Ndok Aisô/Sound changes

Ndak Ta to Pre-Ndok (c. -1000 YP)

1. Final syllabic nasals as in mabm "mouth" are dropped. Word-medially, [bm dn ɡŋ] become geminate nasals [mm nn ŋŋ], and [pm tn tsn kŋ] become geminate voiceless stops [pp tt tts kk].
2. All vowels should henceforth be treated as phonemically nasalized before [m n ŋ ŋʷ], with occasional exceptions such as omo "mother" [o.mo] and likewise its derivative Latsomo. Nasal vowels were laxed in Ndak Ta, and the dialect that gave rise to Ndok Aisô had this feature, but it apparently lacked the rule that /a e i ai au/ were laxed in closed syllables.
3. Non-nasalized [a] raises to [æ], and [e] raises to [æj], before non-final [kʷ k ɡ].
4. Remaining [a] merges with [o] into [ɒ], and [ai au] merge to [ɒj]. Nasal vowels, and any vowels before [r], are unaffected. Any [au] followed by a vowel is treated as /a.wV/, with the [w] becoming an intervocalic consonant: Sau Ibli "Huyfárah" → *sɒwibli (later sagibleu).
5. Non-initial [m n ŋ] (exceptions follow) merge with [b d ɡ] and [ŋʷ] becomes [ɡʷ], but preceding vowels remain nasalized. [mb mbʷ nd ŋɡ] become geminate voiced stops [bb bbʷ dd ɡɡ]. But geminate nasals as in ammi "fly" simplify to single nasals without undergoing fortition to plosives. A preceding [r] blocks denasalization, perhaps via assimilation to a geminate nasal (mpurnim → *mpunnim → *mpunĩb). Word-medial nasals usually also fail to denasalize if the preceding syllable begins with a nasal or a plosive at the same place of articulation (ndenam → *ndẽnãb). [mp nt nʦ ŋk ŋkʷ] remain unaffected too.
6. Sporadically, there is a tendency for initial CV syllables to switch to VC, as in Latsomo → *ɒlʦɒbɒ, or Tsinakan → *ĩtsdækãd. This is occasionally attested with medial syllables, as in Ngkeladadn → *ŋkeɒldɒd.
7. Various cluster changes and simplifications:
   • [dɡ] → [ɡ]
   • [pt pts] → [ps]
   • [kt kts] → [ks]
   • [tp tk] → [sp sk]
   • [sm sr] → [sb sd] → [sp st]
   • [kp pk] → [kkʷ]
8. Around this time, stress shifts to the final syllable if it is closed, otherwise to the penultimate.
9. Vowel hiatus is broken up with an epenthetic glottal stop: *ŋkeɒldɒd → *ŋkeʔɒldɒd (this is a continuing synchronic phonological rule in the language).
10. Intervocalic [k ɡ ŋ] become [χ].
11. Voiceless geminates are simplified to single consonants.

The break between these two sections coincides with the period of major borrowing from Meshi.

Pre-Ndok to Ndok Aisô (c. 250 YP)

Southern dialect (Ngahêxôldod)

12. Common Ndok vowel developments:
    • [ɒ] breaks to [əw] in open syllables, except where this would create two pretonic [əw] syllables in a row. In stressed (that is, final) closed syllables, [ɒ] becomes [o], and in unstressed closed syllables it becomes a lax rounded phoneme reflected as [ɞ] in the modern dialect. Any [əww] simplifies to [əw], and thence to [aw]: mbwawe "push" → *mbwɒwe → *mbwawe (later nggage).
    • [æ] raises to [e], but if there is already an [e] in the next syllable, it becomes [a]. [æj] always becomes [aj].
13. Denasalization of nasal vowels:
    • [ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ãi ãu] → [a ɛ ɛ o u aj aw].
14. Restructuring and loss of labiovelars:
    • [bʷ] backs to [ɡʷ] (and [mbʷ] to [ŋɡʷ]).
    • Intervocalic [w] fortifies to [ɡʷ].
    • Labiovelars become plain velars: [kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] → [k ɡ ŋ].
    • Postconsonantal [w] becomes syllabic, eventually ending up as [ɞʔ]: *mpɒiswəw "fish" → *mpɒisɞʔəw.
15. Consonant aspiration:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ] shift to new fortis phonemes written p' t' k' and pronounced as aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ].
    • Aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ] become plain stops [p t k] when an adjacent stressed syllable also contains an aspirated stop.
16. Spirantization:
    • Non-initial [mp nt nʦ ŋk] become [f s s χ].
17. Debuccalization:
    • [r] becomes [ʔ] between vowels and word-finally, and is deleted entirely in non-final coda position.
18. Haplology:
    • When two consecutive syllables both begin with an intervocalic glottal stop [ʔ], the less accented one of these syllables is reduced to the offglide of a diphthong if possible, or else deleted entirely.
19. Vowel changes:
    • [əw ɒj] shift to [ɛw ɔj].
    • [e] is lowered to [ɛ] after [χ] (and sporadically before [χ]).
    • Word-final [i u] diphthongize to [iə uə], and later merge into [ɛw ɔj]. This change is blocked in monosyllabic words.
    • [ɛ] centralizes to [ɜ].
    • Any unstressed word-initial [o ɞ wo] become [wɞ].
20. Further consonant changes:
    • Intervocalic voiced stops lenite to fricatives: [b d ɡ] → [β ð ɣ].
    • Word-final [t] and [d] weaken to [ʔ]. Other final plosives tend to be unreleased.
    • [χ] becomes [h].

Other dialects

Central dialect (Oigop'oibauxeu)

12. Common Ndok vowel developments:
    • [ɒ] breaks to [əw] in open syllables, except where this would create two pretonic [əw] syllables in a row. In stressed (that is, final) closed syllables it becomes [o], and in unstressed closed syllables it becomes a lax rounded phoneme [ɞ]. Any [əww] simplifies to [əw], and thence to [aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • [æ] raises to [e], but if there is already an [e] in the next syllable, it becomes [a]. [æj] always becomes [aj]. (Shared with Northern & Southern, partly shared with all other dialects.)
13. Nasal mutation:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ ɡɡʷ] become nasals [m n ŋ ŋʷ] between two nasalized vowels. (Shared with Western. This is effectively an exception to rule #5 above, which may indicate that Pre-Ndok exhibited some degree of fluctuation between prenasalized stops and voiced geminates for quite a long time.)
    • The liquids [r l] become [n] after a nasalized vowel, and also intervocalically before a nasalized vowel unless the vowel is followed by intervocalic [n]. (Shared with Northern.)
14. Denasalization of nasalized vowels:
    • [ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ãj ãw] → [a ɛ ɛ o u aj aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
15. Restructuring and loss of labiovelars:
    • [bʷ bw pw] are backed to [ɡʷ ɡʷ kʷ] (and [mbʷ mbw mpw] to [ŋɡʷ ŋɡʷ ŋkʷ]). (Shared with Northern & Eastern, partly shared with all other dialects.)
    • Intervocalically and after one of [r l], [w] fortifies to [ɡʷ]. (Shared with Northern, partly shared with all other dialects.)
    • [a ɛ əw] become [o ɞ ɔw] adjacent to a labiovelar consonant or [w]. (Shared with Northern.)
    • Labiovelars become plain velars: [kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] → [k ɡ ŋ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • Postconsonantal [w] is deleted. (Shared with Northern & Eastern.)
16. Consonant aspiration:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ] fortify to aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ]. (Shared with Western & Southern, and similar to all other dialects where the result is a glottalized series of ejectives instead.)
    • Clusters of a plosive followed by [r] merge with the respective aspirated stops. (Shared with Northern, where the resulting sounds are ejectives.)
    • Aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ] become plain stops [p t k] when an adjacent stressed syllable also contains an aspirated stop. (Shared with Western & Southern, and similar to dissimilative deglottalization in all other dialects.)
17. Sibilant lenition:
    • Intervocalic [s] becomes a voiced [z]. (Shared with Western.)
18. Spirantization:
    • Non-initial [mp nt nts ŋk] spirantize to [f s s χ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
19. Derhotacization:
    • Coda [r] merges into [l], except after a diphthong where it is deleted instead.
    • Intervocalic [r] is debuccalized to [ʔ]. (Shared with Northern, Southern & Eastern.)
20. Vowel changes:
    • [ɞ ɔw] shift to [ɔ aw]. (Shared with Northern.)
    • [əw ɒj] shift to [ɛw ɔj]. (Shared with Southern & Western.)
    • [e o] are lowered to [ɛ ɔ] when adjacent to [χ]. (Partly shared with all other dialects.)
    • Word-final [i u] are lowered to [ɪ ʊ], and thence to [ɛ ɔ]. This change is blocked in monosyllables. (Shared with Southern, where the resulting sounds are [ɛw ɔi].)
21. Further consonant changes:
    • [z] rhotacizes to [r].
    • Intervocalic voiced stops lenite to fricatives: [b d ɡ] → [β ð ɣ]. (Shared with Western, Southern & Eastern.)
    • Word-final plosives are unreleased. (Shared with Southern.)

Northern dialect (Bwimbai valley)

12. Common Ndok vowel developments:
    • [ɒ] breaks to [əw] in open syllables, except where this would create two pretonic [əw] syllables in a row. In stressed (that is, final) closed syllables it becomes [o], and in unstressed closed syllables it becomes a lax rounded phoneme [ɞ]. Any [əww] simplifies to [əw], and thence to [aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • [æ] raises to [e], but if there is already an [e] in the next syllable, it becomes [a]. [æj] always becomes [aj]. (Shared with Central & Southern, partly shared with all other dialects.)
13. Nasal mutation:
    • The liquids [r l] become [n] after a nasalized vowel, and also intervocalically before a nasalized vowel unless the vowel is followed by intervocalic [n]. (Shared with Central.)
    • [w] becomes [m] after a nasalized vowel, and also intervocalically before a nasalized vowel unless the vowel is followed by intervocalic [m].
14. Denasalization of nasalized vowels:
    • [ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ãj ãw] → [a ɛ ɛ o u aj aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
15. Restructuring and loss of labiovelars:
    • [bʷ bw pw dw tw] are backed to [ɡʷ ɡʷ kʷ ɡʷ kʷ] (and [mbʷ mbw mpw ndw ntw] to [ŋɡʷ ŋɡʷ ŋkʷ ŋɡʷ ŋkʷ]). (Partly shared with all other dialects.)
    • Intervocalically and after one of [r l], [w] fortifies to [ɡʷ]. (Shared with Central, partly shared with all other dialects.)
    • [a ɛ əw] become [o ɞ ɔw] adjacent to a labiovelar consonant or [w]. (Shared with Central.)
    • [mw nw ŋʷ] all become [m]. Any remaining postconsonantal [w] is deleted. (Shared with Eastern, partly shared with Central.)
    • Labiovelars become plain velars: [kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] → [k ɡ ŋ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
16. Consonant glottalization:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ] shift to a series of glottalized stops which are typically pronounced as ejectives [p’ t’ k’], but as implosives [ɓ ɖ ɠ] in the most remote upriver villages. (Shared with Eastern, and similar to all other dialects where the result is a series of aspirated stops instead.)
    • Clusters of a plosive followed by [r] merge with the respective glottalized stops. (Shared with Central, where the resulting sounds are aspirated stops.)
    • Ejective [p’ t’ k’] become plain stops [p t k] when an adjacent stressed syllable also contains an ejective. (Shared with Eastern, and similar to dissimilative deaspiration in all other dialects.)
17. Spirantization:
    • Non-initial [mp nt nts ŋk] spirantize to [f s s χ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
18. Debuccalization:
    • [r] becomes [ʔ] between vowels and word-finally, and is deleted entirely in non-final coda position. (Mostly shared with Central, Eastern & Southern.)
    • [χ] becomes a pharyngeal [ħ].
19. Vowel changes:
    • [ɛ ɞ] merge into a single [ə]. Along with this, [ɒj] shifts to [əj].
    • [ɔw] shifts to [aw]. (Shared with Central.)
    • [i e ə aj aw əj əw] become [ə a a a a e o] before [ħ], and [ə a a aj aw aj aw] after [ħ]. (Partly shared with Central, Western & Southern.)
    • Remaining [əj əw] are monophthongized to [i u] in closed syllables, in unstressed word-initial syllables, and before nasal consonants.

Eastern dialect (Lake Sôsauli)

12. Common Ndok vowel developments:
    • [ɒ] ] breaks to [əw] in open syllables, except where this would create two pretonic [əw] syllables in a row. In closed syllables it becomes [ɔ]. Any [əww] simplifies to [ɔw]. (Shared with all other dialects, except that there is no distinction between stressed and unstressed closed syllables, and that [əww] remains rounded.)
    • [æ æj] merge, becoming [aj] in open syllables and [ɛ] in closed syllables. (Partly shared with all other dialects.)
13. Nasal mutation:
    • [r] becomes [n] adjacent to a nasalized vowel. (Partly shared with Central & Northern.)
14. Denasalization of nasalized vowels:
    • [ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ãj ãw] → [a ɛ ɛ ɔ u ej ow]. (Shared with all other dialects, except that nasalized diphthongs are raised somewhat and thus do not merge with the diphthongs before NT *r.)
15. Vowel changes:
    • [əw ɒj] shift to [aw aj].
    • [o] merges into [ɔ].
    • Unstressed [e] becomes [ɛ] word-initially, and [ə] elsewhere.
16. Restructuring of labiovelars (Part 1):
    • [bʷ bw pw dw tw sw] are backed to [ɡʷ ɡʷ kʷ ɡʷ kʷ χʷ] (and [mbʷ mbw mpw ndw ntw] to [ŋɡʷ ŋɡʷ ŋkʷ ŋɡʷ ŋkʷ]). (Partly shared with the other dialects to varying degrees.)
    • [w] fortifies to [gʷ] after the liquids [l r]. (Shared with Central & Northern. However, unlike all other dialects, intervocalic [w] remains unchanged.)
17. Consonant glottalization:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ ɡɡʷ] shift to ejectives [p’ t’ k’ kʷ’]. (Shared with Northern, and similar to all other dialects where the result is a series of aspirated stops instead.)
18. Spirantization:
    • Non-initial [mp nt nts ŋk ŋkʷ] become [f s s χ χʷ]. (Shared with all other dialects, but apparently happens earlier.)
19. Restructuring and loss of labiovelars (Part 2):
    • The labiovelar plosives [kʷ ɡʷ ŋkʷ ŋɡʷ] become labials [p b mp mb] when followed by a front vowel, and plain velars [k ɡ ŋk ŋɡ] otherwise. The ejective [kʷ’] always becomes [k’], and the fricative [χʷ] always becomes [f]. (Where labialization is lost, the change is shared with all other dialects, but apparently happens later.)
    • [mw nw ŋʷ] all become [m]. Any remaining postconsonantal [w] is deleted. (Shared with Northern, partly shared with Central.)
20. Lenition of intervocalic voiced stops:
    • [b d ɡ] become [β ð ɣ] between vowels. (Shared with Central, Southern & Western, but apparently happens earlier.)
21. Cluster simplification and debuccalization of [r]:
    • [p t k] become voiced to [b d ɡ] adjacent to [r l]. The coronal clusters [dr dl] then dissimilate to [ɡr ɡl]. Plosives followed by a nasal are deleted.
    • [r] becomes [ʔ] between vowels, and is deleted entirely in coda position. (Shared with Central, Southern & Northern.)
    • Coda [ts] becomes [s].
22. Further consonant changes:
    • Ejective [p’ t’ k’] become plain stops [p t k] when an adjacent stressed syllable also contains an ejective. (Shared with Northern, and similar to dissimilative deaspiration in all other dialects.)
    • [χ] becomes [x].
    • [ŋ] shifts to [ɲ]. (However, [ŋ] remains before velar plosives, where it is now an allophone of /n/).
    • [x ɣ] merge when preceded by a diphthong, becoming [x] before stressed [i u], and zero otherwise, with the offglide of the diphthong becoming an intervocalic semivowel [j] or [w].
    • The voiced fricatives [β ð ɣ] shift to [v r j].
    • Intervocalic [j] tends to be deleted before unstressed front vowels, and intervocalic [w] tends to be deleted before unstressed back vowels, when the resulting vowel sequence can easily merge into one of the existing diphthongs [ej aj aw ow].
23. Further vowel changes:
    • [aj ej] become [e] when an adjacent stressed syllable contains a diphthong, and [aw ow] become [o] in the same environment.
    • [ej ow] become [e o] in closed syllables. Conversely, stressed [e] becomes [ej] in an open syllable.
    • [e o] are lowered to [ɛ ɔ] before voiceless consonants.

Western dialect (Middle Aiwa)

12. Exceptions to earlier sound changes:
    • Vowel hiatus is not resolved with a glottal stop (i.e. rule #9 is absent), but by inserting [j] after front vowels and [w] after back vowels.
    • Intervocalic [ŋ] from earlier geminate [ŋŋ] is preserved (i.e. rule #10 affects [k ɡ] only).
    • Voiceless geminates [pp tt kk kkʷ] are preserved (i.e. rule #11 is absent)
13. Common Ndok vowel developments:
    • [ɒ] breaks to [əw] in open syllables, except where this would create two pretonic [əw] syllables in a row. In stressed (that is, final) closed syllables it becomes [o], and in unstressed closed syllables it becomes a lax rounded phoneme [ɔ]. Any [əww] simplifies to [əw], and thence to [aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • [æ] raises to [ɛ], and [æj] becomes [aj]. (Shared with all other dialects, except that [æ] → [ɛ] happens without any exceptions here.)
14. Nasal mutation:
    • The voiced stops [b d ɡ ɡʷ] and their geminate counterparts [bb dd ɡɡ ɡɡʷ] become nasals [m n ŋ ŋʷ] (always singleton) between two nasalized vowels. (Partly shared with Central. This is effectively an exception to rule #5 above, which may indicate that Pre-Ndok exhibited some degree of fluctuation between nasals and voiced stops for quite a long time.)
15. Denasalization of nasalized vowels:
    • [ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ãj ãw] → [a ɛ ɛ o u aj aw]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
16. Restructuring and loss of labiovelars:
    • [bʷ] is backed to [ɡʷ] (and [mbʷ] to [ŋɡʷ]). (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • [ŋ ŋʷ] become [j w]. (However, [ŋ] remains before velar plosives, where it is now an allophone of /n/).
    • Intervocalic [w j] fortify to [ɡʷ z]. ([w] → [ɡʷ] shared with Southern, Central & Northern; [j] → [z] shared with Adāta.)
    • Labiovelars become plain velars: [kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] → [k ɡ ŋ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • Along with this, [w] is deleted after [p b r l]. (Partly shared with Central & Northern.)
    • Any remaining postconsonantal [w] becomes a syllabic [uw]. (Shared with Southern, where the result is [ɞʔ] instead.)
17. Consonant aspiration:
    • The geminate voiced stops [bb dd ɡɡ] fortify to aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ]. The rare voiceless geminates [pp tt kk] also become [pʰ tʰ kʰ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
    • [ts] merges into [tʰ] before a vowel, and into [t] in coda position.
    • Aspirated stops [pʰ tʰ kʰ] become plain stops [p t k] when an adjacent stressed syllable also contains an aspirated stop. (Shared with all other dialects.)
18. Sibilant lenition:
    • Intervocalic [s] merges with [z]. (Shared with Central.)
19. Spirantization:
    • Non-initial [mp nt ŋk] spirantize to [f s χ]. (Shared with all other dialects.)
20. Vowel changes:
    • [əw ɒj] shift to [ɛw ɔj]. (Shared with Central & Southern.)
    • [e] is lowered to [ɛ] when adjacent to [χ]. (Shared with Central & Northern, partly shared with Southern.)
    • [e ɛ ɔ] raise to [i e o].
    • [ji wu] dissimilate to [je wo].
21. Coda deletion and vowel lengthening:
    • All non-final coda consonants are deleted with compensatory lengthening of a preceding monophthongal vowel. (Shared with Adāta.)
    • The diphthongs [aw ɛw] become long monophthongs [aː eː] when the next syllable contains a rounded vowel, and [aj ɔj] similarly become [aː oː] when the next syllable contains a front vowel. [ɛw ɔj] also become [eː oː] when the following syllable contains a diphthong.
    • [oː] dissimilates to [aː] when the next syllable contains one of [u uː], and to [uː] when the next syllable contains one of [o oː a aː].
22. Further consonant changes:
    • Intervocalic voiced stops lenite: [b d ɡ] → [β ð ɣ]. (Shared with Central, Southern & Eastern.)
    • [χ] becomes [h]. (Shared with Southern.)

See also

• Ndak Ta
• Ndok Aisô