User:Pole, the/Newyear

Phonology

Consonants

	labial	alveolar	palatal	velar
plosive	pʰ · b ‹p b›	tʰ · d ‹t d›		kʰ · ɡ ‹k g›
fricative		s ‹s›	ɕ ‹sh›	x ‹h›
nasal	m ‹m›	n ‹n›
sonoric		l ‹l›	i̯ ‹i›	o̯ ‹o›

Notes:

• /sx/ is represented by ‹s'h›.
• /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ and /b d ɡ/ are distinguished only between vowels.
• In most dialects /s/ merges with /ɕ/ before /i/.

Vowels

	front	back
high	i ‹i›
mid		o · oi̯ ‹o oi›
low	a · ai̯ · ao̯ ‹a ai ao›

Notes:

• The stress fall on the second-to-last syllable in most cases, counting /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ as single vowels. Sometimes the last syllable is stressed and it is marked with an acute accent.
• Unstressed /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ can be simplified to [ɛ ɔ ɵ].
• Similarly, unstressed /aa ii oo/ and /i o/ + a vowel sequences tend to be realized as [a i o j w] in rapid speech. The two can combine, leading to i.e. /oao aio oiai/ [wɔ ɛjo ɵjɛ] &c.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns can be divided into three classes:

1. human animate;
2. neutral (non-human animate);
3. non-human inanimate.

These classes are distinguished by different endings in declension and in verbal agreement.

There are also three cases:

• Nominative — the unmarked form, intransitive subject and transitive agent;
• Accusative — transitive patient, the form used also with prepositions;
• Lative — a form used only with several prepositions to mark the recipient or destination place.

Declension

Nominative singular

• unmarked.

Accusative singular

• -has for human nouns
• -as for neutral and inanimate nouns

Lative singular

• -a for all nouns

Nominative and accusative plural

• -as for human and neutral nouns
• -las for inanimate nouns

Lative plural

• -Vta for human and neutral nouns
  • -ota after labials and velars, -ita after other consonants, -ta after vowels
• -Vlta for inanimate nouns
  • -olta after labials and velars, -ilta after other consonants, -lta after vowels

Notes:

• If a noun ends with an unstressed vowel, it is often deleted when an ending is added, e.g. kaihai → kaihas, but pigó → pigoas.
• In A. sg, NA. pl and L. pl: the final vowel is changed: a i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a a i o o.
• For several nouns, the final n changes to l when an ending is added. These are symbolized by the letter L.
• p t k become b d g in lative plural.

Declension examples

Human nouns

N. sg	idaoish farmer	kaosam madman	hanao spirit	saigáo friend
A. sg	idaoishhas	kaosamhas	hanhas	saigohas
L. sg	idaoisha	kaosama	hana	saigaoa
NA. pl	idaoishas	kaosamas	hanas	saigoas
L. pl	idaoishita	kaosamota	hanota	saigota

Neutral nouns

N. sg	sas beaver	amah bull	piao cat	shigí flea
A. sg	sasas	amahas	pias	shigaas
L. sg	sasa	amaha	pia	shigia
NA. pl	sasas	amahas	pias	shigaas
L. pl	sasita	amahota	piota	shigata

Inanimate nouns

N. sg	haan L foot	itkóp knowledge	kaigala money	pigó axe
A. sg	haalas	itkopas	kaigalas	pigaas
L. sg	haala	itkopa	kaigala	pigoa
NA. pl	haallas	itkoplas	kaigallas	pigalas
L. pl	haalilta	itkobolta	kaigalalta	pigalta

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The singular personal pronouns are as follows:

• tai, 1st person
• mon, 2nd person
• ho, 3rd person human
• koi, 3rd person neutral
• sam, 3rd person inanimate

The plural personal pronouns are as follows:

• tias, 1st person
• natas, 2nd person
• nas, 3rd person

Declension

N. sg	tai I	mon you	ho he/she	koi it	sam it
A. sg	tihas	monhas	has	kas	sas
L. sg	taida	mona	hoda	koida	samo
NA. pl	tias we	natas you	nas they
L. pl	tita	natta	nada

Correlative pronouns

The correlatives can be divided into:

• interrogative pronouns (human oho, non-human oai, plural olas);
• existential pronouns (human saho, non-human saai, plural salas);
• elective pronouns (human oishho, non-human oishai, plural oishlas);
• proximal demonstrative pronouns (human kis'ho, non-human kisai, plural kislas);
• distal demonstrative pronouns (human alho, non-human alai, plural allas);
• universal pronouns (human tamas, non-human tamlas);
• negative pronouns (human moas, non-human molas).

Declension

Interrogative and existential pronouns use a common pattern:

N. sg	oho who	oai what	saho somebody	saai something
A. sg	ohas	oas	sahas	saas
L. sg	ohta	ota	sahta	sata
NA. pl	olas		salas
L. pl	olta		salta

Elective and demonstrative pronouns have a slightly different paradigm:

N. sg	oishho anybody	oishai anything	kis'ho this person	kisai this thing	alho that person	alai that thing
A. sg	oishhas	oishas	kis'has	kisas	alhas	alas
L. sg	oishihta	oishita	kisihta	kisita	alihta	alita
NA. pl	oishlas		kislas		allas
L. pl	oishilta		kisilta		alilta

Universal and negative pronouns are inflected only in plural:

NA. pl	tamas everybody	tamlas everything	moas nobody	molas nothing
L. pl	tamota	tamolta	mota	molta

Verbs

Conjugation

Imperfective aspect

Singular human agent

• -am after k n and irregularly after vowels
• -im after other consonants
• -m regularly after vowels
  • preceding i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a i o o

Singular non-human agent

• -ai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• regularly no marking after vowels

Plural agent

• -os after labials and velars
• -as after other consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -s regularly after vowels

Participle

• -aish after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -sh regularly after vowels

Notes:

• Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
• Root-ending p t k are voiced to b d g when they become intervocalic.

Perfective aspect

Singular human agent

• -pim after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -obim after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
• -hpim regularly after vowels

Singular non-human agent

• -pai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -obai after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
• -hpai regularly after vowels

Plural agent

• -pos after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -obos after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
• -hpos regularly after vowels

Participle

• -op after consonants and irregularly after vowels
• -hop regularly after vowels

Notes:

• Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
• Single-consonant-final roots irregularly following the consonant cluster paradigm are marked CC.

Conjugation examples

	sidal- to exploit	tin- to live	noih- CC to threaten	sishai- C to try	siphái- to strike	oami- to know
sg h impf	sidalim	tinam	noihim	sishaiam	siphím	oamam
sg nh impf	sidalai	tinai	noihai	sishaiai	siphái	oami
pl impf	sidalas	tinas	noihos	sishaias	sipháis	oamis
pcp impf	sidalaish	tinaish	noihaish	sishaiaish	sipháish	oamish
sg h pf	sidalpim	tinpim	noihobim	sishaipim	siphaihpim	oamihpim
sg nh pf	sidalpai	tinpai	noihobai	sishaipai	siphaihpai	oamihpai
pl pf	sidalpos	tinpos	noihobos	sishaipos	siphaihpos	oamihpos
pcp pf	sidalop	tinop	noihop	sishaiop	siphaihop	oamihop