User:Pole, the/Newyear

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Phonology

Consonants

labial alveolar palatal velar
plosive pʰ · b
p b
tʰ · d
t d
kʰ · ɡ
k g
fricative s
s
ɕ
sh
x
h
nasal m
m
n
n
sonoric l
l

i

o

Notes:

  • /sx/ is represented by ‹s'h›.
  • /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ and /b d ɡ/ are distinguished only between vowels.
  • In most dialects /s/ merges with /ɕ/ before /i/.

Vowels

front back
high i
i
mid o · oi̯
o oi
low a · ai̯ · ao̯
a ai ao

Notes:

  • The stress fall on the second-to-last syllable in most cases, counting /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ as single vowels. Sometimes the last syllable is stressed and it is marked with an acute accent.
  • Unstressed /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ can be simplified to [ɛ ɔ ɵ].
  • Similarly, unstressed /aa ii oo/ and /i o/ + a vowel sequences tend to be realized as [a i o j w] in rapid speech. The two can combine, leading to i.e. /oao aio oiai/ [wɔ ɛjo ɵjɛ] &c.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns can be divided into three classes:

  1. human animate;
  2. neutral (non-human animate);
  3. non-human inanimate.

These classes are distinguished by different endings in declension and in verbal agreement.

There are also three cases:

  • Nominative — the unmarked form, intransitive subject and transitive agent;
  • Accusative — transitive patient, the form used also with prepositions;
  • Lative — a form used only with several prepositions to mark the recipient or destination place.

Declension

Nominative singular
  • unmarked.
Accusative singular
  • -has for human nouns
  • -as for neutral and inanimate nouns
Lative singular
  • -a for all nouns
Nominative and accusative plural
  • -as for human and neutral nouns
  • -las for inanimate nouns
Lative plural
  • -Vta for human and neutral nouns
    • -ota after labials and velars, -ita after other consonants, -ta after vowels
  • -Vlta for inanimate nouns
    • -olta after labials and velars, -ilta after other consonants, -lta after vowels

Notes:

  • If a noun ends with an unstressed vowel, it is often deleted when an ending is added, e.g. kaihaikaihas, but pigópigoas.
  • In A. sg, NA. pl and L. pl: the final vowel is changed: a i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a a i o o.
  • For several nouns, the final n changes to l when an ending is added. These are symbolized by the letter L.
  • p t k become b d g in lative plural.

Declension examples

Human nouns
N. sg idaoish
farmer
kaosam
madman
hanao
spirit
saigáo
friend
A. sg idaoishhas kaosamhas hanhas saigohas
L. sg idaoisha kaosama hana saigaoa
NA. pl idaoishas kaosamas hanas saigoas
L. pl idaoishita kaosamota hanota saigota
Neutral nouns
N. sg sas
beaver
amah
bull
piao
cat
shigí
flea
A. sg sasas amahas pias shigaas
L. sg sasa amaha pia shigia
NA. pl sasas amahas pias shigaas
L. pl sasita amahota piota shigata
Inanimate nouns
N. sg haan L
foot
itkóp
knowledge
kaigala
money
pigó
axe
A. sg haalas itkopas kaigalas pigaas
L. sg haala itkopa kaigala pigoa
NA. pl haallas itkoplas kaigallas pigalas
L. pl haalilta itkobolta kaigalalta pigalta

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The singular personal pronouns are as follows:

  • tai, 1st person
  • mon, 2nd person
  • ho, 3rd person human
  • koi, 3rd person neutral
  • sam, 3rd person inanimate

The plural personal pronouns are as follows:

  • tias, 1st person
  • natas, 2nd person
  • nas, 3rd person
Declension
N. sg tai
I
mon
you
ho
he/she
koi
it
sam
it
A. sg tihas monhas has kas sas
L. sg taida mona hoda koida samo
NA. pl tias
we
natas
you
nas
they
L. pl tita natta nada

Correlative pronouns

The correlatives can be divided into:

  • interrogative pronouns (human oho, non-human oai, plural olas);
  • existential pronouns (human saho, non-human saai, plural salas);
  • elective pronouns (human oishho, non-human oishai, plural oishlas);
  • proximal demonstrative pronouns (human kis'ho, non-human kisai, plural kislas);
  • distal demonstrative pronouns (human alho, non-human alai, plural allas);
  • universal pronouns (human tamas, non-human tamlas);
  • negative pronouns (human moas, non-human molas).
Declension

Interrogative and existential pronouns use a common pattern:

N. sg oho
who
oai
what
saho
somebody
saai
something
A. sg ohas oas sahas saas
L. sg ohta ota sahta sata
NA. pl olas salas
L. pl olta salta


Elective and demonstrative pronouns have a slightly different paradigm:

N. sg oishho
anybody
oishai
anything
kis'ho
this person
kisai
this thing
alho
that person
alai
that thing
A. sg oishhas oishas kis'has kisas alhas alas
L. sg oishihta oishita kisihta kisita alihta alita
NA. pl oishlas kislas allas
L. pl oishilta kisilta alilta


Universal and negative pronouns are inflected only in plural:

NA. pl tamas
everybody
tamlas
everything
moas
nobody
molas
nothing
L. pl tamota tamolta mota molta

Verbs

Conjugation

Imperfective aspect
Singular human agent
  • -am after k n and irregularly after vowels
  • -im after other consonants
  • -m regularly after vowels
    • preceding i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a i o o
Singular non-human agent
  • -ai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • regularly no marking after vowels
Plural agent
  • -os after labials and velars
  • -as after other consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -s regularly after vowels
Participle
  • -aish after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -sh regularly after vowels

Notes:

  • Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
  • Root-ending p t k are voiced to b d g when they become intervocalic.
Perfective aspect
Singular human agent
  • -pim after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -obim after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
  • -hpim regularly after vowels
Singular non-human agent
  • -pai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -obai after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
  • -hpai regularly after vowels
Plural agent
  • -pos after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -obos after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
  • -hpos regularly after vowels
Participle
  • -op after consonants and irregularly after vowels
  • -hop regularly after vowels

Notes:

  • Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
  • Single-consonant-final roots irregularly following the consonant cluster paradigm are marked CC.

Conjugation examples

sidal-
to exploit
tin-
to live
noih- CC
to threaten
sishai- C
to try
siphái-
to strike
oami-
to know
sg h impf sidalim tinam noihim sishaiam siphím oamam
sg nh impf sidalai tinai noihai sishaiai siphái oami
pl impf sidalas tinas noihos sishaias sipháis oamis
pcp impf sidalaish tinaish noihaish sishaiaish sipháish oamish
sg h pf sidalpim tinpim noihobim sishaipim siphaihpim oamihpim
sg nh pf sidalpai tinpai noihobai sishaipai siphaihpai oamihpai
pl pf sidalpos tinpos noihobos sishaipos siphaihpos oamihpos
pcp pf sidalop tinop noihop sishaiop siphaihop oamihop