɑ ɞ / _{Cʷ w}$
• ɐ~ə → ɛ / elsewhere
• ʊ → ɔ / except _{Cʷ w}$
• ʊ → u → ʉ / Cʷ_, {p b m β}_w

Delabialization (-400 ÷ -300)

• w → ∅
• Cʷ → C / _$

Vowel shift (-300)

• ɑ ʊ ɪ → a u i

Deglottalization (-200)

• ʔ → ∅ / _$

Sound shifts (-100)

• ɲ → ʝ
• l → ɫ