User:Pole, the/Newyear
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Phonology
Consonants
labial | alveolar | palatal | velar | |
---|---|---|---|---|
plosive | pʰ · b ‹p b› |
tʰ · d ‹t d› |
kʰ · ɡ ‹k g› | |
fricative | s ‹s› |
ɕ ‹sh› |
x ‹h› | |
nasal | m ‹m› |
n ‹n› |
||
sonoric | l ‹l› |
i̯ ‹i› |
o̯ ‹o› |
Notes:
- /sx/ is represented by ‹s'h›.
- /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ and /b d ɡ/ are distinguished only between vowels.
- In most dialects /s/ merges with /ɕ/ before /i/.
Vowels
front | back | |
---|---|---|
high | i ‹i› |
|
mid | o · oi̯ ‹o oi› | |
low | a · ai̯ · ao̯ ‹a ai ao› |
Notes:
- The stress fall on the second-to-last syllable in most cases, counting /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ as single vowels. Sometimes the last syllable is stressed and it is marked with an acute accent.
- Unstressed /ai̯ ao̯ oi̯/ can be simplified to [ɛ ɔ ɵ].
- Similarly, unstressed /aa ii oo/ and /i o/ + a vowel sequences tend to be realized as [a i o j w] in rapid speech. The two can combine, leading to i.e. /oao aio oiai/ [wɔ ɛjo ɵjɛ] &c.
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns can be divided into three classes:
- human animate;
- neutral (non-human animate);
- non-human inanimate.
These classes are distinguished by different endings in declension and in verbal agreement.
There are also three cases:
- Nominative — the unmarked form, intransitive subject and transitive agent;
- Accusative — transitive patient, the form used also with prepositions;
- Lative — a form used only with several prepositions to mark the recipient or destination place.
Declension
- Nominative singular
- unmarked.
- Accusative singular
- -has for human nouns
- -as for neutral and inanimate nouns
- Lative singular
- -a for all nouns
- Nominative and accusative plural
- -as for human and neutral nouns
- -las for inanimate nouns
- Lative plural
- -Vta for human and neutral nouns
- -ota after labials and velars, -ita after other consonants, -ta after vowels
- -Vlta for inanimate nouns
- -olta after labials and velars, -ilta after other consonants, -lta after vowels
Notes:
- If a noun ends with an unstressed vowel, it is often deleted when an ending is added, e.g. kaihai → kaihas, but pigó → pigoas.
- In A. sg, NA. pl and L. pl: the final vowel is changed: a i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a a i o o.
- For several nouns, the final n changes to l when an ending is added. These are symbolized by the letter L.
- p t k become b d g in lative plural.
Declension examples
Human nouns
N. sg | idaoish farmer |
kaosam madman |
hanao spirit |
saigáo friend |
---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | idaoishhas | kaosamhas | hanhas | saigohas |
L. sg | idaoisha | kaosama | hana | saigaoa |
NA. pl | idaoishas | kaosamas | hanas | saigoas |
L. pl | idaoishita | kaosamota | hanota | saigota |
Neutral nouns
N. sg | sas beaver |
amah bull |
piao cat |
shigí flea |
---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | sasas | amahas | pias | shigaas |
L. sg | sasa | amaha | pia | shigia |
NA. pl | sasas | amahas | pias | shigaas |
L. pl | sasita | amahota | piota | shigata |
Inanimate nouns
N. sg | haan L foot |
itkóp knowledge |
kaigala money |
pigó axe |
---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | haalas | itkopas | kaigalas | pigaas |
L. sg | haala | itkopa | kaigala | pigoa |
NA. pl | haallas | itkoplas | kaigallas | pigalas |
L. pl | haalilta | itkobolta | kaigalalta | pigalta |
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
The singular personal pronouns are as follows:
- tai, 1st person
- mon, 2nd person
- ho, 3rd person human
- koi, 3rd person neutral
- sam, 3rd person inanimate
The plural personal pronouns are as follows:
- tias, 1st person
- natas, 2nd person
- nas, 3rd person
Declension
N. sg | tai I |
mon you |
ho he/she |
koi it |
sam it |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | tihas | monhas | has | kas | sas |
L. sg | taida | mona | hoda | koida | samo |
NA. pl | tias we |
natas you |
nas they | ||
L. pl | tita | natta | nada |
Correlative pronouns
The correlatives can be divided into:
- interrogative pronouns (human oho, non-human oai, plural olas);
- existential pronouns (human saho, non-human saai, plural salas);
- elective pronouns (human oishho, non-human oishai, plural oishlas);
- proximal demonstrative pronouns (human kis'ho, non-human kisai, plural kislas);
- distal demonstrative pronouns (human alho, non-human alai, plural allas);
- universal pronouns (human tamas, non-human tamlas);
- negative pronouns (human moas, non-human molas).
Declension
Interrogative and existential pronouns use a common pattern:
N. sg | oho who |
oai what |
saho somebody |
saai something |
---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | ohas | oas | sahas | saas |
L. sg | ohta | ota | sahta | sata |
NA. pl | olas | salas | ||
L. pl | olta | salta |
Elective and demonstrative pronouns have a slightly different paradigm:
N. sg | oishho anybody |
oishai anything |
kis'ho this person |
kisai this thing |
alho that person |
alai that thing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. sg | oishhas | oishas | kis'has | kisas | alhas | alas |
L. sg | oishihta | oishita | kisihta | kisita | alihta | alita |
NA. pl | oishlas | kislas | allas | |||
L. pl | oishilta | kisilta | alilta |
Universal and negative pronouns are inflected only in plural:
NA. pl | tamas everybody |
tamlas everything |
moas nobody |
molas nothing |
---|---|---|---|---|
L. pl | tamota | tamolta | mota | molta |
Verbs
Conjugation
Imperfective aspect
- Singular human agent
- -am after k n and irregularly after vowels
- -im after other consonants
- -m regularly after vowels
- preceding i o ai ao oi are reduced to a a i o o
- Singular non-human agent
- -ai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- regularly no marking after vowels
- Plural agent
- -os after labials and velars
- -as after other consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -s regularly after vowels
- Participle
- -aish after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -sh regularly after vowels
Notes:
- Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
- Root-ending p t k are voiced to b d g when they become intervocalic.
Perfective aspect
- Singular human agent
- -pim after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -obim after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
- -hpim regularly after vowels
- Singular non-human agent
- -pai after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -obai after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
- -hpai regularly after vowels
- Plural agent
- -pos after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -obos after consonant clusters and irregularly after single consonants
- -hpos regularly after vowels
- Participle
- -op after consonants and irregularly after vowels
- -hop regularly after vowels
Notes:
- Vowel-final roots irregularly following the consonantal paradigm are marked C.
- Single-consonant-final roots irregularly following the consonant cluster paradigm are marked CC.
Conjugation examples
sidal- to exploit |
tin- to live |
noih- CC to threaten |
sishai- C to try |
siphái- to strike |
oami- to know | |
sg h impf | sidalim | tinam | noihim | sishaiam | siphím | oamam |
sg nh impf | sidalai | tinai | noihai | sishaiai | siphái | oami |
pl impf | sidalas | tinas | noihos | sishaias | sipháis | oamis |
pcp impf | sidalaish | tinaish | noihaish | sishaiaish | sipháish | oamish |
sg h pf | sidalpim | tinpim | noihobim | sishaipim | siphaihpim | oamihpim |
sg nh pf | sidalpai | tinpai | noihobai | sishaipai | siphaihpai | oamihpai |
pl pf | sidalpos | tinpos | noihobos | sishaipos | siphaihpos | oamihpos |
pcp pf | sidalop | tinop | noihop | sishaiop | siphaihop | oamihop |