Rrób Tè Jĕhnò

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Rrób Tè Jĕhnò
[rǒp̚ tʰêː tɕən̥ôː]
Period c. 1 YP
Spoken in Tuysáfa Northwest Coast
Total speakers unknown
Writing system none
Classification Ronquian
 Rrób Tè Jĕhnò
Typology
Basic word order SV/VOS (see below)
Morphology agglutinate/polysynthetic
Alignment NOM-ACC
Credits
Created by CatDoom

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò ("Tongue of the People of Jĕhnò") is a Ronquian language spoken along the wooded coastline north of the Wendoth-speaking regions of western Tuysáfa. Its speakers are farmers and fishers inhabiting a collection of chalcolithic statelets consisting of small, shifting villages oriented around a permanent ritual and political center. They are particularly notable for having developed an elaborate system of astrology facilitated by earthworks and standing stones marking astronomical alignments.

Phonology

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has a large phonemic inventory consisting of 62 consonants and 8 vowel qualities, including a number of typologically unusual segments. The language exhibits only slight dialectical variation across its range, suggesting a relatively late expansion from a smaller speech community.

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolo-Palatal Retroflex Velar Uvular Glottal
Aspirated stop p /pʰ/ t /t̪ʰ/ tr /ʈʰ/ k /kʰ/ kh /qʰ/
Ejective stop p' /p'/ t' /t̪'/ tr' /ʈ'/ k' /k'/ kh' /q'/
Lenis stop b /p/ d /t̪/ dr /ʈ/ g /k/ gh /q/
Aspirated affricate c /t̪s̪ʰ/ q /tɕʰ/ cr /ʈʂʰ/
Ejective affricate c' /t̪s̪'/ q' /tɕ'/ cr' /ʈʂ'/
Lenis affricate z /t̪s̪/ j /tɕ/ zr /ʈʂ/
Voiceless nasal hm /m̥/ hn /n̥/ hny /ɲ̊/ hnr /ɳ̊/ hng /ŋ̊/
Voiced nasal m /m/ n /n/ ny /ɲ/ nr /ɳ/ ng /ŋ/
Aspirated fricative hf /fʰ/ hs /s̪ʰ/ hx /ɕʰ/ hsr /ʂʰ/ hv /xʰ/*
Lenis fricative f /f/ s /s̪/ x /ɕ/ sr /ʂ/ v /x/ h /h/
Voiceless approximant hw /ʍ/ hy /j̊/
Voiced approximant w /w/ y /j/ r /ɻ/
Voiceless trill hr /r̥/
Voiceled trill rr /r/ gr /ʀ/
Aspirated lateral fricative hl /ɬ̪ʰ/ hly /ɬʲʰ/ hlr /ꞎʰ/
Lenis lateral fricative dl /ɬ̪/ dly /ɬʲ/ dlr /ꞎ/
Lateral approximant l /l̪/ ly /ʎ/ lr /ɭ/
  • /xʰ/ is an extremely marginal phoneme, and many speakers do not distinguish it from /x/

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close ĭ i /i iː/ ŭ u /u uː/
Close-Mid ĕ e /e eː/ ŏ o /o oː/
Mid ĕ /ə/
Open-Mid ăĭ ai /ɛ ɛː/ ăŭ au /ɔ ɔː/
Open ă a /a aː/

Short vowels are only marked in open tonic syllables, as vowel length is not distinctive in other positions. The reduced vowel /ə/ is represented with the same character as the short vowel /e/, but as /ə/ never appears in tonic syllables the ambiguity is minimal.

Phonotactics

Full syllables in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò have the canonical form CVS, where S may be any of /p t k q/. Vowel length is distinguished only in open, tonic syllables. Onset clusters consisting of a labial obstruent followed by /ɻ/ or /l/ are permissible.

Reduced syllables have the form Cə, and have the same range of onset consonants as full syllables.

Pitch Accent

Content morphemes in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò each have a single stressed or “tonic” syllable, which is marked with either a high or low tone. Unless preceded by a syllable bearing the same tone, these tones are usually realized as rising or falling pitch contours, respectively. This phonologically distinguishes them from ‘atonic’ particles and bound morphemes, which are realized with a non-distinctive level pitch.

In polysyllabic words the accent most commonly falls on the final syllable, but there are no strict constraints on the position of the tonic syllable. When a non-final syllable is accented, however, it is invariably an open syllable with a long vowel. Within the boundaries of a morpheme, pre-tonic syllables are invariably reduced, while morpheme-final syllables and monosyllabic bound morphemes are never reduced.

High tone accent is marked on long vowels with an acute (as in á), and low tone with a grave (à). Short vowels are marked with a breve (as on the vowel chart above) in high-tone syllables, and with a circumflex (â) in low-tone syllables.

Allophony and Phonetic Detail

  • Lenis obstruents are usually voiced between sonorants. This applies to coda stops when the following word begins with a vowel. Initial lenis obstruents may be weakly voiced as well, particularly when the preceding word ends in a vowel.
  • Ejective consonants are relatively weakly articulated, and in some cases may be easily mistaken for tenuis stops. They are generally distinguished as having a voice-onset times intermediate between those of the corresponding aspirated and lenis consonants.
  • Coda stops are unreleased when they precede a word beginning in a consonant.
  • In rapid speech the alveolar trills tend to be pronounced as flaps [ɾ, ɾ̥] intervocalically, while /ʀ/ typically becomes [ɣ ~ ʁ] in all positions.
  • Some speakers tend to elide word-initial reduced vowels in words with more than two syllables, particularly in rapid speech. In this case, plain obstruents following the elided vowel may retain their voicing, creating a marginal phonemic contrast between lenis and voiced obstruents.

Types of Words

Verbs

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò makes a basic distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs; a transitive verb may not be used in an intransitive construction without explicit derivational modification, and vice versa. The main exception to this are passive voice constructions, described below. Each verb root also has an attributive form, which never takes further inflection. Attributive verbs serve a role similar to English adjectives and adverbs, modifying the meaning of another element of the clause.

The Verb Template

Verbs in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò inflect for tense, aspect, and mood primarily through the use of prefixes and suffixes, which conform to the following basic template:

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
clitic tense mood aspect causation (frequency) stem (frequency) aspect
pronoun prefix suffix

Of these elements, only the stem is required in all verb phrases, although transitive verbs must also take a clitic pronoun.

Clitic Pronouns

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò personal pronouns each have two forms: a phonologically independent form (described below) and a criticized form that attaches to the verb. Clitic pronouns can and frequently do act as the sole argument of an intransitive verb, and generally must be used with transitive verbs, agreeing in animacy and person with the subject noun (if any). See, however, exceptional case marking below.

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has twelve personal pronouns for animate referents, marking four numbers (singular, dual, trial, and plural) in the first, second, and third persons. In contrast, it has only two pronouns for inanimate referents: the third person collective (or "transnumeral") and third person singularity. The contexts in which these pronouns are used is described later in this document; the cliticized forms of each are described in the following table. The first form of each clitic is used before consonants, while the second is used before vowels.

animate inanimate
singular dual trial plural collective singulative
1 nya-/ny- na-/nad- hnya-/hny- hai-/hay- 1
2 mo-/m- me-/med- hmo-/hm- wo-/worr- 2
3 ji-/j- gu-/gud- hna-/hn- qi-/q- 3 do-/d- ĕdo-/ĕd-
Tense

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò uses five prefixes to mark tense. These are most commonly used in conjunction with mood and/or aspect markers, in order to specify that an action takes place or a state comes into being at a time other than, or more specific than, the general time frames assumed by those grammatical categories.

Past -hye-

-hyerr-

used as a general past tense marker, particularly for verbs taking place in the relatively distant past.
Recent Past -hĕhye-

-hĕhyerr-

optionally used to denote recent events and states.
Present -hĕcri-

-hĕcr-

denotes events currently taking place or present states of being, and most commonly used to emphasize the immediacy or urgency of a statement.
Near Future -tĕt’a-

-tĕt’-

similar to the recent past, the near future is optionally used to emphasize that an event or state will occur soon.
Future -t’a-

-t’-

used as a general future marker, particularly for verbs taking place in the relatively distant future.
Mood

Rrób Tè-Jĕhnò regularly makes use of six modal prefixes, each of which corresponds phonetically and semantically to an independent verb. With transitive verbs, these prefixes always refer to the needs, desires, and abilities of the subject; in order to form other types of modal constructions the corresponding independent verbs are used (see below). In the absence of a tense prefix or other explicit temporal reference, modal prefixes imply that the event or state described by the verb has not yet begun.

Commissive -re-

-rel-

corresponding to , "intend," the commissive mood expresses that the subject expects or intends to perform the described action or enter the described state.
Imperative -dlo-

-dl-

corresponding to dlŏ, "get," the imperative mood expresses that the subject needs or is required to perform the described action or enter the described state.
Optative -nye-

-nyeg-

corresponding to nyèg, "wish," the optative mood expresses that the subject hopes to perform the described action or enter the described state.
Potential -dra-

-dr-

corresponding to dră, "be able," the potential mood expresses that the subject has the ability or potential to perform the described action or enter the described state.
Precative -ga-

-g-

corresponding to , "request," the precative mood expresses that the subject is requesting to perform the described action or enter the described state. When the subject is a first person pronoun, the precative mood is used to ask for permission.
Volitional -a-

-arr-

corresponding to á, "want," the volitional mood expresses that the subject wants to perform the described action or enter the described state.

The distinction between the commissive, optative, and volitional moods is relatively subtle, but generally fairly straightforward. The commissive mood expresses, like the potential mood, that the subject has the ability to bring about the event or state described by the verb, and furthermore that he or she intends to do so. It does not, however, imply any particular opinion regarding the verb, positive or negative. The optative mood expresses that the subject would be pleased if the event or state came to pass, but implies that he or she does not have the ability to bring them about. The volitional mood implies both that the subject would be pleased if the even or state came to pass, and that he or she has the ability to bring them about, or at least to make them more likely. In other words, the optative mood denotes a passive desire, while the volitional mood denotes something that the subject is striving toward.

Aspect Prefix

Five aspect-marking prefixes may fill this "slot” in the verbal template. Note that terms like “past” and “present” are here used to refer to times relative to the ‘main’ time frame of the action. In the absence of an explicit temporal reference, this is the present, or the indefinite future if a modal prefix is used as well.

Progressive -sro-

-sr-

expresses that the action or state described by the verb began in the past and is presently continuing.
Extended Progressive -hngau-

-hngaw-

expresses that the action or state is presently continuing and has been for a long time. May be used to express boredom, frustration, or irritation with a present activity or state of affairs.
Inceptive -do-

-dow-

express that an action or event is presently beginning. This prefix is never used with stative verbs.
Stative Inceptive -lo-

-l-

expresses that a state or condition is presently beginning, often serving a role similar to the English word "become." This prefix is never used with active verbs.
Experiential -t'u-

-t'ug--

expresses that the subject has experienced the described state or event or performed the described action before. The experiential aspect is most often used to assert that the subject of the clause has knowledge or skill in a particular area.
Causation

The causative prefix rri-/rril- expresses that the subject of the clause is causing the direct object to perform the action or enter the state described by the verb.

Frequency

Positions -1 and 1 in the verb template are not differentiated by the types of morphemes they may contain; rather, the position of frequency-marking morphemes in the inflected verb depends on the semantics of the verb stem. With transitive verbs, frequency marking comes before the verb stem, while it comes after the stem in intransitive verbs.

Indefinite frequencies are marked using the morphemes dĕnre “often,” dĕdre “sometimes,” dĕnru “rarely, seldom," dĕre “never,” and dĕnra “always.” When used as suffixes following a coda stop, the coda deletes and the initial d is fortified to t.

Morphemes for marking definite frequencies are formed from numerals by subjecting the onset consonant to lenition (as in forming the construct state of nouns; see below), shifting it to the retroflex place of articulation if it is a dental, palatal, or velar consonant, and attaching the prefix dĕ-. So the morpheme for “once” would be dĕbig (reduced to dĕbi- as a prefix before consonants), “twice” would be dĕtru (which shifts to the irregular form dĕtroy- before vowels), “three times” would be dĕdrugh/dĕdru-, and so forth. Irregular forms are listed in the lexicon.

The Interrogative Mood

The interrogative mood is marked using the infix ‹ĕhr›, which follows the onset consonant of the first syllable of the stem. With stems beginning in a vowel the prefix hr- is used, coming after any other prefixes applied the verb. The interrogative mood is used in forming polar ("yes or no") questions.

  • mohyehá "you (sg.) prayed" → mohyehĕhrá "did you (sg.) pray?"
  • jirelág "he/she intends to come" → jirehrág "does he/she intend to come?"
The Iterative Aspect

The iterative aspect is formed by reduplicating the verb stem, effectively compounding it with itself (see "compounding," below). The accent, in this case, falls on the first instance of the syllable that would be accented in the unmodified stem if the verb is transitive, and the second if it is intransitive. This is used to express that the subject performs an action regularly or has performed it many times in the past.

  • mecég "you two wander" → mecezĕcég "you two are always wandering around"
  • jihyegrág jĭ "he/she hurt himself/herself" → jihyegrádrag jĭ "he/she hurt himself/herself regularly"
Aspect Suffix

Four aspect-marking suffixes related to the ending of an action or state may occupy this “slot” in the verbal template. The use of one of these suffixes implies that the verb took place in the indefinite past, unless a modal prefix or an explicit temporal reference is used as well.

Cessative -hwe expresses that an action or state has come to an end. With telic verbs, it expresses that the activity described was not completed and may, depending on the context, carry the implication of failure. Following a coda stop, the suffix reduced to -e and the coda becomes aspirated. A preceding d becomes tr, while a preceding g becomes p.
Completive (Telic) -xegh used with telic verbs (active verbs that imply a natural end point) not related to movement to express that the action described has been completed, placing emphasis on the present consequences of its completion. When following a final stop, the stop deletes and the suffix becomes -hxegh.
Completive (Atelic) -gra semantically similar to the telic completive suffix, but used with verbs of motion and all atelic verbs. A preceding gh deletes, while gr shifts to r following b and fuses with stem-final d and g, resulting in zr and dr, respectively.
Perfective -ma used to describe a state or action as a simple whole without placing any particular emphasis on its ending or completion. Following a coda stop, the stop deletes and the suffix becomes -hma.

Attributive Verbs

Attributive verbs are regularly formed by fortifying the onset of an otherwise unmodified verb root:

Initial plain stops, affricates, and fricatives (except /h/) become aspirated:

  • ĕrà dá "a vixen is cunning" → ĕrà tá "a cunning vixen"

Initial voiced nasals become voiceless:

  • cè ngàì "a person is different" → cè hngàì "a different person"

Initial aspirated and ejective stops and affricates take the prefix Sə-, where S represents a plain stop or affricate homorganic with the onset (/t̪ə-/ is used before both dental and retroflex stops):

  • rrĕcàì p’ĕzríg "a promise is secret" → rrĕcàì bĕp’ĕzríg "a secret promise"

Initial /h/ is replaced with /kʰ/:

  • grég há "a woman prays" → grég ká "a praying woman"

Initial voiced liquids (including /r/ and any lateral approximant or voiced trill) other than /ʎ/ are replaced with /ʈ/:

  • rrĕrĕdráú rró "a puppy is content" → rrĕrĕdráú dró "a content puppy"

Initial /w/ is replaced with /p/, and initial /j/ and /ʎ/ with /tɕ/:

  • tréd wób "a male dog is lazy" → tréd bób "a lazy male dog"
  • rréb yágh "a boy is happy" → rréb jágh "a happy boy"

Initial /r̥/ becomes /ʈʰ/:

  • kà hràì "a snake is fast" → kà tràì "a fast snake"

Aspirated fricatives and voiceless nasals and approximants usually remain unchanged:

  • rrĕkĕtr’íg hmà "a jewel is precious" or "a precious jewel" (depending on context)

The prefix /tɕ-/ is used with verb roots beginning in /i/ or /e/:

  • dré íb "a bird is foolish" → dré jíb "a foolish bird"

The prefix /k-/ is used before any other vowel:

  • féd ĕrà "a warrior is naked" → féd gĕrà "a naked warrior"

A number of verbs have irregular attributive forms, which are listed in the lexicon.

As in the examples given above, attributive verbs primarily function as deverbal adjectives, and usually follow the nouns they modify. With intransitive verbs, the semantics of the attributive form are relatively straightforward, describing the attributes or behavior of the modified noun. With transitive verbs, the attributive verb is generally interpreted as passive and perfective.

vase
gĕku
ATTR/break
a broken vase

When used to modify the head noun in a genitive construction, the attributive precedes the noun instead of following it.

CNSTR/mother
bĕnà
children(COLL.)
hngù
ATTR/be.kind
the mother of the kind children
hngù
ATTR/be.kind
CNSTR/mother
bĕnà
children(COLL.)
the kind mother of the children

In any case, a relative clause may always be used in place of an attributive (see "relative clauses" below).

ĕdróg
hunter
hmo
REL.AN
be.silent
a hunter who is silent
CNSTR/mother
bĕnà
children(COLL.)
hmo
REL.AN
jingù
3S.AN-be.kind
the mother of the children, who is kind

This method is considered more cumbersome and attributive verbs are generally preferred in everyday speech. However, relative clauses are often used for clarity in potentially ambiguous contexts, since the process of forming attributives can result in the phonetic merger of phonologically similar verbs.

Adverbs

Rrób Tè Jĕnhò has a small class of adverbs, which includes markers of degree and spatial deixis.

Jijàìma
3S.AN-go.from.1-PFV
bĕp’ég.
maybe
Maybe he left.
Nyagasrŏ
1S-PREC-stand
dríd?
here
May I stand here?

Attributive verbs may also act as adverbs, specifying the manner in which an action takes place.

Zrà
Zrà
mèg
turn
hsrúg.
ATTR/be.slow
Zrà turns around slowly.
Jikhúb
3S.AN-eat
tràì
ATTR/be.fast
fi
DEF.IN
tr’éd
meat
gi
DEF.AN
hnră.
tiger
The tiger eats the meat quickly.

Nouns

The most fundamental distinction in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò nouns is based on animacy, which has a great deal of influence on how a verb behaves grammatically. Each noun also has two distinct forms or "states": the absolute and the construct.

Animacy

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò makes a simple binary distinction between animate and inanimate noun referents. Nouns describing people, animals, and spiritual beings, including terms referring to groups of animals or people collectively, are classified as animate. The animate class also encompasses nouns describing body parts, phenomena related to the weather and the ocean, and regularly occurring periods of time such as day and night and the seasons of the year. Most other things, including man-made and naturally occurring objects and substances, abstract concepts, and collective terms for human occupations and activities, are classed as inanimate.

Nouns themselves are not overtly marked for animacy, but pronouns, articles, and relativizers have different forms which agree with the animacy of their referents, and nouns of each class are marked differently as the agents of passive verbs. Grammatical number is also handled differently depending on the class of noun being counted, with animate nouns being marked for four numbers and inanimate nouns for two. Furthermore, number marking in inanimate nouns is always optional, while animate pronouns are always explicitly marked for number.

State

Each noun stem has two forms, referred to as the “absolute” and “construct” states. The absolute state is considered to be the less-marked form of the verb, and is used for most nouns that aren't involved in genitive constructions, as well as verbs acting as the dependent element (the "possessor") in such a construction.

The construct state is used to mark the head nouns in genitive constructions, as well as in the formation of nominalizers and locative constructions. Genitive relationships are formed by placing the head noun (the "possessed" noun) in the construct state and following it immediately with its dependent.

The construct state is formed through consonant mutation, usually by lenition of the onset consonant. The regular outcomes of this process are as follows:

Aspirated stops and affricates lenite to the corresponding “plain” consonant:

  • ‘face’ →‎ jí dă "mother’s face"

Plain stops and affricates lenite to plain (central) fricatives at the same place of articulation, with the exception of /ts/, which lenits to /ɕ/, and /q/, which lenits to /h/:

  • "beer" → fĕ mò "your beer"

Plain fricatives lenite to approximants or trills, with both /s/ and /ɕ/ becoming /r/, /x/ becoming /j/, and /h/ becoming /ʀ/:

  • féd "warrior" → wéd sĕwĕgrég "warrior of the queendom"

Voiceless nasals become voiced:

  • hnyèg "foot" → nyèg zéd "rabbit's foot"

Voiceless approximants and trills become voiced and prefixed with the reduced vowel /ə/:

  • hwó "bow" → ĕwó bă "father's bow"

Ejectives generally lenite to plain stops and affricates in high-tone and atonic syllables and to voiced nasals in low tone syllables, with both /ts’/ and /tɕ’/ becoming /ɲ/:

  • p’ŏ "descendant" → bŏ Ká "descendant of the Goddess"
  • c’è "claw" → nyè ghĕnà "bear’s claw"

Nouns beginning with a voiced approximant or nasal generally remain unchanged:

  • rrúd "mouth" → rrúd p’àù "lion’s mouth"

Although these alternations are the most common, there are a large number of nouns with irregular forms in the construct state. Among the more common irregular alternations are plain stops that alternate with voiced nasals, aspirated stops that alternate with aspirated fricatives, and “fortis” consonants that remain unchanged in the construct state. Aspirated fricatives behave particularly irregularly during construct state formation, with no one pattern of alternation being exceptionally common.

It is worth noting that possessives are generally used significantly less often in Rrób Tè-Jĕhnò than in English, often being left to context. For instance, when kinship terms are used in a statement they are assumed to refer to relatives of the speaker (when the kinship term acts as the subject of a clause) or the subject (when the term is used as another sort of argument) in the absence of an explicit genitive construction.

jifàù
3S.AN-sing
sràù
song
mother
[my] mother sings a song
xe
NEG
gughĕkhó
3D.AN-respect
father
those two don't respect [their] father

Similarly, terms referring to specific political or social roles are interpreted as referring to the individuals who fill those roles within the community of the speaker or subject of a statement.

ĕwĕgrég
queen
be.wise
the queen is wise
Locative Use of the Construct State

A small, closed category of nouns may form construct states with locative meanings:

Absolute Abs. Gloss Construct Locative
hfáb "skin" gráb "on the surface of, on top of, on"
qéd "embrace" jéd "along, alongside"
"hand" "near"
hnyèg "foot" nyèg "at"
"eye" nyě "in front of, across from, facing, within sight of"
pàù "head" bàù "at the top of, above"
srĕ "guts" "in, inside of"
rrúd "mouth" rrúd "through"
"waist" rrí "around"
"neck" "behind, at the back of"
cră "sole, palm" zră "below, under, at the bottom of"
"air" "outside of, distant from"

A few nouns are purely locative in meaning, such as tréb "left," fríd "right," "north," and nĕlréd "south". In the absolute state, these refer to the direction itself, while in the construct they are used as locatives:

  • bó nò "to the north of the ocean"
Nominalizers

In Rrób Tè Jĕhnò subordinate clauses that behave as noun phrases must be introduced with a noun in the construct state, which serves to nominalize the entire subordinate clause. Only a few nouns are regularly used for this purpose:

Absolute Abs. Gloss Construct Use
céb "event" zéb a general nominalizer of factual or hypothetical events
c’í "reason" nominalizes clauses describing cause, motivation, and purpose
"fact" nominalizes known, factual, usually past events and states
"job" nominalizes tasks and regular activities
mògh "help" mògh nominalizes goals to which an action constributes
"idea" nominalizes concepts, plans, purposes, and hypothetical events
sré "intention" nominalizes intended future events in hortative constructions
p’ĭ "manner" nominalizes manner subclauses and descriptions of methods
gàù "place" vàù nominalizes locative subclauses
sáí "word(s)" rráí introduces reported speech
"story" introduces the topic or summary of a story

Number

Although the number of subject nouns is primarily marked using clitic pronouns, any animate noun may optionally be pluralized using the prefix nye-, which may be emphasized using the reduplicated form nyĕnye-.

jizáú
3S.AN-capture
nyĕnyezéd
many-rabbit
gi
DEF.AN
ĕdróg
hunter
the hunter catches many rabbits

Inanimate nouns may also be modified by nyĕnye-, and may be marked for the singulative number using the prefix p’i-.

Pronouns and Determiners

Personal Pronouns

Pronouns in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò mark three grammatical persons (first, second, and third) and, for animate referents, four numbers (singular, dual, trial, and plural). The trial number is used formally to refer to exactly three referents. Informally, however, it is often used to refer to a small number of referents that number more than two, but not exactly three. This is roughly analogous to the use of the English word “couple” (which literally denotes a group of two) in informal phrases like “me and the guys hung out and drank a couple beers.”

Inanimate pronouns are marked for only two numbers: the collective, which is typically interpreted as referring to either a collective group of objects or an indefinite quantity of an uncountable substance, and the singulative, which refers to a specific member of such a group or a measure of such a substance. The collective is somewhat misleadingly named, however, as, in the absence of an explicit quantifier, it is basically transnumeral, ambivalent with regard to number. Notably, when its referent is a man-made item such as a tool, weapon, or boat, the collective pronoun is understood as singular by default, and the singulative pronoun is not generally used.

The independent forms of each pronoun are shown on the following table. These are most commonly used as the objects of transitive clauses and in Exceptional Case Marking constructions (see below); pronominal subjects of transitive and intransitive verbs are usually cliticized to the verb (see "clitic pronouns" above).

animate inanimate
singular dual trial plural collective singulative
1 nyâ nàd hnyâ háí 1
2 mèd hmò 2
3 gúd hnâ 3 ĕdŏ
Reflexive and Reciprocal Constructions

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has no reflexive pronouns, and forms reflexive constructions by using coreferential personal pronouns as both arguments of a transitive verb. When a dual, trial, or plural pronoun is used in this manner the resulting clause is often interpreted as reciprocal. Reciprocal constructions may optionally be explicated through the use of an independent pronoun as the subject of the clause.

Indefinite Determiners

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò lacks simple indefinite pronouns (such as the English ‘someone’ or ‘something’), instead making use of two indefinite determiners: ĕsro (used with animate referents) and ĕhsro (used with inanimate referents). These are used in conjunction with nouns, most commonly generic “dummy nouns" like , ‘person’ and , ‘thing,’ but more specific nouns may be used as well.

Definite Articles

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò makes use of two definite articles: gi, used with animate referents, and fi, used with inanimate referents. There are no corresponding indefinite articles; nouns are assumed be be indefinite in their least-marked form.

The definite article is generally not used to mark head element of a genitive construction, nor with kinship or political terms that are implicitly possessed by the subject or speaker. When the definite article refers to the dependent element of a genitive construction it precedes the head noun (which is in the construct state) rather than between the two elements. When the definite article is used with a noun that is typically implicitly possessed, it serves to negate that possession.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò distinguish two levels of spatial deixis, but are unmarked for the animacy and number of their referents. The determiner su, ‘this, these,’ refers to objects relatively near the speaker, while gu, ‘that, those,’ refers to objects farther away. A third demonstrative, hnu, is best translated as ‘the other,’ and is used to distinguish between multiple objects regardless of their distance from the speaker.

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò demonstratives are strictly adnominal, but demonstrative pronouns may be formed by pairing the appropriate determiner with a generic noun. For instance, one might refer to gu có, "those things," or su xég, "this creature."

Indefinite Quantifiers

  • c'ĕ "any (of many)"; t'ód "either (of two)"; dĕt’ód "any one of three"; kĕdĕt’ód "any two of three"
  • "some, a few (of many)"; ngàì "some, a few (of a collective group), a little, a small amount of"
  • "every, the entire"; nàd "both"; hnâ "all three"; "all (of many)"
  • dlréd "each (of a collective group)"; gréd "the entirety of, all (of a collective group)"

The following table summarizes which quantifiers are used with which grammatical numbers:

any few all
animate sg c'ĕ
du t’ód nàd
tr (kĕ)dĕt’ód hnâ
pl c’ĕ
inanimate coll c’ĕ ngàì gréd
sgv c’ĕ dlréd

Numerals

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has a senary or "base-6" counting system, with unique terms for the multiples of 6 as high as 36. Other numerals are formed through a somewhat irregular form of compounding, as shown on the following table:

1. p’íg 13. dlĕbíg 25. crĕbíg
2. 14. dlĕgú 26. crĕgú
3. t’úgh 15. dlĕdúgh 27. crĕdúgh
4. 16. dlĕbé 28. crĕbé
5. fàì 17. dlĕwàì 29. crĕwàì
6. dlyă 18. khó 30. c’é
7. dlyĕbíg 19. khĕbíg 31. c’ĕbíg
8. dlyĕgú 20. khĕgú 32. c’ĕgú
9. dlyĕdúgh 21. khĕdúgh 33. c’ĕdúgh
10. dlyĕbé 22. khĕbé 34. c’ĕbé
11. dlyĕwàì 23. khĕwàì 35. c’ĕwàì
12. dlád 24. crà 36. srégh

Numerals above 36 are formed using the conjunction ne, "and," to coordinate srégh (which remains independently accented) with a second numeral to be added to it. Beginning with gĕsregh, "72," numerals are compounded before srégh, acting as multipliers. These undergo the same initial consonant lenition found in the second element of additive compounds. Under this system, 100 is gĕsrégh ne crĕbé, 1000 is zrĕdĕhsrégh ne p’íg, and 1296 (36x36) is rĕhsrégh.

Ordinal Numerals

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has only two dedicated ordinal numerals, which pattern syntactically as quantifiers: hmèg, "first," and hsŏ, "second." Other ordinals are formed as locative constructions using the construct-state noun nyèg, here meaning "at." "The third man" would therefore be gi có nyèg t’úgh, literally "the man at three."

Prepositions and Conjunctions

In Rrób Tè Jĕhnò Prepositions and conjunctions take the form of particles usually consisting of a single atonic syllable. The distinction between particles and clitics is somewhat ambiguous here, as function words in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò phonetic properties similar to dependent morphemes. In addition to being toneless, particles always end in a short, open syllable, though a number exhibit latent or "muted" coda consonants. These consonants are pronounced only when the particle is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, in which case they are syllabified as onsets on the following syllable rather than codas on the particle. Particles without a latent consonant are sometimes reduced to a single consonant before vowel-initial syllables in rapid speech, but this is considered irregular and usually only occurs with very common phrases.

Syntax

Simple Sentences

Intransitive Clauses

Intransitive clauses in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò minimally consist of a subject noun followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order. A clitic pronoun may be used in place of a noun or full pronoun.

Jigă.
3S.AN-clap
He claps [his hands].
Gi
DEF.AN
hmô
baby
yég.
sleep
The baby sleeps.

Transitive Clauses

Clauses containing transitive verbs have a basic order of VOS in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò, though the obligatory use of clitic pronouns suggests an underlying subject-initial syntax.

Jĕqó
3S.AN-cook
dlyíd
stew
dă.
mother
Mother cooks stew.
Hmohyezĕhrí
2T-PST-Q/play
hxí
game
rréb?
boy
Were you three boys playing a game?

The Passive Voice

Transitive verb stems may be passivized by omitting the clitic pronoun and including only one argument with the verb. The result is essentially an intransitive clause that has been syntactically reversed.

kh’ĕma
hit-PFV
nyâ!
1S
I’ve been hit!

A second noun phrase may be included as the agent of a passive noun by marking it with the preposition dre (if animate) or wo (if inanimate). Again, the normal syntax of the clause is reversed, with the agent preceding the patient.

Ĕrŭma
bless-PFV
dre
by
Goddess
nyâ.
1S
I have been blessed by the Goddess.

Copulas

The verb srŏ, "stand," is used as a general copula in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò, behaving as a transitive verb in that context.

Jisrŏ
3S.AN-stand
féd
warrior
Zrà.
Zrà
Zrà is a warrior.

When used to express a locative meaning, an appropriate noun in the construct state is paired with the object noun.

Gusrŏ
3D.AN-stand
fi
DEF.IN
CNSTR/air
ĕtò
house
fă.
brother
My two brothers are outside the house.
Jisrŏ
3S.AN-stand
fi
DEF.IN
bàù
CNSTR/head
lyéd
deciduous tree(s)
t’ă.
grandmother
Grandmother is at the top of the tree.

The verb hngàù, "sit," may optionally be used in place of srŏ in locative copular clauses to emphasize that the position of the subject is permanent.

Ĕdohngàù
3SGV.IN-sit
CNSTR/guts
yàì
meadow
fi
DEF.IN
ĕgĕká.
megalith.
The megalith is in a meadow.

As Rrób Tè Jĕhnò lacks a class of adjectives per-se, statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are generally expressed with stative intransitive verbs, requiring no copula. This is also the case for some common professions, which are typically identified using the active intransitive verb describing their characteristic activity.

sky
gú.
be.grue
The sky is grue (blue/green).
father
dróg.
hunt
My father hunts/is a hunter.

Directional Motion Verbs

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has a complex set of seven deictic motion verbs marking the person of the origin or destination:

Destination (come towards) Origin (go away from) No destination/origin
1st person c’ĭ "come/go towards speaker" gàì "go away from speaker"
2nd person "come/go towards listener" k’áí "go away from listener"
3rd person "come/go towards somewhere other

than speaker or listener"

báí "go away from somewhere other

than speaker or listener"

cég "go nowhere in particular, wander"

Additionally, a number of verbs mark movement in other directions relative to the location of the subject of a clause, including sĕwŏ "ascend, climb," "go down, descend," "go upstream," and "go downstream."

Directional motion verbs form an irregular grammatical category. On the one hand, they may act as the core of intransitive verb phrases:

Gi
DEF.AN
tréd
dog
hnàù
ATTR/be.same
t'uc’ĭ.
EXP-come.to.1
The same dog has come to me before.

However, they may also behave as transitive verbs if a second verb phrase is included to indicate the specific destination of the movement. In this case.

Nyat’amâ
1S-FUT-come.to.2
ĕtò.
house
I will come to your house. (lit. "I will come to the house where you are."

The destination or origin of movement is often implied rather than explicitly stated, but one may specify both by combining motion verbs as sequential events (see below).

Directional motion verbs may also modify other active verbs, indicating the direction of the action. In this case, they become cliticized and behave as bound morphemes attached to the verb they modify, following the phonological rules for compounds (see below):

Moghúgrak’ai
2S-kick-COM-go.from.2
fi
DEF.IN
ball.
ATTR/be.same
You have kicked the ball away [from yourself].

Oblique Participants

Rrób Tè-Jĕhnò has no ditransitive verbs, and indirect objects must always be introduced through the use of a preposition or ECM construction.

Dative and Benefactive

Dative participants are marked with the preposition dlo, "for, to".

Guhnàì
3D.AN-share
tr’éd
meat
dlo
to
hnyè
clan
rrĕgód.
royal.couple
The royal couple serve meat to their clan.

Benefactive participants are marked with the preposition u(gh), "for the benefit of".

Jirràù
3S.AN-share
fi
DEF.IN
stories
úb
ATTR/be.old
u
for
háí
1P
gi
DEF.AN
ĕtr’úg.
priestess
The priestess recites the old stories for our benefit.

Antibenefactive participants are marked with the preposition gra(g), "to harm".

Xe
NEG
jisód
3S.AN-give
food
gra
harm
son

}

gi
DEF.AN
dă.
mother
The mother withholds food to harm her son.
Instrumental

Instrumental participants are marked with the preposition wo, "with, by, using".

Nyabĕpè
1S-love
2S
wo
with
entire
túb.
heart
I love you with my entire heart.
Comitative

Comitative participants are marked with the preposition fa, "with," while anticomitative participants are marked with rre, "without".

Gusrogĕtr’óg
3D-PROG-hunt
nyehnrâ
PL-tiger
fa
with
Zrà
Zrà
fă.
brother
My two brothers are hunting tigers with Zrà.
Morelŏ
2S-COM-Q/come.to.3
trúb
festival
rre
without
nyâ?
with
Do you intend to go to the festival without me?
Locative

Locative participants, which are noun phrases describing the location at which an action takes place, rather than nominal complements describing the location of an object, are marked with the preposition sro paired with an appropriate noun in the construct state.

Jifàù
3S.AN-sing
sràù
song
sro
at
gi
DET.AN
CNSTR/hand
jéd
fire
grég.
woman
A woman sings a song near the fire.

Note the difference in emphasis between this example and the following, which includes the locative as part of the subject noun phrase:

Jifàù
3S.AN-sing
sràù
song
grég
woman
CNSTR/hand
jéd.
fire
A woman near the fire sings.

If the action described in the clause involves motion but nevertheless takes place at a single location the preposition ce(g) is used instead.

Haizú
1PL-dance
hxú
dance
ce
around
gi
DEF.AN
rrí
CNSTR/waist
jéd.
fire
We dance a dance around the fire.
Destination and Origin

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò uses a set of prepositions derived from verbs of directional motion to mark oblique participants representing the origin or target of an event or action. These are identical to the corresponding verbs, save that they are not independently accented and cég becomes ce(g).

Jilyĕcă
3S.AN-shoot
nyè
arrow(s)
lo
at.3
hnrâ
DEF.AN
Zrà.
Zrà
Zrà shoots arrow(s) at a tiger.

Negation

Negation Rrób Tè Jĕhnò is marked through the use of a versatile particle, xe. When placed at the beginning of a clause, this particle negates the verb used in the clause:

Xe
NEG
su
this
nyò
shirt
ríb
be.black
This shirt is not black.

In clauses with transitive verbs, xe may be placed directly before the subject or object (or both) in order to exclude that specific argument. When the subject is so included, the resulting phrase indicates a contrast with another argument, which may be explicitly included in the clause or left implicit:

Xe
NEG
jidlŏ
get
hfég
thanks
gi
DEF.AN
ĕnròd.
servant
The servant did not receive thanks.
Jidlŏ
get
xe
NEG
hfég
thanks
gi
DEF.AN
ĕnròd.
servant
The servant received no thanks.
Jidlŏ
get
hfég
thanks
xe
NEG
gi
DEF.AN
ĕnròd.
servant
It wasn't the servant who received thanks.
Jidlŏ
get
xe
NEG
hfég
thanks
xe
NEG
gi
DEF.AN
ĕnròd.
servant
It wasn't the servant who received no thanks.

Interrogatives

While yes-or-no questions in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò are handled with the interrogative infix ‹ĕhr›, as described above, non-polar questions are formed using the stative verbs hràì, "be what" (referring to inanimate nouns) and hráú, "be who" (referring to animate nouns). These are irregular in that they are always fronted in the clause, rather than following their subject, and never take pronominal prefixes. Likewise, in the attributive form they precede the noun they modify rather than following it as normal.

Hráú
be.who
mò?
2S
Who are you?
Hráú
be.who
bráú?
weather
What's the weather like?
Hràì
be.what
gu
that
có?
thing
What is that thing?
Jidrĕhma
3S.AN-make-PFV
fi
DEF.IN
céb
event
tráú
ATTR/be.who
xég?
creature
What creature did this? (lit. “what creature made the aforementioned event?”)

General questions regarding location are formed using the phrase tràì gàù "what place," before the subject and a copula marked in the interrogative mood. More specific location questions use a fronted locative construct state and may use other nouns in place of "place."

Tràì
ATTR/be.what
gàù
place
jisrĕhrŏ?
3S.AN-Q/stand
Where is he?
CNSTR/guts
tràì
ATTR/be.what
ĕtò
house
jisrĕhrŏ?
3S.AN-Q/stand
Which house is he in?

Other adverbial interrogatives conform to the same syntax.

Tràì
ATTR/be.what
dlréd
ATTR/time
trúb
festival
srĕhrŏ?
Q/stand
When is the festival?

Complex Sentences

Clause Coordination

Coordinating conjunctions such as o, "and," e, "or," and q’e, "but" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot used to link noun phrases within a clause.

Gi
DEF.AN
rréb
boy
mríd
be.brave
o
and
gi
DEF.AN
nògh
girl
nà.
be.wise
The boy is brave and the girl is wise.
ocean
hĕcró,
PRS-be.calm
q’e
but
rrĕfŭ
storm
tĕt’ac'ĭ.
NFUT-come.to.1
The sea is calm [now], but soon a storm will come.

Coordination and Conjunction of Noun Phrases

For all non-subject noun phrases, coordination is accomplished through the use of the conjunction ne, "and, with".

Nyanyè
1S.see
ĕkă
elephant
ne
and
hnrâ.
tiger
I see an elephant and a tiger.

This conjunction is not used with sentence subjects; instead, the preposition fa, "together with" is used, immediately following with the subject noun phrase.

Gi
DEF.AN
ewe
fa
together.with
gi
DEF.AN
hlyíg
sow
nyé
scream
ú.
ATTR/be.bad
The ewe and the sow scream terribly.

"Or" relating to noun phrases is expressed using the preposition rro. This particle may be used to mark both oblique participants and subjects.

Modracáb
2S-POT-take
p’imò
SGV-apple
rro
or
p’ihnàì.
SGV-pear
You may have an apple or a pear.
Jihyedradígh
3S.AN-PST-POT-kill
su
this
dré
bird
ĕrà
fox
rro
or
srég.
wolf
It may have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

"But" is not distinguished from "and" when coordinating noun phrases, and fa (along with the negative particle, if necessary) is used to express both meanings.

Sequential Events

Closely related sequences of events sharing the same subject may be coordinated using the conjunction to. When transitive verbs are coordinated in this manner, only the first is marked with a clitic pronoun.

Nyahĕcridlok’áí
1S-PRS-IMP-go.from.1
to
and
c’ĭ
come.to.1
ĕtò.
house
I must leave you now and go [to my] home.

In many cases, verbs coordinated as sequential events may be interpreted as statements of cause and effect.

Jirrĕfáma
3S.AN-drop-PFV
to
and
break
ràì.
vase
He/she dripped the vase, breaking it.

In any event, it is always possible to express sequential events by dividing them into separate clauses coordinated with the conjunction o. This typically serves to indicate that the events or actions described are unrelated, but it can also serve to break up a complex sequence of related verb in order to make them easier to parse.

Nyahĕcridlok’áí
1S-PRS-IMP-go.from.2
o
and
nyadloc’ĭ
1S-IMP-come.to.1
ĕtò.
house
I must leave you now, and I must go [to my] home.

Exceptional Case Marking

Exceptional case marking or "ECM" in Rrób Tè-Jĕhnò (named for a syntactically similar type of construction in English, despite the lack of morphological case marking) is a type of subordination in which the object of the main verb in a clause acts as the subject of a subordinated verb phrase. These constructions follow the formula VP1 NP2 VP2 (NP3) NP1, in which NP1 is the subject noun phrase of the first verb phrase (VP1), NP2 is the object of VP1 and the subject of VP2, and NP3 is the object of VP2 when the verb in VP2 is transitive. NP2 is always a noun or free pronoun, and the verb in VP2 never takes a clitic pronoun, even if transitive.

The first verb phrase of an ECM construction must be transitive, while the second verb in the construction may be transitive or intransitive, but cannot be marked for the passive voice. Despite these restrictions, ECM constructions are used in marking numerous grammatical categories in Rrób Tè-Jĕhnò, including certain kinds of modality, causation, comparison, and reported speech.

Relative Clauses

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò introduces relative clauses through the use of a relativizer particle agreeing with the animacy of the noun modified by the clause. The relativizer hmo is used with animate nouns, while bĕp’o is used with inanimate nouns.

Modality

In Rrób Tè Jĕhnò, the commissive, imperative, optative, and volitional mood affixes indicate the intentions, needs, hopes, and desires of the subject of a clause. In order to express other types of modality, the corresponding full verbs must be used in an ECM construction.

Nyanyèg
1S-wish
2S
jàì.
go.from.one
I wish that you would leave.
3S.AN-want
nyâ
1S
tĕt’ág
NFUT-return
dă.
mother
Mother wants me to return soon.

Requests and Orders

Direct orders and instructions may be expressed using a bare verb stem.

Jàì!
go.from.1
Leave!

This, however, is usually considered brusque and impolite, and is generally used only when the urgency of the situation or the heightened emotional state of the speaker prohibit a more complex construction. When issuing instructions to social subordinates, the imperative mood affix is usually used with a second person subject.

Modlojàì.
2S-IMP-go.from.1
Leave. (lit. "You must leave.")

When the speaker wishes to use a more deferential tone while still expressing authority, an ECM construction using the verb , "intend," may be used.

Nyaré
1S-intend
2S
jàì.
go.from.one
I expect you to leave.

Requests are normally constructed using the verb , "request."

Nyagă
1S-request
2S
jàì.
go.from.one
Please leave.

Using the verb á, "want," is generally considered more forceful and less polite, and is typically only used when speaking to friends or family members. Conversely, the verb nyèg, "wish," is often used when speaking to a social superior, being considered more deferential than a direct request.

Temporal Reference

While Rrób Tè Jĕhnò verbs may be morphologically marked for tense, verb phrases may be assigned more specific time frames through the use of the preposition fe and a temporal noun. Note that the verb is not marked for tense in these constructions.

nyalyĭmo
1S-pull-PFV
gi
DEF.AN
ewe
fe
during
lyàìma.
morning
I milked the ewe in the morning/I milked the ewe this morning.

The attributive verbs yàì "be next" and ĕrĕ, "be previous" may follow the temporal noun to specify its relationship with the present time.

nyalyĭxegh
1S-pull-CPL
gi
DEF.AN
ewe
fe
during
lyàìma
morning
yàì.
ATTR/be.next
I will have milked the ewe [by] next morning.

In order to refer to specific times further from the present, ordinal numerals are used in addition to these attributives.

nyalyĭ
1S-pull
gi
DEF.AN
ewe
fe
during
hsŏ
second
plŭ
day
yàì.
ATTR/be.next
I'll be milking the ewe two days from now.

Indefinite time references simply use the indefinite quantifier c’ĕ, "any."

Modohíb
2S-INC-realize
CNSTR/idea
nyǎ
1S
fe
during
c’ĕ
any
plŭ.
day
Someday you will begin to understand what I mean.

Temporal references describing the duration of an event are instead marked with the preposition fau.

Jiq’àìmo
3S.AN-stay-PFV
sro
at
fi
DEF.IN
CNSTR/guts
pád
village
fau
for
dlyă
six
plŭ
day
nè.
nomadic.band
The nomadic band stayed in the village for six days.

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò are coordinated with the verb phrases they modify using conjunctions consisting of a nominalizing construct state noun prefixed with a fused grammatical particle.

Reason

Adverbial clauses describing an agent's reason or motivation for performing an action or being in a state are generally expressed using the conjunction baizí, corresponding to the English "because."

Jibè
3S.AN-like
gi
DEF.AN
nògh
girl
baizí
because
jingù
3S.AN-be.kind
every
cè.
person
Everybody likes the girl because she is kind.

In order to express that an action is motivated by a specific past event, the conjunction baiyŭ may be used instead, which might be roughly translated as "because of the fact that..."

Hairrĕzríhma
1PL-attack-PFV
3PL.AN
baiyŭ
because
qihyegĕnìxegh
3PL.AN-PST-steal-TCPL
nyehlyíg
PL-CNSTR/sow
háí.
1PL
We attacked them because they had stolen our pigs.

Just as a nominalized clause behaves syntactically as a noun phrase, a simple noun phrase may serve a function similar to a reason clause.

Haibáí
1PL-go.from.3
fi
DEF.IN
lyég
deciduous.forest
baizí
because
hnră.
tiger
We left the forest because of a tiger.

Reason clauses are frequently topic-fronted (see topicalization, below).

Purpose

A clause describing the purpose of an action is typically coordinated with the conjunction lozí, corresponding roughly to the English phrase "in order to..."

Haisrolŏ
1PL-PROG-come.to.3
pád
village
jéd
CNSTR/embrace
ocean
lozí
to
Haiq’épĕgh
1PL-trade
có.
thing
We are going to the village by the ocean in order to trade things.

In order to express that an action contributes toward a larger, more complex task or goal the conjunction lomògh may be used instead, translating roughly as "to help in..."

Drĕmo
make-PFV
su
this
tool
dre
by
father
lomògh
to.help
jizó
3S.AN-cut
gáú.
bead
This tool was made by [my] father to help him carve beads.

As with reasons, purposes may be expressed using noun phrases rather than whole clauses.

Nyasĕrrĕtá
1S-add
hmàd
egg
lozí
for
ĕdlĕdrĕ.
stickiness
I add egg[s] for stickiness.
Result

Clauses describing the results of an action or event may be coordinated with rrizéb if the result is an immediate reaction, or grarégh if the result develops gradually over time.

Nyawé
1S-lose
fi
DEF.IN
digging.stick
sro
at
fi
DEF.AN
CNSTR/guts
hsà,
coniferous.forest
rrizéb
so
mother
hyelocéd.
PST-INC-be.angry
I lost the digging stick in the forest, so [my] mother became angry.
Nyegrég
PL-woman
ĕhfĕhfú,
ITER/complain(intr.)
grarégh
so
nyecó
PL-man
hwŏ
stand.up
to
and
báí
go.from.3
qĭ.
3PL.AN
The women complained and complained, so the men got up and walked away from them.
Manner Subclauses

Subclauses describing the manner in which an action is carried out or an event takes place are coordinated with the conjunction febĭ.

nyĕqóxegh
1S-cook-CPL
fi
DEF.IN
khúb
meal
febĭ
as
mohmàù
2S-instruct
nyâ.
1S
I have cooked the meal the way you instructed me to.
Temporal Subclauses

Temporal subclauses are introduced using the same prepositions as temporal reference noun phrases, in conjunction with the nominalizer zéb, "event of..."

Jiloyágh
3S.AN-INC-be.happy
fe
during
zéb
CNSTR/event
jĕsrí
3S.AN-slay
gi
DEF.AN
hnră
tiger
Zrà
Zrà
dă.
mother
Zrà's mother became happy when he slew the tiger.

Topicalization

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò permits topic fronting as a method of drawing attention to new topic of discussion or emphasizing the role of a particular element of the cause. The topicalized element is simply moved to the beginning of the sentence, while the order of the other constituents remains unchanged. In practice, only oblique noun phrases and nominalized clauses are regularly fronted, while differences in dynamic stress and relative intonation are more commonly used to place emphasis on one of the core arguments of a predicate.

Heavy Constituent Shift

Complex relativized and nominalized clauses may be shifted in order to make a sentence easier to parse. The subordinate clause is moved to the end of the sentence, and a pronoun fills its normal position in the main clause. In the case of a nominalized clause, the collective inanimate personal pronoun is used. In the case of a relative clause, the referent of the clause is moved as well and a personal pronoun agreeing with the number and animacy of the referent is used in its place.

Derivation

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò has a rich inventory of derivational morphemes and processes. In many cases, more than one productive method exists for deriving a particular meaning from an existing word, as speakers of the language have supplemented their native systems of derivation with affixes borrowed from the Wendoth languages.

Note that derivational suffixes in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò gain a rising pitch accent following accented short vowels in open syllables, causing the formerly accented vowel to reduce to ĕ.

Nouns

Diminuitives are regularly formed from nouns in one of two ways. The first is onset retroflexion, characterized by the following processes:

  • Initial non-retroflex affricates and dental stops become retroflex affricates
  • Initial velar stops become retroflex stops (in some lexicalized diminutive nouns, these have shifted to retroflex affricates instead)
  • Initial uvular stops shift to gr
  • Initial labial obstruents are followed by the infix ‹r
  • Initial h shifts to hr
  • Initial central fricatives other than f and h become retroflex sibilants
  • Initial lateral fricatives become retroflex
  • Initial approximants are replaced with ĕrr

Diminuitives are typically used to refer to young members of an animal species, and as terms of endearment or mockery.

hlyíg "sow" → hlríg "piglet"

t’ă "grandmother" → cr’ă "little grandmother" (term of endearment)

"man" → cró "little man" (pejorative)


The second method for forming diminutives, typically used with noun stems beginning in nasals or retroflex consonants, or when the former method would introduce unwated ambiguity, uses the suffix -wi. This is reduced to -i following stems ending in a stop, with the following effects on the coda:

  • Final b and gh remain unchanged
  • Final d becomes dr
  • Final g becomes b

"deer" → mùwi "fawn"

ĕcrég "wanderer" → ĕcrĕbĭ "planet (astronomical)" (literally "little wanderer")


Augmentatives are formed from nouns using the prefix rrĕ-, rr- before an initial vowel. They are more typically used to indicate authority, importance, or strength, rather than mere physical size.

hnyè "family, clan" → rrĕhnyè "royal or chiefly family"

ĕtr’úg "priestess, sage" → rrĕtr’úg "high priestess"


Agent nouns may be formed from verb stems in one of two ways, both of which produce a noun describing a referent who habitually performs the action described by an active verb or is consistently characterized by a stative verb. The first method is to shift any initial dental, palatal, or velar consonants to their retroflex counterparts and apply the prefix ĕ-. With verb stems beginning in a vowel, the prefix ĕrr- is used instead.

cég "go nowhere in particular, wander" → ĕcrég "wanderer"

dróg "go hunting, be a hunter" → ĕdróg "hunter"


The second method uses the suffix -nu. If the verb stem has a final stop it deletes and the suffix becomes -hnu.

ĕjí "be afraid" → ĕjínu "coward"

ĕwáígh "complain, gripe" → ĕwĕhnŭ "whiner"


Many agent nouns have been conventionalized over time, most often using the former of these two processes. However, the use of the suffix is generally more productive with verbs lacking an established agent noun.


Nouns for products or results of verbs may be formed using the suffix -id, -hid after a vowel. Note that many verbs have lexicalized result nouns which may be used instead of or in addition to nouns formed with -(h)id.

"jump, leap (verb)" → bíhid "jump, leap (noun)"


Instrumental nouns may be formed from verbs through consonant mutation and/or the use of a prefix, depending on the form of the verb stem. The resulting noun refers to a physical tool or ingredient used in performing the action described by a modified active noun, or to an object characterized by the quality described by a modified stative noun.

  • Stem-initial plain stops, affricates, and fricatives (except for h) become aspirated and take the prefix ĕ-
  • Initial voiced nasals become voiceless and likewise take the prefix ĕ-
  • Before aspirated and ejective stops and affricates, the prefix ĕSĕ- is used, where S represents a plain stop or affricate homorganic with the onset (ĕdĕ- is used before both dental and retroflex stops).
  • Before aspirated fricatives and voiceless nasals, the prefix ĕ- is used on its own
  • Initial h is replaced with ĕk
  • Initial voiced liquids (including r and any lateral approximant or voiced trill) other than ly are replaced with ĕdr
  • Initial w is replaced with ĕb, and initial y and ly with ĕj
  • Initial hr is replaced with ĕtr
  • The prefix ĕj- is used with verb stems beginning in i or e
  • The prefix ĕg- is used with verb stems beginning in any other vowel

Note that the result of this process is typically identical to the attributive form of the modified verb, save for the addition of ĕ-.

dlyĭ "mold (from clay)" → ĕhlyĭ "mold, form (noun)"

"cut" → ĕcó "knife, cutting tool"


Alternatively, the suffix -wa may be used, which interacts with coda stops in the same manner as -wi.

hnè "fill" → hnèwa "funnel"

Verbs

Antipassives may be formed from transitive verbs using the prefix -, which is reduced to n- before vowels. This has the effect of reducing the valency of the verb, such that it behaves in all ways as an intransitive verb. A similar meaning may also be expressed by using a noun representing the result or product of a transitive verb as the object of that verb.

mother
nĕfàù
AP-sing
mother sings
jĭfàù
3S.AN-sing
sràù
song
mother
mother sings [a song]


Verbs of opposite effect may be formed using the infix ‹ĕzr›, which also triggers the palatalization of some onset consonants.

  • Initial dental stops become dental affricates
  • Initial velar stops become alveolo-palatal affricates
  • Initial velar and coronal nasals and laterals become the corresponding palatal consonants
  • Initial velar and coronal fricatives become x
  • The prefix zr- is used with verb stems beginning in a vowel

The derived term has the same valency as the original verb, and expresses either an antonym of the unmodified verb or the reversal of the action described thereby.

ĕrŭ "bless" → ĕrĕzrŭ "curse"

dlŭ "tie, bind" → dlyĕzrŭ "loosen, untie"


Adjective-like verbs may be formed from nouns using the prefix -, which causes initial dental, palatal, and velar consonants to shift to the retroflex place of articulation. Before nouns beginning in a vowel, the prefix becomes nr-. The result is a stative verb describing the condition of resembling or being similar to the modified noun. The precise nature of this similarity tends to be fairly idiosyncratic to the particular noun modified.

dlúd "sand" → nĕdlrúd "be granular"

hlyó "slime" → nĕhlró "be slimy"

k’íb "chalk, white color" → nĕtr’íb "be pale, whitish"

ĕré "circle" → nrĕré "be round, be circular"

Compounding

Several types of compound are regularly formed in Rrób Tè Jĕhnò, though all obey the same basic phonological rules. When a word with a final stop is compounded before a word beginning in a consonant, the resulting cluster is generally resolved according to the following patterns:

  • Final stops elide before voiceless nasals and aspirated fricatives
  • Final stops assimilate to the place of articulation of a following aspirated or ejective stop, and an epenthetic schwa is inserted between the two consonants
  • Final stops elide before plain stops, affricates, and fricatives and voiced nasals, causing the following consonant to undergo fortition to an aspirated stop or fricative or a voiceless nasal
  • Before a voiced liquid other than ly, final stops undergo retroflection, as in diminutive formation
  • Before hr, final stops are retroflexed and aspirated
  • Clusters with w and hw are resolved as with the diminutive suffix -wi, becoming aspirated before the latter
  • Final stops are platalized before y and hy, as in the formation of verbs of opposite effect, becoming aspirated before the latter, after which the approximant is elided

The accent normally falls on the final syllable of a compound unless the first element of the compound ends in an open syllable with a long vowel, in which case the syllable with the long vowel is accented. Vowels in atonic syllables are reduced, becoming ĕ, unless in the final syllable of the compound.

Nominal compounds fall into three basic categories:

  • Compounds consisting of a noun in the construct state followed by a noun in the absolute state are generally similar in meaning to a noun phrase containing the two nouns.
  • Compounds consisting of two nouns in the absolute state typically represent something that is characterized by both component nouns, with neither being the clear "head".
  • Compounds consisting of a noun in the construct state followed by verb refer to an instance of the noun characterized by the verb. This type of compound has limited productivity, being used almost exclusively with intransitive verbs, particularly stative verbs.

Verbal compounds are less common than nominal compounds, and less regular in terms of their semantics.

Sample Text

The following is a formalized version of a traditional story told in communities all along Tuysáfa's northwest coast. The setting for the story is Grĕpàì, a country of high mountains and primeval forests that is the home of the "First People" (RTJ. Hmèg Tè), the mythical ancestors of the Northwest Tuysáfan languge speakers. In the mythology of the Tè Jĕnhò the First People are said to have lived in intimate contact with the , spiritual beings that inhabit and lend animacy to the various creatures and natural forces of the world. The greatest of the terrestrial is Wég, the animating spirit of the land itself, though even Wég is ultimately subservient to the sky goddess , the primary deity of Tè Jĕhnò religion.

Text

Ká hyeyég, o dosrŏ rĕ vób gréd grĕhnò. Xe hmèd ngè sro gráb já. Ngàxegh ghŭ lyàì Hmèg Tè, o xe qit’úg cí bĭ qirrĕfĭ jéd. Qitĕră to ĕzríb rrú.

Jisrŏ fá hmo jinòd Wég Mòg. Jisĕwŏ p’ihsà to nyè wí jéd gŭ, o jibáí tràì lozí jilĕdlré gi wí. Fe zéb jibáí ró jĭ to ág, jikh’ád ĕdŏ Mòg, p’izĕkhă mè bĕp’o jisĕdŏ ĕdŏ lye rrĕgré jáí bĕp’o qijáí ĕdŏ gi tè. Qilŏ to sĕdŏ cé drú ne dĕt’ă lye fi rrí p’izĕkhă fá hngàì, ngĕnge zéb jihnè jáí wí o qidĕzráhwe gi tè. Qinĕdágh to lá to nĕfàù to nĕzú ce gi rrí jéd Hmèg Tè.

Jihyelŏ rĕ jáí Hnră, to rrilŏ jĭ yé mù ĕwŏ hmo jirrimà jĭ. Jisĕdŏ gi mù lye fi rĕ khă lozí jĕqó jĭ Hnră, q’e dohmô gi jéd to xe dígh ghŭ jĭ fi tr’éd. Fi jáí hyelodĕzrá, o jihmô zĕ jĕ vób. Qidĕzrá dŭ rrizéb nèd dlă cè hmo qihngáú gŭ gi wí jéd, o xe qidradáí mò sáí. Gi nyecè ĕjí o qimê nyecè mò qĭ to rrilŏ jĭ qĭ, grarégh tr’ĕ gi tè o qilosrŏ nyĕnyĕzĭ mè. Qidodáí sáí hngàì zĕ zĭ, o fe bĭ fi céb tr’ĕ rrób Hmég Tè o jilosrŏ nyĕnyesób hmo haihĕcrúb qĭ.

Gloss

Goddess
hyeyég,
PST-sleep
o
and
dosrŏ
3COL.IN-stand
CNSTR/guts
vób
darkness
gréd
entire
grĕhnò.
world
The Goddess slept, and all the world was in darkness.
Xe
NEG
hmèd
star
ngè
shine
sro
at
gráb
CNSTR/skin
já.
sky
No stars shone in the sky.
Ngàxegh
give.birth-TCOMP
ghŭ
barely
lyàì
ATTR/be.new
Hmèg
First
Tè,
People
o
and
xe
NEG
qit’úg
3PL.AN-know
already
CNSTR/manner
qirrĕfĭ
3PL.AN-ignite
jéd.
fire
The First People were newly born, and they did not yet know how to make a fire.
Qitĕră
3PL.AN-shiver
to
and
ĕzríb
complain.about
rrú.
cold
They shivered and complained that they were cold.


Jisrŏ
3S.AN-stand
hmo
REL.AN
jinòd
3S.AN-serve
Wég
Wég
Mòg.
Squirrel
Squirrel was one of the fá who served Wég.
Jisĕwŏ
3S.AN-go.up
p’ihsà
SGV-coniferous.tree
to
and
nyè
see
CNSTR/light
jéd
fire
gŭ,
ATTR/be.distant
o
and
jibáí
3S.AN-go.from.3
tràì
ATTR/be.quick
lozí
to
jilĕdlré
3S.AN-examine
gi
DEF.AN
wí.
light
He climbed a tree and saw the light of a distant fire, and hurried away to investigate the light.
Fe
during
zéb
CNSTR/event
jibáí
3S.AN-go.from.3
CNSTR/task
3S
to
and
ág,
return
jikh’ád
3S.AN-carry
ĕdŏ
3SGV.IN
Mòg,
Squirrel
p’izĕkhă
SGV-coal
ATTR/be.small
bĕp’o
REL.IN
jisĕdŏ
3S-put
ĕdŏ
3SGV.IN
lye
on
rrĕgré
CNSTR/middle
jáí
dwelling
bĕp’o
REL.IN
qijáí
3PL.AN-dwell.in
ĕdŏ
3SGV.IN
gi
DEF.AN
tè.
people
When he returned from his quest, Squirrel carried a single small coal, which he placed in the center of the shelter where the people lived.
Qilŏ
3P-come.to.3
to
and
sĕdŏ
put
grass
drú
ATTR/be.dry
ne
and
dĕt’ă
firewood
lye
on
fi
DEF.IN
rrí
CNSTR/waist
p’izĕkhă
SGV-coal
hngàì,
ATTR/be.different
Other fá came and added dry grass and firewood,
ngĕnge
until
zéb
CNSTR/event
jihnè
3S.AN-fill
jáí
dwelling
light
qidĕzráhwe
3PL.AN-feel.cold-CESS
gi
DEF.AN
tè.
people
until the shelter was filled with light and the people were no longer cold.
Qinĕdágh
3PL-chat(INTR)
to
and
laugh
to
and
nĕfàù
sing(INTR)
to
fire
nĕzú
dance(INTR)
ce
around
gi
DEF.AN
rrí
CNSTR/waist
jéd
fire
Hmèg
first
Tè.
people
The First People talked and laughed and sang and danced around the fire.


Jihyelŏ
3S.AN-PST-come.to.3
CNSTR/guts
jáí
dwelling
Hnră,
Tiger
to
and)
rrilŏ
CAUS-come.to.3
ATTR/pull
CNSTR/body
deer
ĕwŏ
ATTR/be.big
hmo
REL.AN
jidígh
3S.AN-kill
jĭ.
3S.AN
Then Tiger came in, dragging the body of a huge deer he had killed.
Jisĕdŏ
3S.AN-put
gi
DEF.AN
deer
lye
on
fi
DEF.IN)
CNSTR/guts
khă
hearth
lozí
to
jĕqó
3S.AN-cook
3S.AN
Hnră,
Tiger
q’e
but
dohmô
3SGV.IN-cover
gi
DEF.AN
jéd
fire
to
and
xe
NEG
dígh
extinguish
ghŭ
barely
3S.AN
fi
DEF.IN
tr’éd.
meat
He put the deer in the hearth to cook it, but the meat ended up covering the fire and almost putting it out.
Fi
DEF.IN
jáí
dwelling
hyelodĕzrá,
PST-INC-be.cold
o
and
jihmô
3S.AN-cover
every
eye
vób.
darkness
The shelter became cold, and it was too dark to see.
Qidĕzrá
3PL.AN-feel.cold
really
rrizéb
so
nèd
teeth
dlă
rattle
person
hmo
REL.AN
qihngáú
3PL.AN-sit
ATTR/be.far
gi
DEF.AN
CNSTR/air
jéd,
fire
o
and
xe
NEG
qidradáí
3PL.AN-POT-say
ATTR/be.good
sáí.
word[s]
The people far from the fire were so cold that their teeth chattered and they could not speak well.
Gi
DEF.AN
nyecè
PL-person
ĕjí
be.afraid
o
and
qimê
3PL.AN-hold
nyecè
PL-person
CNSTR/hand
3PL.AN
to
and
rrilŏ
CAUS-come.to.3
ATTR/pull
qĭ,
3PL.AN
The people were frightened and took ahold of those within arm’s reach, pulling them close,
grarégh
so
tr’ĕ
divide
gi
the
people
o
and
qilosrŏ
3S.AN-INC-stand
nyĕnyĕzĭ
many-group
mè.
ATTR/be.small
and so they became divided into many small groups.
Qidodáí
3PL.AN-INC-say
sáí
word[s]
hngàì
ATTR/be.different
every
zĭ,
group
Each group began to speak differently from the others,
o
and
febĭ
as
fi
DEF.IN
céb
event
tr’ĕ
divide
rrób
CNSTR/tongue
Hmég
first
people
o
and
jilosrŏ
3S.AN-INC-stand
nyĕnyesób
many-tongue
hmo
REL.AN
haihĕcrúb
1PL-PRS-hear
qĭ.
3S.AN
and in this way the tongue of the First People became divided into the many tongues that we hear today.

Lexicon

Rrób Tè Jĕhnò Lexicon