Vijiš

Vijiš [vijiʃ]
Period	c. 0 YP
Spoken in	southwestern Tuysáfa
Total speakers	unknown
Writing system	none
Classification	Leic  Vijiš
Typology
Basic word order	SVO
Morphology	mostly fusional
Alignment	NOM-ACC
Credits
Created by	Zju

Phonology

Vijiš has a moderate consonant inventory and 4 contrastive heights in its vowel inventory.

Consonants

	labial	dental	palatal	velar
nasal	/m/	/n/	/ɲ/ ‹ň›	/ŋ/
stop	/p/ /b/	/t/ /d/		/k/ /g/
fricative	/v/	/s/	/ʃ/ ‹š› /ʒ/ ‹ž›
sonorant	/w/	/l/	/j/

Vowels

	front	back
close	/i/	/u/
close-mid	/e/	/o/
open-mid	/ɛ/ ‹ê›	/ɔ/ ‹ô›
open	/a/

• For morphological and morphophonological purposes a counts as a back vowel.
• /e o/ are often realised as [ɪ ʊ]

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is C(C)V(C), but there is quite big preference for CV syllables. In a cluster of two consonants, the second one is typically a sonorant and both belong to the onset of the latter syllable(V.CLV). Two stops and two nasals never appear next to each other. Consonant clusters of three or more consonants do not exist. Clusters of any kind are forbidden word finally. Vowels never stand next to each other. Any consonant can stand in coda position word finally. Word internally closed syllables are rare and only /j/ and /w/ can serve as codas.
Consonant clusters do not occur that often, but form on a regular basis when nouns are declined. Some more common are:

• bw
• dw dj
• gw gj gl
• wp wb

Prosody

Vijiš is syllable timed. Stress is not phonemic and the prosody is rather monotonous, though the first syllable of each constituent wears a slightly higher pitch.

Allophony

• [w] and [j] are pronounced with more constriction when next to another consonant. Therefore the less constricted variants are better transcribed as [u̯] and [i̯]. Specifically, [w] is pronounced with lips fully closed, whereas for [u̯] lips constrict only as much as when pronouncing [u].
• /v/ is [u̯] next to other consonants and word-finally.
• [w] and [j] are pronounced with some frication(that is, weak [β] and [ʝ]) before [u] and [i] respectively. This also applies for [u̯] as allophone of /v/.
• /i u/ tend to be realised as [ɪ ʊ] before /j w/ respectively.
• /nj/ can be freely realised as [nj], [ɲj] or [ɲ].

Alternative orthography

• /e/ /o/ ‹í ú› or ‹é ó›
• /ɛ/ /ɔ/ ‹e o›
• /s/ ‹ś ›
• /ʃ ʒ/ ‹s z›

Everything else is the same. The new one uses much less diacritics.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

	1sg	1pl		2sg	2pl		3sg an	3sg inan	3pl an	3pl inan
N.	ji	jêjta		ma	mawta		bi	ša	bawta	na
G.	jêta	jêjta		mata	mawta		ba	ša	bawta	na
D.	jiwa	jêwawa		môŋa	mawawa		biwa	šama	bawawa	nawa
L.	jêvo	jêgwo		mavo	magwo		bêvo	šavo	bagwo	navo
V.	-	-		mojeňa	mawaňa		-	-	-	-

Correlatives

demonstrative			jêža this	jêňu here	jêšav now	(ji)jêwa in this way
			kaňu that	kaňu there	vije then	vêwa in that way
interrogative	gwi who	giža what	gi which	ňaňu where	sa when	ga how
relative	bêv who	šawav what	môv which	kajêv where	vijêv when	vêwôwav how
indefinite	biji someone	šavi something	giji some	ňaňuji somewhere	saji somewhen	gavi somehow
alternative	dwi somebody else	daža something else	daža other	dawaňu somewhere else	data another time	dawa in another way
universal	jawawta everybody	jawôna everything	ja all	jami everywhere	kê always	java in every way
negative	mobiji nobody	môna nothing	mo no, none	mowami nowhere	mogê never	mowava in no way

Some correlatives inflect for case:

	N	G	D	L
who	gwi	gwa	gwiwa	gwêvo
who (R)	bêv	bewêv	biwav	bêvav
someone	biji	bêžu	bijiwa	bijêvo
smb. else	dwi	dwa	dwiwa	dwêvo
everybody	jawawta	jawawta	jawawa	jawagwo
nobody	mobiji	mobêžu	mobijiwa	mobijêvo

	N	G	D
what	giža	giža	gižama
what (R)	šawav	šawêv	šamav
something	šavi	šažu	šaviwa
smth. else	daža	daža	dažama
everything	jawôna	jawôn	jawônawa
nothing	môna	môn	mônawa

	N	G	D
which	gi	ga	giwa
which (R)	môv	môv	giwav
some	giji	gêžu	gijiwa
other	daža	daža	dama
all	ja	ja	jama
no	mo	mo	môma
this	jêža	jêža	jêžama
that	kaňu	kaňu	kaňuma

Locative case is often substituted with prepositions for the correlatives.
Correlatives agree in case with their head noun. When used with nouns in singular ja means every, each.
Correlatives do not distinguish number, except for the demonstrative substantivised pronouns. Their plural forms are respectively jena, jena, jenawa and kaňuna, kaňuna, kaňunawa.

Prepositions

These preposition govern genitive:

• sa near
• soša around
• sê against
• vôbê through
• vôpo along

There is a set of prepositions which have two forms - one for stative, lative and one for ablative:

	at ~ to	from
in, inside	pê	peŋa
on, surface	pa	powa
above	šav	šawa
below	wêba, wêta	wêlawa
front	jê	jiwa
back	watê	watiwa
left	jem	jenawa
right	žem	ženawa

vôbê can be combined with the stative prepositions to give them perlative meanings, e.g. vôbê šav through the space above.

These prepositions govern nominative:

• dwi with, coactor
• ža, žaža with, instrument - The long form of this preposition is frequently used only with monosyllabic nouns and less so with disyllabic.
• žamo without
• dwimo without (coactor) is fairly rarely used. Žamo is used instead.

Nouns

Nouns have two numbers and three cases - nominative, genitive and dative. Plural nominative and genitive have the same form.

Articles

Vijiš has a definite article, which inflects for case. Both the article and the word have to be marked for case, so plural definite nouns do distinguish between nominative and genitive. The article is:

• wi nom
• wa gen
• wêvo dat

The dative definite article is sometimes shortened to wê.

Declension

Regular vowel stems

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-	-va	-bo	-na

• Some -i stems change i to u in gen sing.
• Some -ni stems change final n to ň in gen sing and plural caseforms.
• Gen sing is given when either of these changes occur.
• In nominative plural word-final -o, -u, -i change to -ô, -e, -e.

Irregular vowel stems I

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-a	-ôn	-avo	-ôwôna
-a	-an	-avo	-ajena

• They always end in -a in nom sg.
• The last consonant sometimes changes in all oblique caseforms, in an upredictable manner.
• Gen sing is also given.

Irregular vowel stems II

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-	-n	-bo	-jena

• A few irregular nouns change their last vowel in gen sing, which is in such cases given.

Irregular vowel stems III

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-	-n	-vo	-wôna -jena

• -wôna after back vowels, -jena after front vowels and u.
• Last vowels change in various wordforms in a predictable pattern.
• Nom pl is also given, according to which the rest of the vowels in the paradigm can be determined.

Vowel gradation pattern

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-a	-an	-avo	-awôna
-a	-ôn	-avo	-ôwôna
-a	-ôn	-avo	-owôna
-ê	-en	-êvo	-ujena
-ê	-en	-êvo	-ejena
-ê	-en	-êvo	-ijena

o stems

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-o	-wa	-obo	-ôna

• Some of the words ending in -o belong to this paradigm.
• Stem final single -s -t are -t -d everywhere except for nom sg.

Nasal stems

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-m	-wôn	-wavo	-wôwôna
-n	-wan	-wavo	-wajena

• The final vowel sometimes changes for all wordforms except nom sg - gen sg is also given in such case.

v stems

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-v	-va	-wbo	-wôna

• -vôna is sometimes used instead of -wôna.

Other consonantal stems

Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
-	-wa	-wo	-ena

• p t k š become b d g ž in gen and dat sg.
• p t k š become b ž ž ž in plural caseforms.
• Other consonants do not undergo changes.
• maš 'water' has an irregular gen sg maja.

Summary

	Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl
rvs	-	-va	-bo	-na
ivs 1a	-a	-ôn	-avo	-ôwôna
ivs 1b	-a	-an	-avo	-ajena
ivs 2	-	-n	-bo	-jena
ivs 3	-	-n	-vo	-wôna -jena
-o	-o	-wa	-obo	-ôna
-m	-m	-wôn	-wavo	-wôwôna
-n	-n	-wan	-wavo	-wajena
-v	-v	-va	-wbo	-wôna
cs	-	-wa	-wo	-ena

Dative plural

Dative plural for every single noun is formed by replacing nom pl -ôna -ena -na with -avo -êvo -vo.

Examples

There are three nouns that do not fit into any of the paradigms and form a pattern of their own.

	Nom	Gn	Dt	Nom Pl	Gn Pl	Dt Pl	meaning
rvs	mêna	mênava	mênabo	mênana	mênana	mênavo	town, village
rvs -i → -u	jaluji	jalujuva	jalujibo	jalujena	jalujena	jalujêvo	glass
rvs -n → -ň	pôni	pôňuva	pônibo	pôňena	pôňena	pôňêvo	land
ivs 1a	mêpa	mêtôn	mêtavo	mêtôwôna	mêtôwôna	mêtôwavo	butterfly
ivs 1b	masa	maban	mabavo	mabajena	mabajena	mabajêvo	limb
ivs 2	niwa	niwan	niwabo	niwajena	niwajena	niwajêvo	sunrise
ivs 3	ka	kôn	kavo	kowôna	kowôna	kowavo	rabbit
ivs 3	kê	ken	kêvo	kijena	kijena	kijêvo	stone, pebble
-o	jato	jatwa	jatobo	jatôna	jatôna	jatavo	mirror
-m	gôm	gawôn	gawavo	gawôwôna	gawôwôna	gawôwavo	bull
-n	ben	bewan	bewavo	bewajena	bewajena	bewajêvo	eyelid
-v	miv	miva	miwbo	miwôna	miwôna	miwavo	candidate, contestant
cs	sak	sagwa	sagwo	sažena	sažena	sažêvo	neck
cs	katad	katadwa	katadwo	katadena	katadena	katadêvo	teacher, master
friend	ni	niwa	nibo	ňujena	ňujena	ňujêvo	friend
fish	vôni	vôniwa	vônibo	vôňujena	vôňujena	vôňujêvo	fish
orphan	bi	biwa	bibo	bujena	bujena	bujêvo	orphan

Changes in noun declension

Noun declension is in the process of getting simplified, with various declensions leveling out their markers and occasionally words from the unproductive vowel stems shifting to one of the two productive vowel stems - regular vowels stems and o stems.

Some of the more noticeable changes are:

• Regular vowel stems and o stems are in the process of being merged:
  • RVS's ending in -o shift to o stem.
  • Gen sg ending for RVS changing to -wa accompanied with vowel deletion, eg. wa mênwa of the town
• -v stems slowly shift to CS with -vw- being realised as -w-, eg. mivena candidates
• -d and -g of regular consonant stems shift to ž in the plural under the influence of -t and -k stems: katažena masters
• IVS 1. changing their nominative stem with their oblique stem and changing the dative singular ending to -bo, merging with IVS 2: mêtô, mêtôbo butterfly, to a butterfly
• -m- and -n- replacing medial suffixal -w- in -m and -n stems respectively: benajena eyelids
• In general -vo is being slowly replaced by -bo, the latter becoming the general dative singular ending, except for the consonant stems, which have -wo.

Usage of cases

Nominative

It is the basic, underived form of the noun. It is used for:

• Denoting the subject of the verb.

  Wi

  Wi

  DEF.NOM

  ve

  ve

  cat

  mave

  mave-∅

  chase-ANIM.PRS

  wi

  wi

  DEF.NOM

  wažu.

  wažu.

  mouse

  The cat is chasing the mouse.

• Denoting the object of the verb.

  Wi

  Wi

  DEF.NOM

  ve

  ve

  cat

  mave

  mave-∅

  chase-ANIM.PRS

  wi

  wi

  DEF.NOM

  wažu.

  wažu.

  mouse

  The cat is chasing the mouse.

• Used after a few prepositions.

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  žažemô

  žažemô-∅

  eat-ANIM.PRS

  žaža

  žaža

  with

  šemo.

  šemo.

  fork.NOM

  I eat with a fork.

Genitive

• Denotes the possessor or quality. Genitive phrases follow the noun they specify.

  Wi

  Wi

  DEF.NOM

  šena

  šena

  heart

  wa

  wa

  DEF.GEN

  wavôva.

  wavô-va

  man-GEN

  The man's heart.

  Vegôv

  Vegôv

  house

  bêžu.

  bêžu.

  somebody.GEN

  Somebody's house.

  Meti

  Meti

  place

  jeji

  big

  big

  ŋêva.

  ŋêv-a

  beauty-GEN

  A place of big beauty.

• Governs most prepositions.
  • Pa wôŋova. - On the roof.
  • Žem wataviva. - To the right of the window.

Dative

• Used for the indirect object (recipient) of the verb.

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  jeŋôji

  jeŋ-ô-ji

  say-PAST-ANIM

  bawawa.

  bawawa.

  3.PL.DAT

  I told them.

• Used to denote the beneficent of the action.

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  žaje

  žaje-∅

  do-PRS.ANIM

  jêža

  jêža

  this.NOM

  môŋa.

  môŋa.

  2.SG.DAT

  I'm doing this for you.

Locative

It is substituted in nouns with sa, pê and pa.

• Denotes the space near the referent. Prepositions are preferred to convey this meaning even for the pronouns.

  Ma

  Ma

  2.SG.NOM

  jeni

  jen-i

  live-ANIM.PRS

  šavo.

  šavo.

  3.SG.INAN.LOC

  /sa

  /sa

  /near

  ša.

  ša.

  3.SG.INAN.GEN

  You live next to it.

• Used to convey the meaning 'at one's place'.

  Ma

  Ma

  2.SG.NOM

  wôgi

  wô-gi

  FUT.ANIM-Q

  palo

  pal-o

  come-INF

  jêvo?

  jêvo?

  1.SG.LOC

  Will you come to my place?

• Used to state somebody's oppinion.

  Bêvo

  Bêvo

  3.SG.ANIM.LOC

  jêjta

  jêjta

  1.PL.NOM

  mo

  mo

  NEG

  dôvet.

  dôve-t.

  be_happy-PL.PRS

  According to him we're not happy.

Vocative

Technically, only two words exist in this case, so they can be considered interjections and the case nonexistent. They are used when calling somebody or attracting one's attention:

• Mojeňa! - Hey, you!
• Pa mawaňa! - You three!

Needless to say, regular nouns are used in nominative in such positions. Every now and then they are supplemented with the corresponding vocative pronoun:

• Vowa mojeňa. - You, stranger. ~ Stranger.
• Vôjêdena mawaňa. - You, sailors. ~ Sailors.

The vocative pronouns can also go with numerals (as in the above example) and adjectives:

• Gwi mojeňa. - You, righteous( one).

It can even be combined with the definite article. This usage is very common when using nicknames and obligatory for some:

• Wi jiga naji mojeňa, ... - You, the fast-legged one, ...

Vocative pronouns are contracted differently in different varieties: mojňa mawňa, moňa maňa, mjeňa mwaňa, mjeňa maňa, jeňa waňa, mojňa mowňa, majňa mawňa, moja maňa - the list goes on. The uncontracted pronouns are still used, though.

Adjectives

Adjectives are placed before the noun they modify and are not inflected in any way. Some adjectives have a corresponding verb, which has the same or similar root and a similar meaning. Such adjectives are not normally used with the copula in predicative position; their corresponding verb is used instead.

For example:

Ba

ba

wet

bebena

beb-ena

wheel-PL

bemat.

bem-at

rotate-PL

Wet wheels roll.

but

Wi

wi

DEF.NOM

bebena

beb-ena

wheel-PL

bat.

ba-t

be_wet-PL

The wheels are wet.

Verbs

Verbs in Vijiš have a number of synthetic as well as analytic forms. They inflect for number, voice, mood, aspect and animacy, but not person.

Synthetic forms

Each verb has at most present and past forms of the following:

• singular animate active (A)
• singular inanimate active (iA)
• plural active (Pl)
• passive (Ps)

as well an infinitive (In). Only transitive verbs have a passive form.

Verbs have 3 main conjugations and two secondary, which have less verbs.

1. conjugation

• In: -o
• A: -u after ň, š, ž, -i elsewhere
• iA: -u after ň, š, ž, -o after labials, -i elsewhere
• Pl: -at, with j or w inserted before single stem final p b k g*
• Ps: -a (occasionally extended to -am)
• Pt: -ô-

* j after front vowels and w after back

2. conjugation

• In: -vo
• A: -∅
• iA: -ji after front vowels, -wo after back vowels; before -wo final a changes to ô
• Pl: -t
• Ps: -m
• Pt: -wô-, final a changes to ô

-uvo verbs

Some of the verbs the infinitive of which ends in -uvo, change their last vowel from -u to -i in some of the forms. And out of those, some change it to -o in inanimate and past form. There are four main subconjugations:

	I	II	III	IV
In	-uvo	-uvo	-uvo	-uvo
A	-u	-i	-i	-u
iA.	-uwo	-iji	-owo	-owo
Pl.	-ut	-it	-it	-ut
Ps.	-um	-um	-um	-um
Pt.	-uwô-	-iwô-	-owô-	-owô-

Still, some verbs are just irregular. In such cases the animate and inanimate forms are shown. As a general rule of thumb, the plural stem is the same as the animate stem, the past stem is the same as the inanimate stem and the passive stem as the infinitive stem. Because of this, the passive forms always end in -um. Very few verbs can be conjugated in two patterns in free distribution.

2nd column	I	II	III	IV	neni, neňowo
Infinitive	vôbawabuvo	pôjiwuvo	poguvo	mêžuvo	neňuvo
Animate	vôbawabu	pôjiwi	pogi	mêžu	neni
Inanimate	vôbawabuwo	pôjiwiji	pogowo	mêžowo	neňowo
Plural	vôbawabut	pôjiwit	pogit	mêžut	nenit
Passive	vôbawabum	-	-	mêžum	-
Past	vôbawabuwô-	pôjiwiwô-	pogowô-	mêžowô-	neňowô-
Meaning	be satisfied	go to the south	sleep, dream	wear	swim

2. b conjugation

It has the same endings as 2. conjugation, but verbs have two stems - one for plural and passive forms and one for everything else. Both are listed in the dictionary entry.

3. conjugation

• In: -w
• A: -ji
• iA: -ji
• Pl: -t
• Ps: -m
• Pt: -wô-

3. b conjugation

Verbs from this conjugation also have two stems.

• In: -w
• A: second stem + -i
• iA: second stem + -o after labials, -i elsewhere
• Pl: -t
• Ps: -m
• Pt: second stem + -ô-*

* stem final m n ŋ change to v l w

In the dictionary the infinitive and animate present are given.

Summary

	1.	2.	2. b	3.	3. b
In	-o	-vo	-vo	-w	-w
A	-u, -i	-	-	-ji	-i
iA.	-u, -o, -i	-ji, -wo	-ji, -wo	-ji	-o, -i
Pl.	-at	-t	-t	-t	-t
Ps.	-a	-m	-m	-m	-m
Pt.	-ô-	-wô-	-wô-	-wô-	-ô-

• 1. conjugation verbs sometimes use -am as passive ending.

Past tense

The past tense forms by adding the following endings to the past stem:

• A: -ji
• iA: -wo
• Pl: -wta
• Ps: -va

Imperative

Imperative is the bare stem.

Examples

	1.	2.	2. b	3.	3. b
Meaning	feel, sense	carry	do	be awake	span, cover
Infinitive	môgo	bawavo	žajevo	bew	bejêw
Animate	môgi	bawa	žaje	beji	bejemi
Inanimate	môgi	bawôwo	žajeji	beji	bejemo
Plural	môwgat	bawat	žat	bet	bejêt
Passive	môga(m)	bawam	žam	-	bejêm
Past	môgô-	bawôwô-	žajewô-	bewô-	bejevô-
Imperative	môg!	bawa!	žaje!	be!	bejem!

Analytical forms

Future tense

Future tense is formed by an auxiliary verb + infinitive.

• A: wô
• iA: wôwo
• Pl: wat
• Ps: wôm

Future in the past tense

It denotes an action that was intended to be done, but was not.

• A: wômôji
• iA: wômôwo
• Pl: wômôwta
• Ps: wômôva

Conditional mood

The conditional is formed by an auxiliary verb followed by the infinitive.

Present

• A: žaji
• iA: žajwo
• Pl: žajuta
• Ps: žajwa

Past

• A: žajwôji
• iA: žajwôwo
• Pl: žajwôwta
• Ps: žajwôva

Dubtative mood

Again, all auxiliaries are followed by an infinitive.

Present

• A: žajivo
• iA: žajwovo
• Pl: žajutavo
• Ps: žajwavo

Past

• A: žajwôjivo
• iA: žajwôwovo
• Pl: žajwôwtavo
• Ps: žajwôvavo

Future

• A: žajivo wôvo
• iA: žajwovo wôvo
• Pl: žajutavo wôvo
• Ps: žajwavo wôvo

Future in the past

It's quite rarely used.

• A: žajwôjivo wôvo
• iA: žajwôwovo wôvo
• Pl: žajwôwtavo wôvo
• Ps: žajwôvavo wôvo

Copula

The stem is suppletive for past tense

	Present	Past
Infinitive	sapo
Animate	sagi	pôji
Inanimate	sagi	pôwo
Plural	sawta	pôwta
Imperative	sak!

After auxiliary verbs the infinitive is often contracted and cliticised to po, which can be spelled as a clitic or an affix:

Ji

ji

1.SG.NOM

wôpo

wô-po

FUT.ANIM-be.INF

kaňu.

kaňu

there

I'll be there.

Overview of verbal paradigm

• SA = singular animate active form
• SI = singular inanimate active form
• Pl = plural active form
• Ps = passive form
• Inf = Infinitive

Mood / Tense	Indicative	Dubtative	Conditional	Imperative
Form	Future	Future	Present
SA SI Pl Ps	wô + Inf wôwo + Inf wat + Inf wôm + Inf	žajivo wôvo + Inf žajwovo wôvo + Inf žajutavo wôvo + Inf žajwavo wôvo + Inf	žaji + Inf žajwo + Inf žajuta + Inf žajwa + Inf	bare stem
-----	Present	Present
SA SI Pl Ps	-i, -u, -ji, -∅ -i, -u, -o, -ji, -wo -at, -t -a(m), -m	žajivo + Inf žajwovo + Inf žajutavo + Inf žajwavo + Inf
-----	Future in the past	Future in the past	Past
SA SI Pl Ps	wômôji + Inf wômôwo + Inf wômôwta + Inf wômôva + Inf	žajwôjivo wôvo + Inf žajwôwovo wôvo + Inf žajwôwtavo wôvo + Inf žajwôvavo wôvo + Inf	žajwôji + Inf žajwôwo + Inf žajwôwta + Inf žajwôva + Inf
-----	Past	Past
SA SI Pl Ps	-ôji, -wôji -ôwo, -wôwo -ôwta, -wôwta -ôva, -wôva	žajwôjivo + Inf žajwôwovo + Inf žajwôwtavo + Inf žajwôvavo + Inf

Variations and tendencies in the verbal system

Suffixes simplification and alternation

All suffixes -ji tend to shorten to -j and this is becoming increasingly common: žajej does(inanimate), môgôj felt, bej be awake instead of žajeji, môgôji, beji. Suffixes of the form -wo are also sporadically shortened to -w, but this is still much less common.

The plural suffix for past tense -wta is sometimes shortened to -ta, especially after -wô: bawôwôta carried, bejewôta covered instead of bawôwôwta, bejewôwta.

Loss of animacy marking

Verbs are marked for animacy only in active voice singular. There are processes that eliminate the animacy marking in this environment as well, thus completely getting rid of it. They are different for the different conjugations. The motivation is primarily analogical leveling(no animacy marking in plural number, no animacy marking whatsoever in 3. conjugation present), but phonetic erosion plays a minor role as well. Past tense markings are interesting because they act differently according to the conjugation. The conjugation tables given above are only a general rule of thumb covering a minority of the varieties. The bigger picture is as follows:

3. conjugation

It has undergone the process of losing animacy to completion in present tense. -ji is in the process of becoming the universal singular marker in past tense as well. -ji and -wo for past tense inanimate are currently mostly in free variation:

• Ša kjawôwo., Ša kjawôji. It bounced.
• Jêža šaniwôwo., Jêža šaniwôj. This was known.

1. conjugation

The rule for marking animate and inanimate singular is: -u after ň, š, ž and -i elsewhere. Inanimate singular has one addition to that rule: add -o if the stem ends in a labial consonant. However, it is in the process of getting lost for the following reasons:

• It shares the ending with the infinitive and because of that is getting confused with it.
• Similarity with the marking of animate singular, which lacks this ending - for all verbs, which don't end in labial, singular animate and inanimate are already the same.
• Influence from 3. conjugation(and the other 1. conjugation verbs) to use the same endings for animate and inanimate.

Past tense preserves its animacy markers relatively intact.

3. b conjugation

The situation is essentially the same as in 1. conjugation, however with the process of getting -o lost less advanced.

It is worth mentioning that a few southeastern varieties instead of getting rid of the -o rule, have generalised it for present singular 1. and 3. b conjugation, again removing the animacy distinction.

2. and 2. b conjugation

The animacy distinction is most stable here, however animate present sporadically begins to use the inanimate present endings, probably to differentiate from the imperative and because all other present and past forms have some ending. It is also interesting to note that past tense singular begins to use -ji, -wo in the same distribution as present inanimate.

The copula

The copula has already eliminated animacy distinction in present tense. Loss of animacy in the past occurs as follows:

• 1. stage: pôji, pôwo.
• 2. stage: phonetic erosion leads to pôj, pôw.
• 3. stage: pôw is further simplified to pô.
• 4. stage: pô becomes the general past singular copula, either by taking the place of pôj, or by pôj > pô.

Most varieties are in the second stage, having pôj, pôw(o).

Past plural copula tends to become pôta or pawta, by analogy of present plural.

Present tense copula tends to become sag in rapid speech.

Auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary verbs so far are the most conservative in retaining the animacy marking. Wô, wômôji, žajwôji follow the development of past copula, but are always lagging behind by one or two stages. Žaji / žaj and žajivo so far do not show any signs of losing the animacy distinction, but with it disappearing everywhere else, it is sure to be lost here as well. Žajwôwovo tends to be either haplologized to žajwôvo or replaced by žajwôjivo.

Innovation in passive marking

1. conjugation passive ending -a is increasingly often expanded to -am to match the passive endings of the other conjugations. Past passive ending -va does not show this tendency.

Sporadically phrases such as Na jitažumat. They are being attached., Bawta kawôjemat. They are being healed. are used instead of Na jitažum., Bawta kawôjem. indicating that passive voice is developing distinction between singular and plural number.

Numerals

	Cardinal	Ordinal	Fractional
1.	môji	kižav, môjiňu
2.	je	jeňu	ňuš
3.	pa	peňu	žuba
4.	paji	pejiňu, peňuji	šudaji
5.	dômô	dômôje, dôjemô	šudômô
6.	daje, daňu	daňuje, dajeňu
7.	daka	dakaje, dakaňu, daňuka
8.	wala	walaje
9.	walômô	walôjemô, walômôje
10.	kêve	kêveje
11.	bemô	bemôje
12.	beje	bejeňu
13.	beka	bekaje
14.	bala	balaje
15.	balômô	balôjemô, balômôje
16.	balaje, balaňu	balaňuje, balajeňu
17.	balaka	balajeka, balakaje
18.	beta	betaje
19.	betômô	betôjemô, betômôje
20.	jegê	jegêje
30.	bjê	bjêňu
40.	dagê	dagêje
50.	dômôgê	dômôgêje
60.	dajegê, daňugê	dajegêje, daňugêje
70.	dakagê, dôbjê	dakagêje, dôbjêňu
80.	walagê	walagêje
90.	walômôgê	walômôgêje
100.	jin	jineje

• When more than one form is listed, forms are ordered in decreasing frequency of occurance.
• Fractional numbers other than those listed are rare and are formed by prefixing šu-.
• Môji is sometimes shortened to môj.
• Numerals different than these are formed by simple juxtaposition, eg.: bjê daka thirty seven

Syntax

Although Vijiš is pro-drop and subject-drop, it usually does not allow that. The verb is left without subject only if it can be unambiguously inferred from the context, e.g. in the second clause of a coordinated sentence. There is an exception - if there's no logical subject, none is placed at all - dummy pronouns are not used.

Noun phrases

The word order in noun phrases is the following:

determiner - quantifier - adjective - noun - genitive phrase - prepositional phrase - relative clause

Although the genitive phrase is usually placed after the noun, there is a tendency pronouns in genitive case to be placed between the quantifier and the adjective.

Headless noun phrases are usually not allowed. The only exception to the rule is when determiner correlatives are used on their own.

Word order

The default word order is SVO. One adverb for time, place or manner can be put before the verb or the subject.

Negation

Negation is formed by placing mo before the verb.

• Ji mo daňa ša. - I don't see it.

Questions

Polar questions are formed with a suffix on the verb:

• -gi after vowels and semivowels.
  • Ma daňa ša. You see it. → Ma daňagi ša? - Do you see it?
• -t and -m change to -di and -ŋgi respectively.
  • Bawta dat ša. Theys see it. → Bawta dadi ša? - Do they see it?
  • Ša dam. It is seen. → Ša daŋgi? - Is it seen?

Questions are marked only once - on the auxiliary if present and on the main one otherwise.

• Ma wôgi daňavo ša? - Will you see it?
• Ji daňagi ša, mažu žajigi daňavo? - If I see it, would you also see it?

The positive reply is vi, the negative is mo. The positive reply to a negative question is da.

• Ša mo pobijgi? - Is it not good?
• Da, ša jajuwo! - Yes, it is beautiful!

Content questions exhibit wh-fronting.

• Giža ma daňa? - What do you see?

Existential clauses

Existential clauses are formed with the verb ŋeňavo, ŋêt. It is defective in that it has no past tense forms - the copula is used to supplement it. Word order in existential clauses is:

(locative phrase) - verb - noun phrase

Pê

Pê

in

wa

wa

DEF.GEN

vegôva

vegôv-a

house-GEN

ŋeňa

ŋeňa-∅

EXIST-PRS.ANIM

ŋeni.

ŋeni.

girl

There is a girl in the house.

Pê

Pê

in

wa

wa

DEF.GEN

vegôva

vegôv-a

house-GEN

pôwo

pô-wo

be.PST-ANIM

žažev.

žažev.

food

There was food in the house.

The locative phrase may come after the noun phrase, but this is not common. Pê wa and pa wa may shorten to pêw, paw. Other prepositions + wa may also shorten, but much more rarely.

Ŋeňavo agrees with the following noun phrase in animacy and number.

• Ŋeňôwo môgo. - There is a mountain.
• Ŋeňa veje. - There is a wise man.
• Ŋêt dojena. - There are bees.

The verb and the noun phrase can switch their places, in which case ŋeňavo means to exist.

• Wi wajena ŋêt. - The frogs exist.

In negative existential clauses a negative form of the verb is used, again supplemented in past tense: mojeňavo, mojêt.

• Mojêt dojena. - There are no bees.
• Pê wa vegôva mo pôw žažêv. - There was no food in the house.

Conditions

Conditions are expressed with a clause containing the condition, with the verb always having the interrogative suffix, followed by a clause containing the result, with its verb always in conditional mood.

Ma

ma

2.SG.NOM

šamegigi

šameg-i-gi

pour-SG.ANIM.PRS-Q

jiwa,

jiwa

1.SG.DAT

žaji

žaj-i

COND-SG.ANIM.PRS

žamego.

žameg-o

drink-INF

I'd drink if you pour (some) to me.

Possibility and necessity

Possibility and necessity are expressed with the particles wamwo/wamo can, be able to and niji must, have to placed directly before an inflected verb; even mo is placed before them.

Jêjta

Jêjta

1.PL.NOM

niji

niji

must

mijeŋat.

mijeŋa-t.

go_down-PRS.PL

We must go down.

Jêjta

Jêjta

1.PL.NOM

wamo

wamo

can

jiwat.

jiwa-t.

go_up-PRS.PL

We can go up.

Mawta

Mawta

2.PL.NOM

mo

mo

NEG

wamo

wamo

can

vumuwut!

vumuwu-t!

go_away-PRS.PL

You can't go away!

When used in conditional mood, they mean could and should respectively.

The longer forms wanowo and nijiji are sometimes used.

Comparison

It is done with dedicated verbs: šukavo be more and vowojenavo be less. Comparative is formed with powa + NOUN, superlative with poja.

• Jêža bwuwôna šukat kigigavi. - These ideas are greener.
• Kaňu bwuwôna vowojenat ŋijêve poja. - Those ideas are the least angry.

Šukavo can be replaced with the copula if there is a standard, which the noun is compared to.

• Jêža bwuwôna sawta kigigavi powa kaňuna. - These ideas are greener than those.

In attributive positions šukavo is dropped and vowojenavo is replaced with the indeclinable particle vowo. For comparative degree powa must always be present, even if there is no standard which is compared to. In such case comparisons come between genitive and prepositional phrases.

• Bwuv kigigavi powa. - A greener idea.
• Vowo ŋijêve poja bwuv. - The least angry idea.

ADJ + podwata conveys the meaning of as ADJ as possible.

• Ša sagi ŋijêpa podwata. - It is as blue as possible.

Coordinating NPs

• wa — or (inclusive)
• vôga ... vôga ... — either ... or ...
• waj/wêj/wê — and
• -žu/-ažu — (and) also X; X as well — the former is after vowels and the latter after consonants.
  • Some changes occur when adding this suffix:
  • Final -p -t -k -š → -b- -d- -g- -ž-
  • Final -b -d -g → -v- -l- -w-
  • Final -v → -w-
  • Final -o changes to -w- and takes -ažu if it is not preceeded by v, w, or consonant cluster.
  • Final stops do not always change. -t voicing to -d- is infact the exception rather than the rule. -d changing to -l- is also somewhat rare, but not as much as -t to -d-. -b, -g may or may not change to -v-, -w-, but changing is somewhat more common. -p and -k always undergo voicing.

Coordinating clauses

• wa — or (inclusive)

  Jêjta

  Jêjta

  1.PL.NOM

  wat

  wa-t

  FUT-PL

  neňuvo

  neňu-vo

  swim-INF

  wa

  wa

  or_INC

  wat

  wa-t

  FUT-PL

  vôžaw.

  vôža-w.

  ride-INF

  We will swim and/or ride.

• vôga ... vôga ... — either ... or ...

  Vôga

  Vôga

  or_EXC

  jêjta

  jêjta

  1.PL.NOM

  wat

  wa-t

  FUT-PL

  mugivo

  mugi-vo

  take-INF

  jawôna,

  jawôna,

  everything

  vôga

  vôga

  or_EXC

  wat

  wa-t

  FUT-PL

  mêlo

  mêl-o

  lose-INF

  môna.

  môna.

  nothing

  We will either take everything or lose nothing.

• jê — and, but — introduces a clause that has information contrasting with the previous one.

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  sagi

  sag-i

  be.PRS-SG

  jêňu,

  jêňu,

  here

  jê

  jê

  and

  bi

  bi

  3.SG.NOM.ANIM

  sagi

  sag-i

  be.PRS-SG

  kaňu.

  kaňu.

  there

  I'm here and he is there.

• waj/wêj/wê — and — introduces a clause that expresses same thought of the previous one and/or completes it.

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  wô

  wô-∅

  FUT-ANIM

  vijemôvo

  vijemô-vo

  go_back-INF

  wêj

  wêj

  and

  wô

  wô-∅

  FUT-ANIM

  žajevo

  žaje-vo

  do-INF

  ša.

  ša.

  3.SG.NOM.INAN

  I'll go back and do it.

• žê — but — introduces a clause that contradicts or opposes the previous one.

  Jêjta

  Jêjta

  1.PL.NOM

  sawta

  sa-wta

  be.PRS-PL

  jêňu,

  jêňu,

  here

  žê

  žê

  but

  mawta

  mawta

  2.PL.NOM

  mo

  mo

  NEG

  sawta.

  sa-wta.

  be.PRS-PL

  We are here, but you are not.

• šê — and so, so; and (then) — introduces a clause that logically and/or temporally follows the previous one.

  Bawta

  Bawta

  3.PL.ANIM.NOM

  kowôwôta

  kowô-wô-ta

  go_west-PST-PL

  šê

  šê

  and

  daňôwôwta

  daňô-wô-wta

  see-PST-PL

  dwi.

  dwi.

  somebody else

  They went to the west and saw others.

Not all conjunctions are mutually exclusive. Some pairs (jê/žê, waj/šê) can be used in the same context to give different shades of meaning.

Subordinating clauses

The relative conjunctions, pronominal in origin, are:

• bêv - who

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  kôgôme

  kôgôme-∅

  know-PRS.ANIM

  wavô,

  wavô,

  man

  bêv

  bêv

  who.REL

  wô

  wô-∅

  FUT-ANIM

  kajinavo

  kajina-vo

  help-INF

  môŋa.

  môŋa.

  2.SG.DAT

  I know a man, who will help you.

• šawav - what

  Šawav

  Šawav

  what.REL

  ji

  ji

  1.SG.NOM

  daňa,

  daňa-∅,

  see-PRS.ANIM

  glôjewôji

  glôjewô-ji

  please-PRS.INAN

  jiwa.

  jiwa.

  1.SG.DAT

  I like what I see.

• môv - which

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  wô

  wô-∅

  FUT-ANIM

  mugivo

  mugi-vo

  take-INF

  kaňu

  kaňu

  that

  miji,

  miji,

  bowl

  pê

  pê

  in

  môv

  môv

  which

  ŋeňôwo

  ŋeňô-wo

  EXIST-ANIM

  žažêv.

  žažêv.

  food

  I'll take the bowl, which has food.

• kajêv - where

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  daňa

  daňa-∅

  see-PRS.ANIM

  wi

  wi

  DEF.NOM

  jêwu,

  jêwu,

  place

  kajêv

  kajêv

  where.REL

  ma

  ma

  2.SG.NOM

  sagi.

  sag-i.

  be.PRS-ANIM

  I see the place where you are.

• vijêv - when

  Ji

  Ji

  1.SG.NOM

  wôpo

  wô-∅-po

  FUT-ANIM-be.INF

  dwi

  dwi

  with

  ma,

  ma,

  2.SG.GEN

  vijêv

  vijêv

  when.REL

  jêža

  jêža

  this

  šômo.

  šôm-o.

  happen-ANIM.PRS

  I'll be with you when this happens.

• vêwôwav - how

  Žaje

  Žaje

  do.IMP

  ša,

  ša,

  3.SG.NOM.INAN

  vêwôwav

  vêwôwav

  how.REL

  jiwôŋi.

  jiwôŋ-i.

  want-PRS.ANIM

  Do it however you want.

Ŋup is the complementiser:

Ji

Ji

1.SG.NOM

daňa,

daňa-∅,

see-PRS.ANIM

ŋup

ŋup

C

ma

ma

2.SG.NOM

dôve.

dôve-∅.

be_happy-PRS.ANIM

I see that you are happy.

It can be used to create causative sentences. Mavo is the preferred verb in such constructions.

Ma

Ma

2.SG.NOM

mavi,

mav-i,

make-PRS.ANIM

ŋup

ŋup

C

mata

mata

2.SG.GEN

waŋa

waŋa

father

gju.

gju-∅.

think-PRS.ANIM

You make your father think.

Semantics

This section deals with the usages of some specific lexical items.

Verbs of motion

Vijiš has several sets of verbs of motion. Which one is used depends on what needs to be emphasized.

Sample text

Wi Sopawa mê waj wi Wiwa

Wi

Wi

DEF.NOM

Sopawa

Sopawa

north

mê

mê

wind

waj

waj

and

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

Wiwa

Wiwa

sun

vajašôwôta

vajašô-wô-ta

argue-PST-PL

gwi

gwi

who.NOM

šukôwôji

šukô-wô-ji

be_more-PST-SG.ANIM

tažu,

tažu,

strong

vijêv

vijêv

when.REL

wažuša

wažuša

traveler

salôj,

sal-ô-j,

come_by-PST-SG.ANIM

žawaŋi

žawaŋi

dressed

pê

pê

in

pibiwo

pibiwo

fat

piwdôn.

piwdô-n.

coat.GEN-GEN

The North wind and the Sun were arguing who was stronger, when a traveler came by dressed in a thick coat.

Bawta

Bawta

3.PL.ANIM.NOM

vônôpowôwta,

vônôpo-wô-wta,

agree-PST-PL

ŋup

ŋup

COMP

bi,

bi,

3.SG.ANIM.NOM

bêv

bêv

who.REL

kižav

kižav

first

mavi,

mav-i,

make-SG.ANIM

ŋup

ŋup

COMP

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

wažuša

wažuša

traveler

dažajipu

dažajipu-∅

take_off-SG.ANIM

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

piwpa

piwpa

coat.NOM

ba,

ba,

3.SG.ANIM.GEN

niji

niji

have_to

žajwa

žaj-wa

COND-PASS

šajêlavo

šajêla-vo

consider-INF

tažu

tažu

strong

powa

powa

than

wa

wa

DEF.GEN

dwa.

dwa.

other.ANIM.GEN

They agreed that the one who first makes the traveler take his coat off should be considered stronger than the other.

Jiwôwo

Jiwôwo

next

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

Sopawa

Sopawa

north

mê

mê

wind

mijêlôj

mijêl-ô-j

blow-PST-SG.ANIM

tažu

tažu

strong

podwata,

podwata,

as_much_as_possible

žê

žê

but

bi

bi

3.SG.ANIM.NOM

mijêlôjgi

mijêl-ô-j-gi

blow-PST-SG.ANIM-Q

tažu

tažu

strong

powa,

powa,

than

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

wažuša

wažuša

traveler

mavôji,

mav-ô-ji,

make-PST-SG.ANIM

ŋup

ŋup

COMP

ba

ba

3.SG.ANIM.GEN

piwpa

piwpa

coat.NOM

šukôwo

šukô-wo

be_more-SG.INAN

pibê

pibê

tight

soša

soša

around

ba,

ba,

3.SG.ANIM.GEN

Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his coat around him,

šê

šê

and

pa

pa

on

vêviva

vêvi-va

end-GEN

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

Sopawa

Sopawa

north

mê

mê

wind

vijemôwôji

vijemô-wô-ji

go_back-PST-SG.ANIM

wê

wê

DEF.DAT

Wiwabo.

Wiwa-bo.

sun-DAT

and at last the North Wind gave up, making way for the Sun.

Bi

Bi

3.SG.ANIM.NOM

mowaviwôj

mowavi-wô-j

shine-PST-SG.ANIM

ŋêwa

ŋêwa

warm

šê

šê

and

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

wažuša

wažuša

traveler

jêžawbo

jêžawbo

immediately

dažajipuwôj

dažajipu-wô-j

take_off-PST-SG.ANIM

ba

ba

3.SG.ANIM.GEN

piwpa.

piwpa.

coat.NOM

It shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his coat.

Vêwa

Vêwa

in_that_way

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

Sopawa

Sopawa

north

mê

mê

wind

mavôva,

mav-ô-va,

make-PST-PASS

ŋup

ŋup

COMP

vônôpo,

vônôpo-∅,

agree-SG.ANIM

ŋup

ŋup

COMP

wi

wi

DEF.NOM

Wiwa

Wiwa

sun

pôji

pô-ji

be-PST.SG.ANIM

tažu

tažu

strong

powa

powa

from

je

je

two

bawta.

bawta.

3.PL.ANIM.GEN

This is how the North Wind was made to agree that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

Glossless text

Wi Sopawa mê waj wi Wiwa vajašôwôta gwi šukôwôji tažu, vijêv wažuša salôj, žawaŋi pê pibiwo piwdôn. Bawta vônôpowôwta, ŋup bi, bêv kižav mavi, ŋup wi wažuša dažajipu wi piwpa ba, niji žajwa šajêlavo tažu powa wa dwa. Jiwôwo wi Sopawa mê mijêlôj tažu podwata, žê bi mijêlôjgi tažu powa, wi wažuša mavôji, ŋup ba piwpa šukôwo pibê soša ba, šê pa věviva wi Sopawa mê vijemôwôji wê Wiwabo. Bi mowaviwôj ŋêwa šê wi wažuša jêžawbo dažajipuwôj ba piwpa. Vêwa wi Sopawa mê mavôva, ŋup vônôpo, ŋup wi Wiwa pôji tažu powa je bawta.

The North wind and the Sun were arguing who was stronger, when a traveler came by dressed in a thick coat. They agreed that the one who first makes the traveler take his coat off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his coat around him, and at last the North Wind gave up, making way for the Sun. It shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his coat. This is how the North Wind was made to agree that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

Lexicon

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