http://akana.conlang.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=D%C4%93+Graut+B%CA%89r&feedformat=atomAkanaWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T11:08:21ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.23.1http://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Union_of_Huyf%C3%A1rah_and_KascaUnion of Huyfárah and Kasca2017-05-24T14:37:13Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: Created page with "The '''Union of Huyfárah and Kasca''' (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Naxóst''), informally known as '''the Union''' (''ze Šels'') is a confederation of city-states cov..."</p>
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<div>The '''Union of Huyfárah and Kasca''' ([[Nåmúþ]]: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Naxóst''), informally known as '''the Union''' (''ze Šels'') is a confederation of city-states covering most of the territory of [[Huyfárah]] and [[Kasca]] which arose during the second half of the second millennium [[YP]]. The capital is [[Miədu|Múþ]], and the main language is Nåmúþ, which in some areas is replacing the local languages as the main spoken language.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Around 1100, most of the area was divided into small city-states, with the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], controlling [[Mæmedéi|Ment]] and the [[Oltu]] valley, being the only larger state. The most influential city-state was Múþ, followed by [[Azbǽbu|Ažböf]] and [[Buruya|Burú]]. Woldulaš was lagging behind a bit economically, though [[Ussor|Us]] was on its way to become one of the main trading centres again.<br />
<br />
In northern Kasca, a flooding had created a new, navigable channel through the delta. This greatly changed the economic prospects of that poor region. Soon the city-state of [[Wippwo]] appeared along the new channel, and it quickly grew to become one of the strongest city-states in Kasca. The other Kascan city-states, feeling threatened, attacked Wippwo, but Wippwo defeated them all and unified all of Kasca. During the following centuries, the Republic of Wippwo started continued to grow stronger and stronger, and by the fifteenth century, the economic power of Múþ was overshadowed by that of Wippwo.<br />
<br />
The people of Múþ weren't particularly pleased with this development. In the early sixteenth century, an intelligent young man named Göspu Nåzudǻru came up with an ambitious plan to make Múþ the centre of the world, both economically and culturally. This included strengthened cooperation with Ažböf and Burú, the latter of which helped circumventing the [[Aiwa]] valley's dependence on Wippwo, and a brand new university whose purpose was to educate the best traders, craftsmen and navigators. Merchants and craftsmen from all over the then-known world were invited to Múþ, and sailors from Múþ sailed far beyond the existing colonies and founded trading posts as far away as southern [[Peilaš]] and eastern [[Tuysáfa]].<br />
<br />
This started a rivalry between Múþ and Wippwo which would continue for centuries. Múþ used its alliances with Ažböf and Burú to gain more power, while Wippwo made use of its control over both the delta and the [[Dagæm Islands]] to try to control as much of the trade in the Aiwa Valley and the Bay of Kasca as possible, and both sides tried to make their own trading posts - Wippwo had followed in the footsteps of Múþ and started founding trading posts in distant lands too - the most powerful. Although it was never admitted in public, both sides also paid pirates to attack the other's trading ships.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, in Woldulaš, which was lagging behind again, a new king had come to power who wished to make Us great again. Unfortunately, he turned out to not be a very competent leader, and after he'd tried following Múþ's and Wippwo's examples and failed, he decided to search Us's new wealth within the kingdom instead. What this meant in practice was that the other cities within the kingdom had to pay enormous tributes to contribute to Us's wealth, and at the same time, he started expanding Woldulaš to the north and the east, so those areas could start paying tributes too.<br />
<br />
This was met with large dissatisfaction all over the kingdom. Soon afterwards, Ment declared itself independent and joined the confederation of Múþ instead. Following this, Woldulaš declared war on both Ment and Múþ, and Wippwo then saw its chance to crush their rivals, and so they joined Us in the war. However, as people elsewhere in Woldulaš rebelled too, Us was quickly captured by rebels from the inland parts of the Oltu valley and subsequently Múþ and its allies - Burú and Ažböf now also got involved in the conflict - attacked Wippwo. The war continued for a few years, but as it greatly damaged both sides' economy they declared peace.<br />
<br />
After the war, Woldulaš was no longer a single political unit. It was split into several city-states which all joined the confederation, which by this time, rather unoriginally, became known as ''ze Tselas'', "the One-country", or "the Union" in English. All members agreed that Wippwo would not be allowed to be part of it, though Wippwo didn't want to, anyway. For a while Wippwo and the Union continued to fight for dominance, but eventually, when a few generations had passed and the conflict had cooled down quite a bit, both sides realised it would be better to cooperate and then Wippwo joined the Union too.</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-04-01T16:19:56Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
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<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>[[Fáralo alphabet]]<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Naxóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, distinguishes three tenses, three aspects, affirmative and negative forms, and a large variety of moods, though it is not conjugated for person or number. There are twenty-three basic auxiliaries; in addition there are a few prefixes which are used to make inceptive, cessative and emphatic forms.<br />
<br />
====Basic auxiliaries====<br />
The twenty-three basic auxiliaries, along with their prototypical uses, are these.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! start<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! continue<br />
| ñek<br />
| ñeñk<br />
| ñekt<br />
| eñek<br />
| eñeñk<br />
| eñekt<br />
|-<br />
! stop<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! about to<br />
| péns<br />
| (péns)<br />
| pénst<br />
| epéns<br />
| (epéns)<br />
| epénst<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! barely<br />
| šens<br />
| (šens)<br />
| šenst<br />
| ešens<br />
| (ešens)<br />
| ešenst<br />
|-<br />
! fail<br />
| slór<br />
| slórn<br />
| slórt<br />
| mislór<br />
| mislórn<br />
| mislórt<br />
|-<br />
! be<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|-<br />
! emphatic<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| e<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
| ma<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derived auxiliaries====<br />
There are a few prefixes which can be used to derive more specific auxiliary verbs. These prefixes are quite transparently derived from full auxiliaries, and they do not vary for tense, though they do have separate affirmative and negative forms. The prefixes are:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Affirmative<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| še(f)-<br />
| ñe(f)-<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| t(o)-<br />
| me(þ)-<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pi(þ)-<br />
| e(f)-<br />
|}<br />
The emphatic prefix can combined with either of the other two prefixes. With a few exceptions, all combinations of a prefix and an auxiliary are theoretically possible (though some may be used only very rarely). Strictly ungrammatical combinations include ''*šešéf'', ''*šefǻþ'', ''*toto'', ''*pipöþ'' and anything with '''šis''' as the second part.<br />
<br />
As an example, here is the full set of auxiliaries derived from '''vå'''.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! Basic<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. inc.<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. cess.<br />
| pitovå<br />
| pitobön<br />
| pitoböt<br />
| emeþef<br />
| emeþemp<br />
| emeþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Tense and aspect usage====<br />
The present is used for things happening in the present. As there is no future tense, the present tense of certain auxiliaries is also used to talk about the future.<br />
<br />
The perfect is used to talk about completed actions and refers to a single point in time or the resulting state. The imperfect by contrast refers to longer periods of time, and can also indicate a repetition.<br />
<br />
The inceptive and cessative aspects refer to the beginning and the end of an action, respectively. The inceptive perfect often emphasises the resulting state, and the cessative perfect often indicates something which happened further back in the past, much like the past perfect in English. In both the inceptive and the cessative aspect the imperfect tense stresses the process of starting or stopping.<br />
<br />
The negative inceptive usually implies that it will start a bit later, and can often be translated as "not yet".<br />
<br />
====Remarks on specific auxiliaries====<br />
'''Is''' and '''éþ''' both indicate a necessity or an obligation, though '''is''' is a bit weaker than '''éþ'''. In the negative, however, it is the other way around: '''mis''' means "must not" whereas '''ñéþ''' means "doesn't have to".<br />
<br />
'''Ok''' and '''vök''' both indicate an intention, but '''vök''' additionally indicates that it will happen within the near future.<br />
<br />
'''Zes''' can indicate both a possibility or permission, depending on the context, and is used to indicate the future if the speaker is not sure it will actually happen.<br />
<br />
The inceptive forms of '''ñek''' indicate a repetition, and can be translated as "again".<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ''' and '''mus''' are generally used as copulas and lack a main verb in those cases. They are also used with verbs expressing a state.<br />
<br />
'''Úš''' is used for hypothetical things, such as conditionals. It is also used for hearsay.<br />
<br />
'''E''' is not only used as an imperative but also to express wishes. In the second person, it is not required to include a subject pronoun, though doing so is considered more polite.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
Conditionals are expressed by the conjunctions '''sorm''' ... '''šis'''. Either of these may be left out, though it is necessary to include at least one of the two.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm úš lék öslás nön, šis úš lék lǻþ mulás åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>if would 2SG.NOM now leave, then would 2SG.NOM correct LOC-hour arrive</small><br><br />
''If you leave now, you will arrive on time.''<br />
<br />
As can be seen, usually a form of the auxiliary '''úš''' is used in both parts of the sentence. However, when expressing general truths, it is only used in the if-part.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm úš ñál sen, šéf muzáþ.'''<br><br />
<small>if would too.much drink, start get.drunk</small><br><br />
''If you drink too much, you get drunk.''<br />
<br />
In the past tenses, '''úš''' in the if-part indicates a counterfactual. When simply expressing a condition in the past, another auxiliary must be used.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm únš i ñok hop, šis múš i én azes öslás.'''<br><br />
<small>if would.PERF 1SG more eat, then NEG.would 1SG hungry ESS-that now</small><br><br />
''If I had eaten more, I wouldn't be so hungry now.''<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-03-13T14:27:24Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''áš''' ''n'' whore [Wip ''aža'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻr''' ''a'' new [Wip ''oaro'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bák''' ''n'' villa [Wip ''baγa'' "palace"]<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bǻš''' ''n'' bay, inlet [Wip ''boža'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''dim''' ''v'' shave [Wip ''dimmi'']<br><br />
'''diñ''' ''n'' large quantity [Wip ''ding'' "mountain"]<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''do<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' as for [Wip ''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''edýþ''' ''n'' branch, stick [''edya idÿe'' "tree-arm"]<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''eln''' ''n'' bend in the road [Wip ''ẽlou'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''ém''' ''n'' top, head, peak, the best [Wip ''eimou'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''érn''' ''n'' garbage [Wip ''ẽro'' "dump"]<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gám''' ''n'' cumin [Wip ''gamõ'']<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gim''' ''a'' unpleasant [Wip ''gim'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''git''' ''v'' throw away [Wip ''γit'' "drop"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''guñk''' ''a'' hard, solid, steady [Wip ''gungo'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''hínt''' ''a'' different [Wip ''hiding'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''húm''' ''n'' dye, paint [Wip ''humou'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''íf''' ''a'' blind [Wip ''iβi'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ilk''' ''a'' clever [Wip ''ihlou'' "be wise"]<br><br />
'''ilm''' ''a'' nice (of people) [Wip ''ilmou'' "beautiful"]<br><br />
'''ín''' ''n'' beard [Wip ''ine'' "hair"]<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''iváf''' ''n'' gadget [Wip ''iββaβo'' "instrument"]<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kalt''' ''a'' active, energetic [Wip ''kallte'']<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''kǻl''' ''a'' funny, humourous [Wip ''koula'']<br><br />
'''kǻrt''' ''n'' roof, ceiling [Wip ''koudor'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kemp''' ''n'' tavern, pub [''kẽbwou'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kilp''' ''v'' poke [Wip ''kipell'']<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kon''' ''a'' stiff, sturdy [Wip ''kon'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''la''' ''v'' be silent [Wip ''lahei'' "close"]<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lán''' ''n'' rose [Wip ''lano'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time; ''(pl)'' time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻt''' ''prep'' without, except; ''v'' exclude [Wip ''loudou'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''lér''' ''v'' collect, gather; ''n'' collection [Wip ''lleira'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léš''' ''v'' form, shape, create [Wip ''lleišou'']<br><br />
'''lét''' ''n'' content, definition [Wip ''leida'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''måxp''' ''n'' asshole [Wip ''moahpou'' "penis"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''mef''' ''n'' leader, chief, commander, boss [Wip ''meββe'' "father"]<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''més''' ''n'' debt; ''v'' owe [Wip ''mesa'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mišk''' ''n'' holiday [Wip ''mišγou'' "free time"]<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mún''' ''v'' travel [Wip ''munõ'']<br><br />
'''múr''' ''v'' decide, select, choose [Wip ''mura'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''múš''' ''n'' friend [Wip ''mužo'' "brother"]<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''na''' ''n'' popular person, star [Wip ''nah'' "god"]<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''neln''' ''v, n'' lie [Wip ''nẽll'']<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''níf''' ''v'' mean, intend [Wip ''niβe'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nol''' ''n'' mouse [Wip ''nol'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''nú''' ''n'' something disgusting [Wip ''nuho'' "slime"]<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñáš''' ''v'' get rid of [Wip ''ngašei'' "throw"]<br><br />
'''ñát''' ''v'' rest, take a break; ''n'' break, pause [Wip ''ngada'' "sleep"]<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''ñåf''' ''n'' small talk [Wip ''ngawwa'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúf''' ''a'' sharp [Wip ''nguβo'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''olmp''' ''v'' steal [Wip ''õblou'']<br><br />
'''óln''' ''v'' talk, chat [Wip ''õla'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''onš''' ''v, n'' joke [Wip ''õž'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br><br />
'''pa''' ''v'' defecate, produce something worthless [Wip ''pah'']<br><br />
'''páþ''' ''n'' valley [''pada'']<br><br />
'''påf''' ''n'' disgust; ''v'' be disgusted [''poppu'']<br><br />
'''pǻk''' ''n'' horse; ''v'' ride [''pagu'']<br><br />
'''pǻn''' ''n'' plant [Wip ''ponu'']<br><br />
'''pe''' ''a'' big [''pya'']<br><br />
'''pedéns''' ''v'' understand [''pɨdyemis'']<br><br />
'''pef''' ''n'' breast; ''v'' breastfeed, nurse [''peppe'']<br><br />
'''pen''' ''n, v'' kiss [''pyen'']<br><br />
'''péns''' ''a'' ready; ''aux'' about to [''pesen'']<br><br />
'''pér''' ''a'' brave, strong [Wip ''pere'']<br><br />
'''pežél''' ''n'' plan, strategy [Wip ''peižẽlo'']<br><br />
'''pi''' ''n'' child [''pɨ'']<br><br />
'''pik''' ''a'' main, primary [''piggał'']<br><br />
'''pík''' ''v'' send [''piła'']<br><br />
'''pinír''' ''num'' ninety [''pya niro'']<br><br />
'''piñ''' ''n'' chicken [''piñña'']<br><br />
'''pisk''' ''a'' dead; ''n'' corpse [''pissił'']<br><br />
'''pok''' ''n'' orange [''połge'']<br><br />
'''ponš''' ''v'' count; ''n'' number [''potsna'']<br><br />
'''pont''' ''a'' purple [''ponda'']<br><br />
'''poþ''' ''v'' get, receive [''potte'' "find"]<br><br />
'''pök''' ''v'' ignore [''pwekku'' "snub"]<br><br />
'''pömp''' ''n'' rich person [''pyombu'' "bourgeois"]<br><br />
'''pön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' island [''pwen'']<br><br />
'''pön<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' with, having [''pyon'']<br><br />
'''Pörps''' ''n'' [[Poráš]] [''Pyopros'']<br><br />
'''pös''' ''n'' fish [''pyossa'']<br><br />
'''Pőxs''' ''n'' [[Peilaš]] [''Pyołas'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' loud; ''v'' ring (a bell), notify [''pyodde'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' emphatic auxiliary [''pyotta'']<br><br />
'''pren''' ''v'' design [''pryen'']<br><br />
'''pú''' ''n'' nose; ''v'' smell [''puwa'']<br><br />
'''puft''' ''v, n'' attack; ''a'' aggressive [''pubbɨt'']<br><br />
'''rak''' ''v'' pour [''rał'']<br><br />
'''rǻf''' ''v'' fuck up [Wip ''rawa'' "mismanage"]<br><br />
'''råns''' ''n'' voter; ''v'' vote [''roznu'']<br><br />
'''råþ''' ''n'' property [''roddu'']<br><br />
'''re''' ''a'' straight [''re'']<br><br />
'''ref''' ''n, v'' substitute [''ryeppu'']<br><br />
'''rek''' ''a'' hot [''rełga'']<br><br />
'''rém''' ''pt'' introduces relative clauses [''rema'']<br><br />
'''ren''' ''prep'' like, in a ... way [''ryen'']<br><br />
'''réñ''' ''adv'' instead; ''prep'' instead of [''ryeñu'']<br><br />
'''Reñk''' ''n'' the plains of southwestern Huyfárah [''Reñło'']<br><br />
'''réñk''' ''n'' platform, storey, floor [''reñał'']<br><br />
'''reþ''' ''v'' hear, perceive [''ryettu'']<br><br />
'''reþk''' ''n'' jar, box [''ryeddeł'']<br><br />
'''rexs''' ''n, v'' nurse [''rełsa'']<br><br />
'''rezdǻ''' ''v, n'' delay [''rezdowa'' "waste time"]<br><br />
'''ro''' ''num'' ten [''ro'']<br><br />
'''roñ''' ''n'' meadow [Wip ''rong'' "grasslands"]<br><br />
'''roñk''' ''a'' insane [''rołña'']<br><br />
'''rore''' ''a'' drunk [Wip ''rore'']<br><br />
'''rot''' ''num'' tenth [''ro dya'']<br><br />
'''roþ''' ''v'' have [''rodda'']<br><br />
'''róþ''' ''v'' eat, have dinner [''rote'']<br><br />
'''röm''' ''n'' disaster [''ryommɨ'' "earthquake"]<br><br />
'''ruf''' ''v'' pull [''rubba'' "masturbate"]<br><br />
'''runs''' ''v'' slander [''russan'']<br><br />
'''ruñk''' ''pt'' where [''rułma'']<br><br />
'''rus''' ''n'' female member [''rudza'']<br><br />
'''rut''' ''n'' male member [''rud'']<br><br />
'''ruvos''' ''v'' argue; ''n'' argument [''rubosso'' "haggle"]<br><br />
'''sañk''' ''n'' meat [Wip ''sanga'']<br><br />
'''så''' ''n'' knee, corner [''swa'']<br><br />
'''såt''' ''n'' sandwich [''sadwa'']<br><br />
'''sek''' ''n'' name; ''v'' call, mention [''sek'']<br><br />
'''sék''' ''n'' hearth [''seło'']<br><br />
'''sém''' ''v'' deny [Wip ''semẽ'']<br><br />
'''sen''' ''v, n'' drink [''sɨn'']<br><br />
'''sens''' ''adv'' the day after tomorrow [''sɨnsɨ'']<br><br />
'''senš''' ''a'' fortunate [''settsin'']<br><br />
'''sént''' ''n'' civil servant [''senat'' "minister"]<br><br />
'''sénþ''' ''v'' discuss; ''n'' conversation [''setim'']<br><br />
'''señk''' ''n'' hurricane [''seggan'']<br><br />
'''ses''' ''a'' good, kind [''sɨs'']<br><br />
'''sés''' ''adv'' yesterday [''sɨso'']<br><br />
'''seš''' ''a'' both, each [''sɨts'']<br><br />
'''sešint''' ''n'' descent [''sestsinte'' "genealogy"]<br><br />
'''sexs''' ''n'' dragonfly [''sełsa'']<br><br />
'''Séþk''' ''n'' [[Sertek]] [''Setek'']<br><br />
'''skexp''' ''n'' clothing [''skełbo'']<br><br />
'''slór''' ''v'' forget to do/say something, fail [''slora'' "briefly forget"]<br><br />
'''sma''' ''v'' sew [Wip ''sma'']<br><br />
'''smók''' ''n, v'' gossip [''smoło'']<br><br />
'''smóþ''' ''n, v'' farm [''smote'']<br><br />
'''smóþp''' ''n'' farmer [''smotebu'']<br><br />
'''snon''' ''n'' ground, base, foundation [''snon'']<br><br />
'''sóñk''' ''n, a'' fat [''sołan'']<br><br />
'''sorm''' ''pt'' when, if [''sorma'']<br><br />
'''sormp''' ''n'' teacher [''sobren'' "clever person"]<br><br />
'''sos<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' second day of the week [''sos'']<br><br />
'''sos<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' onion [''sozzi'']<br><br />
'''sós''' ''n'' woman [''sossa'']<br><br />
'''söpk''' ''n'' bag, sack [''swebło'']<br><br />
'''stél''' ''v'' insult, hurt [Wip ''stela'' "burn"]<br><br />
'''sus''' ''n'' olive oil [''suddzi'']<br><br />
'''ša''' ''v'' walk [''tsa'']<br><br />
'''šak''' ''n'' king [''tsak'']<br><br />
'''šan''' ''v'' ask; ''n'' question [''tsanno'']<br><br />
'''šanis''' ''n'' fugitive; ''v'' flee, deny [''tsanizzu'']<br><br />
'''šaps''' ''v'' sneeze [''tsapso'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' one [''tse'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' blue [''hya'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' student [''tsebu'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' start [''hyeppe'']<br><br />
'''šéfk''' ''v, n'' curse [''tsɨpał'']<br><br />
'''šélk''' ''v, n'' vomit [WF ''čekal'']<br><br />
'''Šels''' the Union [''tse las'' "one country"]<br><br />
'''šelš''' ''n'' danger, threat; ''a'' dangerous; ''v'' threaten [F ''čelč'']<br><br />
'''šem''' ''n'' south [''tyem'']<br><br />
'''šen''' ''n'' fire; ''v'' burn [''tsennu'']<br><br />
'''šens<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' weird, embarrassing [''tsenso'' "to embarrass"]<br><br />
'''šens<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' barely do [''tsɨssɨnza'' "barely make it through"]<br><br />
'''šeñk''' ''n'' religious school [''tsemmał'']<br><br />
'''šep''' ''v'' perform, act, utter, show [''syep'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' go bad, expire [''tset'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' coin, ''(pl)'' money, wealth; ''a'' rich [''syet'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>3</sup>''' ''num'' first [''tse dya'']<br><br />
'''ševön''' ''num'' eleven [''tsewen'']<br><br />
'''šexš''' ''n'' risk [''tsełts'']<br><br />
'''šeþ''' ''n'' house; ''v'' live, dwell [''tyeddi'']<br><br />
'''šíf''' ''n'' sail [''sipa'' "crab-claw sail"]<br><br />
'''šik''' ''v'' urinate, talk bullshit [''siggił'']<br><br />
'''šík''' ''n'' tooth [''siło'']<br><br />
'''šiñxs''' ''n'' beer [''tsiłtsɨn'']<br><br />
'''šír''' ''n'' whore, bitch [''sira'']<br><br />
'''šírk''' ''pron'' there [''siruł'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' do [''sis'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>2</sup>''' ''conj'' then, therefore [''sisso'']<br><br />
'''šislás''' ''pron'' then, at that time [''sisso lasa'' "then-hour'']<br><br />
'''šiš''' ''n'' lightning [''tsittsi'']<br><br />
'''šixt''' ''n'' slum [Wip ''šihtẽ'' "live in squalor"]<br><br />
'''šof''' ''n'' mushroom [Wip ''šohβo'']<br><br />
'''šór''' ''n'' garbage, waste [''tsoro'' "junk"]<br><br />
'''šós''' ''adv'' tomorrow, soon; ''v'' come soon [''sisyozza'']<br><br />
'''šöm''' ''v, n'' delay; ''a'' slow [''hyomma'']<br><br />
'''šöñks''' ''n'' punt [''tyoñgas'']<br><br />
'''šös''' ''n'' morning; ''adv'' tomorrow [''syozza'']<br><br />
'''šöské''' ''n'' mist [''syoskaya'']<br><br />
'''šöxp''' ''n'' stranger, guest [''hyołbu'']<br><br />
'''šöþ''' ''a'' wide [''tyottu'']<br><br />
'''šőþ''' ''a'' true [''hyotte'' "correct"]<br><br />
'''šúr''' ''adv'' eventually [''tsure'' "some other time"]<br><br />
'''tamp''' ''v, a'' fake [WF ''tāmpa'' "mimic"]<br><br />
'''tárn''' ''n'' girl [Wip ''tarõ'' "daughter"]<br><br />
'''tå''' ''n'' lake [''twa'']<br><br />
'''te''' ''prep'' with, by [''te'']<br><br />
'''téfs''' ''n'' frame [''tɨpas'']<br><br />
'''tek''' ''n'' group [''teg'' "cluster" and ''tekka'' "large crowd"]<br><br />
'''teñ''' ''n'' stone, rock [''tɨñño'']<br><br />
'''tensk''' ''n'' second [''tɨnsał'']<br><br />
'''ti''' ''n'' door, opening [''tɨ'']<br><br />
'''tik''' ''n'' anchor; ''v, a'' set in stone [''tikwa'']<br><br />
'''tinþ''' ''a'' insignificant, irrelevant [''tiddin'']<br><br />
'''tit''' ''n'' speck, stain [''tid'']<br><br />
'''to''' ''aux'' stop [''to'']<br><br />
'''tok<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' despite, against [''te ołgo'' "by-despite"]<br><br />
'''tok<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' light, lamp [''toł'']<br><br />
'''Tók''' ''n'' [[Toło]] [''Toło'']<br><br />
'''tólt''' ''a'' clumsy [Wip ''todol'']<br><br />
'''tos''' ''v'' allow; ''a'' allowed [''tos'' "legal"]<br><br />
'''tós''' ''prep'' around, during [''tosse'']<br><br />
'''toš''' ''n'' elder sister [''tottsa'']<br><br />
'''tök''' ''n'' duck [''twełyo'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' hand [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' thin, weak [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tőn''' ''v'' prevent [F ''twæno'']<br><br />
'''tuže''' ''adv'' "I guess" [Wip ''tužei'']<br><br />
'''túþ''' ''n'' metal [''tɨdu'']<br><br />
'''tý''' ''n'' favourable circumstances [Wip ''twia'' "good weather"]<br><br />
'''udrúk''' ''n'' morning [''ɨdruła'' "sunrise"]<br><br />
'''úf''' ''pron'' me [''ɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Úfs''' ''n'' the Ndak mother goddess [''Uboz'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' taste, smell [''ułga'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' after [''ugłu'']<br><br />
'''úk''' ''v'' grab, seize [''uła'' "pick up"]<br><br />
'''ulp''' ''v'' explain [F ''uplə'']<br><br />
'''uñk''' ''v'' kill, destroy, crush [Wip ''ungo'']<br><br />
'''úr''' ''a'' rude, impolite, unfriendly [''uro'' "hostile"]<br><br />
'''Us''' ''n'' [[Ussor]] [''Usso'']<br><br />
'''ús''' ''intj'' hey, hello [''ussa'']<br><br />
'''úš''' ''aux'' would [''utsis'']<br><br />
'''uvőþ''' ''num'' hundred [''ɨbweddu'']<br><br />
'''uxs''' ''n'' storm; ''v'' disrupt, destroy [''uggas'']<br><br />
'''vå''' ''aux'' can [''bwo'']<br><br />
'''våf''' ''v'' strike, hit [''wobba'']<br><br />
'''våk''' ''a'' quiet [''wogga'']<br><br />
'''våkóñ''' ''n'' shellfish, crustacean [''wogyo'' "shellfish" and ''oño'' "crayfish"]<br><br />
'''våls''' ''num'' thirty [''woslo'']<br><br />
'''våñk''' ''adv'' today, currently, at the moment [''wamyeg'']<br><br />
'''våns''' ''v'' mess up; ''n'' mess [''wozzon'']<br><br />
'''vås''' ''num'' three [''wos'']<br><br />
'''vǻs<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' this [''wosse'']<br><br />
'''vǻs''' ''adv'' tonight [''waso'']<br><br />
'''våsön''' ''num'' thirteen [''woswen'']<br><br />
'''våst''' ''num'' third [''wos dya'']<br><br />
'''våšos''' ''adv'' this morning [''wasyozza'']<br><br />
'''våþk''' ''v'' wear, carry; ''n'' clothing [''woddeł'']<br><br />
'''verm''' ''a'' messy, sloppy [Wip ''wermi'' "unkempt"]<br><br />
'''vi''' ''n'' boy [Wip ''vi'' son]<br><br />
'''viñ''' ''a'' wet [Wip ''wing'']<br><br />
'''Vipu''' ''n'' the city-state of [[Wippwo]]; ''a'' relating to that city-state [Wip ''Wippwo'']<br><br />
'''vors''' ''a'' sexually attractive [Wip ''vorsei'' "hot"]<br><br />
'''vö''' ''aux'' plan to [''we'']<br><br />
'''vöf''' ''v'' remember; ''n'' memory [''weppu'']<br><br />
'''vőf''' ''quant'' many, most [''weba'']<br><br />
'''vök''' ''pron'' here [''weł'']<br><br />
'''vők''' ''prep'' behind [''wegga'']<br><br />
'''Vöm''' ''n'' title for women, "Mrs." [''wemmu'' "lady"]<br><br />
'''vöñ''' ''a'' ugly, nasty [''weñña'']<br><br />
'''vöñk''' ''n'' younger sister [''wemmoł'']<br><br />
'''vöñőf''' ''a'' tired [''weñÿebu'']<br><br />
'''vös''' ''n'' friend [''wes'']<br><br />
'''vöþ''' ''n'' vegetable [''wedde'']<br><br />
'''vöþep''' ''n'' pickles [''weddɨbye'']<br><br />
'''vuk''' ''n'' castle [''wuł'' "country villa"]<br><br />
'''vúk''' ''v'' find guilty; ''a'' guilty [F ''wugu'']<br><br />
'''vum''' ''v'' live; ''n'' life [''wɨm'']<br><br />
'''vump''' ''n'' papyrus [''wɨmba'']<br><br />
'''vunsék''' ''n, v'' grill [''wɨnseło'']<br><br />
'''vuñk''' ''n'' bridge, connection; ''v'' connect [''wɨñgwe'']<br><br />
'''vuñők''' ''n'' canal [''wɨñÿeło'']<br><br />
'''výk''' ''n'' house, family [''wiło'']<br><br />
'''vym''' ''n'' marsh [''wimma'']<br><br />
'''vys''' ''n'' feast [''wizze'']<br><br />
'''ý''' ''prep'' after [''uyo'']<br><br />
'''yf''' ''n'' weapon; ''v'' attack [''ibbu'']<br><br />
'''ýþ''' ''n'' arm, part, section [''idÿe'']<br><br />
'''za''' ''pron'' who, what (nominative) [''dza'']<br><br />
'''zap''' ''v, n'' insult [''dzappa'']<br><br />
'''zárt''' ''a'' open, obvious [Wip ''zader'' "public"]<br><br />
'''zás''' ''pron'' whose [''dza'' + ''yedza'']<br><br />
'''zåmp''' ''n'' traveller, merchant [''dzombu'']<br><br />
'''ze''' ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zek''' ''a'' violent [''dzegga'' "belligerent"]<br><br />
'''zenáf''' ''n'' smith [''dzɨnaba'' "ironsmith"]<br><br />
'''zénš''' ''n'' pig [''zetsan'']<br><br />
'''zér''' ''n'' copper [''zera'']<br><br />
'''zes''' ''pron'' that; ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zgúrk''' ''n'' intestines [''zguruł'']<br><br />
'''zif''' ''a'' evil, bad (of behaviour) [''dzibbe'']<br><br />
'''zivof''' ''n'' misbehaviour [''zif'' + ''obbo'' "misdemeanour'']<br><br />
'''zmepk''' ''n'' countryside [''zmebło'']<br><br />
'''zoríš''' ''v'' wake up [''dzoritsi'']<br><br />
'''zönþ''' ''n'' face; ''v'' look at [''zodwen'']<br><br />
'''zu''' ''pron'' whom, what (accusative) [''dzu'']<br><br />
'''zuk''' ''n'' cheese [''zułk'']<br><br />
'''zum''' ''pron'' to whom [''dzum'']<br><br />
'''zúm''' ''v'' stay behind, remain; ''n'' remnant, relic [''zuma'' "loiter"]<br><br />
'''ža''' ''n'' boss [Wip ''žah'' "king"]<br><br />
'''ži''' ''n'' apple [''zi'']<br><br />
'''žin''' ''n'' wine [''zin'']<br><br />
'''žñéf''' ''n'' tea [''znyoñɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''žuñgol''' ''n'' deck (of a ship) [Wip ''žungol'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-03-13T10:52:38Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''áš''' ''n'' whore [Wip ''aža'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻr''' ''a'' new [Wip ''oaro'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bák''' ''n'' villa [Wip ''baγa'' "palace"]<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bǻš''' ''n'' bay, inlet [Wip ''boža'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''dim''' ''v'' shave [Wip ''dimmi'']<br><br />
'''diñ''' ''n'' large quantity [Wip ''ding'' "mountain"]<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''do<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' as for [Wip ''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''edýþ''' ''n'' branch, stick [''edya idÿe'' "tree-arm"]<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''eln''' ''n'' bend in the road [Wip ''ẽlou'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''ém''' ''n'' top, head, peak, the best [Wip ''eimou'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''érn''' ''n'' garbage [Wip ''ẽro'' "dump"]<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gám''' ''n'' cumin [Wip ''gamõ'']<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gim''' ''a'' unpleasant [Wip ''gim'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''git''' ''v'' throw away [Wip ''γit'' "drop"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''guñk''' ''a'' hard, solid, steady [Wip ''gungo'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''hínt''' ''a'' different [Wip ''hiding'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''húm''' ''n'' dye, paint [Wip ''humou'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''íf''' ''a'' blind [Wip ''iβi'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ilk''' ''a'' clever [Wip ''ihlou'' "be wise"]<br><br />
'''ilm''' ''a'' nice (of people) [Wip ''ilmou'' "beautiful"]<br><br />
'''ín''' ''n'' beard [Wip ''ine'' "hair"]<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''iváf''' ''n'' gadget [Wip ''iββaβo'' "instrument"]<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kalt''' ''a'' active, energetic [Wip ''kallte'']<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''kǻl''' ''a'' funny, humourous [Wip ''koula'']<br><br />
'''kǻrt''' ''n'' roof, ceiling [Wip ''koudor'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kemp''' ''n'' tavern, pub [''kẽbwou'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kilp''' ''v'' poke [Wip ''kipell'']<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kon''' ''a'' stiff, sturdy [Wip ''kon'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''la''' ''v'' be silent [Wip ''lahei'' "close"]<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lán''' ''n'' rose [Wip ''lano'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time; ''(pl)'' time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻt''' ''prep'' without, except; ''v'' exclude [Wip ''loudou'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''lér''' ''v'' collect, gather; ''n'' collection [Wip ''lleira'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léš''' ''v'' form, shape, create [Wip ''lleišou'']<br><br />
'''lét''' ''n'' content, definition [Wip ''leida'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''måxp''' ''n'' asshole [Wip ''moahpou'' "penis"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''mef''' ''n'' leader, chief, commander, boss [Wip ''meββe'' "father"]<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''més''' ''n'' debt; ''v'' owe [Wip ''mesa'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mišk''' ''n'' holiday [Wip ''mišγou'' "free time"]<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mún''' ''v'' travel [Wip ''munõ'']<br><br />
'''múr''' ''v'' decide, select, choose [Wip ''mura'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''múš''' ''n'' friend [Wip ''mužo'' "brother"]<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''na''' ''n'' popular person, star [Wip ''nah'' "god"]<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br><br />
'''páþ''' ''n'' valley [''pada'']<br><br />
'''påf''' ''n'' disgust; ''v'' be disgusted [''poppu'']<br><br />
'''pǻk''' ''n'' horse; ''v'' ride [''pagu'']<br><br />
'''pe''' ''a'' big [''pya'']<br><br />
'''pedéns''' ''v'' understand [''pɨdyemis'']<br><br />
'''pef''' ''n'' breast; ''v'' breastfeed, nurse [''peppe'']<br><br />
'''pen''' ''n, v'' kiss [''pyen'']<br><br />
'''péns''' ''a'' ready; ''aux'' about to [''pesen'']<br><br />
'''pi''' ''n'' child [''pɨ'']<br><br />
'''pik''' ''a'' main, primary [''piggał'']<br><br />
'''pík''' ''v'' send [''piła'']<br><br />
'''pinír''' ''num'' ninety [''pya niro'']<br><br />
'''piñ''' ''n'' chicken [''piñña'']<br><br />
'''pisk''' ''a'' dead; ''n'' corpse [''pissił'']<br><br />
'''pok''' ''n'' orange [''połge'']<br><br />
'''ponš''' ''v'' count; ''n'' number [''potsna'']<br><br />
'''pont''' ''a'' purple [''ponda'']<br><br />
'''poþ''' ''v'' get, receive [''potte'' "find"]<br><br />
'''pök''' ''v'' ignore [''pwekku'' "snub"]<br><br />
'''pömp''' ''n'' rich person [''pyombu'' "bourgeois"]<br><br />
'''pön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' island [''pwen'']<br><br />
'''pön<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' with, having [''pyon'']<br><br />
'''Pörps''' ''n'' [[Poráš]] [''Pyopros'']<br><br />
'''pös''' ''n'' fish [''pyossa'']<br><br />
'''Pőxs''' ''n'' [[Peilaš]] [''Pyołas'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' loud; ''v'' ring (a bell), notify [''pyodde'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' emphatic auxiliary [''pyotta'']<br><br />
'''pren''' ''v'' design [''pryen'']<br><br />
'''pú''' ''n'' nose; ''v'' smell [''puwa'']<br><br />
'''puft''' ''v, n'' attack; ''a'' aggressive [''pubbɨt'']<br><br />
'''rak''' ''v'' pour [''rał'']<br><br />
'''råns''' ''n'' voter; ''v'' vote [''roznu'']<br><br />
'''råþ''' ''n'' property [''roddu'']<br><br />
'''re''' ''a'' straight [''re'']<br><br />
'''ref''' ''n, v'' substitute [''ryeppu'']<br><br />
'''rek''' ''a'' hot [''rełga'']<br><br />
'''rém''' ''pt'' introduces relative clauses [''rema'']<br><br />
'''ren''' ''prep'' like, in a ... way [''ryen'']<br><br />
'''réñ''' ''adv'' instead; ''prep'' instead of [''ryeñu'']<br><br />
'''Reñk''' ''n'' the plains of southwestern Huyfárah [''Reñło'']<br><br />
'''réñk''' ''n'' platform, storey, floor [''reñał'']<br><br />
'''reþ''' ''v'' hear, perceive [''ryettu'']<br><br />
'''reþk''' ''n'' jar, box [''ryeddeł'']<br><br />
'''rexs''' ''n, v'' nurse [''rełsa'']<br><br />
'''rezdǻ''' ''v, n'' delay [''rezdowa'' "waste time"]<br><br />
'''ro''' ''num'' ten [''ro'']<br><br />
'''roñk''' ''a'' insane [''rołña'']<br><br />
'''rot''' ''num'' tenth [''ro dya'']<br><br />
'''roþ''' ''v'' have [''rodda'']<br><br />
'''róþ''' ''v'' eat, have dinner [''rote'']<br><br />
'''röm''' ''n'' disaster [''ryommɨ'' "earthquake"]<br><br />
'''ruf''' ''v'' pull [''rubba'' "masturbate"]<br><br />
'''runs''' ''v'' slander [''russan'']<br><br />
'''ruñk''' ''pt'' where [''rułma'']<br><br />
'''rus''' ''n'' female member [''rudza'']<br><br />
'''rut''' ''n'' male member [''rud'']<br><br />
'''ruvos''' ''v'' argue; ''n'' argument [''rubosso'' "haggle"]<br><br />
'''så''' ''n'' knee, corner [''swa'']<br><br />
'''såt''' ''n'' sandwich [''sadwa'']<br><br />
'''sek''' ''n'' name; ''v'' call, mention [''sek'']<br><br />
'''sék''' ''n'' hearth [''seło'']<br><br />
'''sen''' ''v, n'' drink [''sɨn'']<br><br />
'''sens''' ''adv'' the day after tomorrow [''sɨnsɨ'']<br><br />
'''senš''' ''a'' fortunate [''settsin'']<br><br />
'''sént''' ''n'' civil servant [''senat'' "minister"]<br><br />
'''sénþ''' ''v'' discuss; ''n'' conversation [''setim'']<br><br />
'''señk''' ''n'' hurricane [''seggan'']<br><br />
'''ses''' ''a'' good, kind [''sɨs'']<br><br />
'''sés''' ''adv'' yesterday [''sɨso'']<br><br />
'''seš''' ''a'' both, each [''sɨts'']<br><br />
'''sešint''' ''n'' descent [''sestsinte'' "genealogy"]<br><br />
'''sexs''' ''n'' dragonfly [''sełsa'']<br><br />
'''Séþk''' ''n'' [[Sertek]] [''Setek'']<br><br />
'''skexp''' ''n'' clothing [''skełbo'']<br><br />
'''slór''' ''v'' forget to do/say something, fail [''slora'' "briefly forget"]<br><br />
'''smók''' ''n, v'' gossip [''smoło'']<br><br />
'''smóþ''' ''n, v'' farm [''smote'']<br><br />
'''smóþp''' ''n'' farmer [''smotebu'']<br><br />
'''snon''' ''n'' ground, base, foundation [''snon'']<br><br />
'''sóñk''' ''n, a'' fat [''sołan'']<br><br />
'''sorm''' ''pt'' when, if [''sorma'']<br><br />
'''sormp''' ''n'' teacher [''sobren'' "clever person"]<br><br />
'''sos<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' second day of the week [''sos'']<br><br />
'''sos<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' onion [''sozzi'']<br><br />
'''sós''' ''n'' woman [''sossa'']<br><br />
'''söpk''' ''n'' bag, sack [''swebło'']<br><br />
'''sus''' ''n'' olive oil [''suddzi'']<br><br />
'''ša''' ''v'' walk [''tsa'']<br><br />
'''šak''' ''n'' king [''tsak'']<br><br />
'''šan''' ''v'' ask; ''n'' question [''tsanno'']<br><br />
'''šanis''' ''n'' fugitive; ''v'' flee, deny [''tsanizzu'']<br><br />
'''šaps''' ''v'' sneeze [''tsapso'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' one [''tse'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' blue [''hya'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' student [''tsebu'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' start [''hyeppe'']<br><br />
'''šéfk''' ''v, n'' curse [''tsɨpał'']<br><br />
'''šélk''' ''v, n'' vomit [WF ''čekal'']<br><br />
'''Šels''' the Union [''tse las'' "one country"]<br><br />
'''šelš''' ''n'' danger, threat; ''a'' dangerous; ''v'' threaten [F ''čelč'']<br><br />
'''šem''' ''n'' south [''tyem'']<br><br />
'''šen''' ''n'' fire; ''v'' burn [''tsennu'']<br><br />
'''šens<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' weird, embarrassing [''tsenso'' "to embarrass"]<br><br />
'''šens<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' barely do [''tsɨssɨnza'' "barely make it through"]<br><br />
'''šeñk''' ''n'' religious school [''tsemmał'']<br><br />
'''šep''' ''v'' perform, act, utter, show [''syep'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' go bad, expire [''tset'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' coin, ''(pl)'' money, wealth; ''a'' rich [''syet'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>3</sup>''' ''num'' first [''tse dya'']<br><br />
'''ševön''' ''num'' eleven [''tsewen'']<br><br />
'''šexš''' ''n'' risk [''tsełts'']<br><br />
'''šeþ''' ''n'' house; ''v'' live, dwell [''tyeddi'']<br><br />
'''šíf''' ''n'' sail [''sipa'' "crab-claw sail"]<br><br />
'''šik''' ''v'' urinate, talk bullshit [''siggił'']<br><br />
'''šík''' ''n'' tooth [''siło'']<br><br />
'''šiñxs''' ''n'' beer [''tsiłtsɨn'']<br><br />
'''šír''' ''n'' whore, bitch [''sira'']<br><br />
'''šírk''' ''pron'' there [''siruł'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' do [''sis'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>2</sup>''' ''conj'' then, therefore [''sisso'']<br><br />
'''šislás''' ''pron'' then, at that time [''sisso lasa'' "then-hour'']<br><br />
'''šiš''' ''n'' lightning [''tsittsi'']<br><br />
'''šór''' ''n'' garbage, waste [''tsoro'' "junk"]<br><br />
'''šós''' ''adv'' tomorrow, soon; ''v'' come soon [''sisyozza'']<br><br />
'''šöm''' ''v, n'' delay; ''a'' slow [''hyomma'']<br><br />
'''šöñks''' ''n'' punt [''tyoñgas'']<br><br />
'''šös''' ''n'' morning; ''adv'' tomorrow [''syozza'']<br><br />
'''šöské''' ''n'' mist [''syoskaya'']<br><br />
'''šöxp''' ''n'' stranger, guest [''hyołbu'']<br><br />
'''šöþ''' ''a'' wide [''tyottu'']<br><br />
'''šőþ''' ''a'' true [''hyotte'' "correct"]<br><br />
'''šúr''' ''adv'' eventually [''tsure'' "some other time"]<br><br />
'''tamp''' ''v, a'' fake [WF ''tāmpa'' "mimic"]<br><br />
'''tå''' ''n'' lake [''twa'']<br><br />
'''te''' ''prep'' with, by [''te'']<br><br />
'''téfs''' ''n'' frame [''tɨpas'']<br><br />
'''tek''' ''n'' group [''teg'' "cluster" and ''tekka'' "large crowd"]<br><br />
'''teñ''' ''n'' stone, rock [''tɨñño'']<br><br />
'''tensk''' ''n'' second [''tɨnsał'']<br><br />
'''ti''' ''n'' door, opening [''tɨ'']<br><br />
'''tik''' ''n'' anchor; ''v, a'' set in stone [''tikwa'']<br><br />
'''tinþ''' ''a'' insignificant, irrelevant [''tiddin'']<br><br />
'''tit''' ''n'' speck, stain [''tid'']<br><br />
'''to''' ''aux'' stop [''to'']<br><br />
'''tok<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' despite, against [''te ołgo'' "by-despite"]<br><br />
'''tok<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' light, lamp [''toł'']<br><br />
'''Tók''' ''n'' [[Toło]] [''Toło'']<br><br />
'''tos''' ''v'' allow; ''a'' allowed [''tos'' "legal"]<br><br />
'''tós''' ''prep'' around, during [''tosse'']<br><br />
'''toš''' ''n'' elder sister [''tottsa'']<br><br />
'''tök''' ''n'' duck [''twełyo'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' hand [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' thin, weak [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tőn''' ''v'' prevent [F ''twæno'']<br><br />
'''túþ''' ''n'' metal [''tɨdu'']<br><br />
'''udrúk''' ''n'' morning [''ɨdruła'' "sunrise"]<br><br />
'''úf''' ''pron'' me [''ɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Úfs''' ''n'' the Ndak mother goddess [''Uboz'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' taste, smell [''ułga'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' after [''ugłu'']<br><br />
'''úk''' ''v'' grab, seize [''uła'' "pick up"]<br><br />
'''ulp''' ''v'' explain [F ''uplə'']<br><br />
'''úr''' ''a'' rude, impolite, unfriendly [''uro'' "hostile"]<br><br />
'''Us''' ''n'' [[Ussor]] [''Usso'']<br><br />
'''ús''' ''intj'' hey, hello [''ussa'']<br><br />
'''úš''' ''aux'' would [''utsis'']<br><br />
'''uvőþ''' ''num'' hundred [''ɨbweddu'']<br><br />
'''uxs''' ''n'' storm; ''v'' disrupt, destroy [''uggas'']<br><br />
'''vå''' ''aux'' can [''bwo'']<br><br />
'''våf''' ''v'' strike, hit [''wobba'']<br><br />
'''våk''' ''a'' quiet [''wogga'']<br><br />
'''våkóñ''' ''n'' shellfish, crustacean [''wogyo'' "shellfish" and ''oño'' "crayfish"]<br><br />
'''våls''' ''num'' thirty [''woslo'']<br><br />
'''våñk''' ''adv'' today, currently, at the moment [''wamyeg'']<br><br />
'''våns''' ''v'' mess up; ''n'' mess [''wozzon'']<br><br />
'''vås''' ''num'' three [''wos'']<br><br />
'''vǻs<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' this [''wosse'']<br><br />
'''vǻs''' ''adv'' tonight [''waso'']<br><br />
'''våsön''' ''num'' thirteen [''woswen'']<br><br />
'''våst''' ''num'' third [''wos dya'']<br><br />
'''våšos''' ''adv'' this morning [''wasyozza'']<br><br />
'''våþk''' ''v'' wear, carry; ''n'' clothing [''woddeł'']<br><br />
'''vö''' ''aux'' plan to [''we'']<br><br />
'''vöf''' ''v'' remember; ''n'' memory [''weppu'']<br><br />
'''vőf''' ''quant'' many, most [''weba'']<br><br />
'''vök''' ''pron'' here [''weł'']<br><br />
'''vők''' ''prep'' behind [''wegga'']<br><br />
'''Vöm''' ''n'' title for women, "Mrs." [''wemmu'' "lady"]<br><br />
'''vöñ''' ''a'' ugly, nasty [''weñña'']<br><br />
'''vöñk''' ''n'' younger sister [''wemmoł'']<br><br />
'''vöñőf''' ''a'' tired [''weñÿebu'']<br><br />
'''vös''' ''n'' friend [''wes'']<br><br />
'''vöþ''' ''n'' vegetable [''wedde'']<br><br />
'''vöþep''' ''n'' pickles [''weddɨbye'']<br><br />
'''vuk''' ''n'' castle [''wuł'' "country villa"]<br><br />
'''vúk''' ''v'' find guilty; ''a'' guilty [F ''wugu'']<br><br />
'''vum''' ''v'' live; ''n'' life [''wɨm'']<br><br />
'''vump''' ''n'' papyrus [''wɨmba'']<br><br />
'''vunsék''' ''n, v'' grill [''wɨnseło'']<br><br />
'''vuñk''' ''n'' bridge, connection; ''v'' connect [''wɨñgwe'']<br><br />
'''vuñők''' ''n'' canal [''wɨñÿeło'']<br><br />
'''výk''' ''n'' house, family [''wiło'']<br><br />
'''vym''' ''n'' marsh [''wimma'']<br><br />
'''vys''' ''n'' feast [''wizze'']<br><br />
'''ý''' ''prep'' after [''uyo'']<br><br />
'''yf''' ''n'' weapon; ''v'' attack [''ibbu'']<br><br />
'''ýþ''' ''n'' arm, part, section [''idÿe'']<br><br />
'''za''' ''pron'' who, what (nominative) [''dza'']<br><br />
'''zap''' ''v, n'' insult [''dzappa'']<br><br />
'''zás''' ''pron'' whose [''dza'' + ''yedza'']<br><br />
'''zåmp''' ''n'' traveller, merchant [''dzombu'']<br><br />
'''ze''' ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zek''' ''a'' violent [''dzegga'' "belligerent"]<br><br />
'''zenáf''' ''n'' smith [''dzɨnaba'' "ironsmith"]<br><br />
'''zénš''' ''n'' pig [''zetsan'']<br><br />
'''zér''' ''n'' copper [''zera'']<br><br />
'''zes''' ''pron'' that; ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zgúrk''' ''n'' intestines [''zguruł'']<br><br />
'''zif''' ''a'' evil, bad (of behaviour) [''dzibbe'']<br><br />
'''zivof''' ''n'' misbehaviour [''zif'' + ''obbo'' "misdemeanour'']<br><br />
'''zmepk''' ''n'' countryside [''zmebło'']<br><br />
'''zoríš''' ''v'' wake up [''dzoritsi'']<br><br />
'''zönþ''' ''n'' face; ''v'' look at [''zodwen'']<br><br />
'''zu''' ''pron'' whom, what (accusative) [''dzu'']<br><br />
'''zuk''' ''n'' cheese [''zułk'']<br><br />
'''zum''' ''pron'' to whom [''dzum'']<br><br />
'''zúm''' ''v'' stay behind, remain; ''n'' remnant, relic [''zuma'' "loiter"]<br><br />
'''ži''' ''n'' apple [''zi'']<br><br />
'''žin''' ''n'' wine [''zin'']<br><br />
'''žñéf''' ''n'' tea [''znyoñɨbɨ'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-27T22:14:52Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Conditionals */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, distinguishes three tenses, three aspects, affirmative and negative forms, and a large variety of moods, though it is not conjugated for person or number. There are twenty-three basic auxiliaries; in addition there are a few prefixes which are used to make inceptive, cessative and emphatic forms.<br />
<br />
====Basic auxiliaries====<br />
The twenty-three basic auxiliaries, along with their prototypical uses, are these.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! start<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! continue<br />
| ñek<br />
| ñeñk<br />
| ñekt<br />
| eñek<br />
| eñeñk<br />
| eñekt<br />
|-<br />
! stop<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! about to<br />
| péns<br />
| (péns)<br />
| pénst<br />
| epéns<br />
| (epéns)<br />
| epénst<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! barely<br />
| šens<br />
| (šens)<br />
| šenst<br />
| ešens<br />
| (ešens)<br />
| ešenst<br />
|-<br />
! fail<br />
| slór<br />
| slórn<br />
| slórt<br />
| mislór<br />
| mislórn<br />
| mislórt<br />
|-<br />
! be<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|-<br />
! emphatic<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| e<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
| ma<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derived auxiliaries====<br />
There are a few prefixes which can be used to derive more specific auxiliary verbs. These prefixes are quite transparently derived from full auxiliaries, and they do not vary for tense, though they do have separate affirmative and negative forms. The prefixes are:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Affirmative<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| še(f)-<br />
| ñe(f)-<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| t(o)-<br />
| me(þ)-<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pi(þ)-<br />
| e(f)-<br />
|}<br />
The emphatic prefix can combined with either of the other two prefixes. With a few exceptions, all combinations of a prefix and an auxiliary are theoretically possible (though some may be used only very rarely). Strictly ungrammatical combinations include ''*šešéf'', ''*šefǻþ'', ''*toto'', ''*pipöþ'' and anything with '''šis''' as the second part.<br />
<br />
As an example, here is the full set of auxiliaries derived from '''vå'''.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! Basic<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. inc.<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. cess.<br />
| pitovå<br />
| pitobön<br />
| pitoböt<br />
| emeþef<br />
| emeþemp<br />
| emeþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Tense and aspect usage====<br />
The present is used for things happening in the present. As there is no future tense, the present tense of certain auxiliaries is also used to talk about the future.<br />
<br />
The perfect is used to talk about completed actions and refers to a single point in time or the resulting state. The imperfect by contrast refers to longer periods of time, and can also indicate a repetition.<br />
<br />
The inceptive and cessative aspects refer to the beginning and the end of an action, respectively. The inceptive perfect often emphasises the resulting state, and the cessative perfect often indicates something which happened further back in the past, much like the past perfect in English. In both the inceptive and the cessative aspect the imperfect tense stresses the process of starting or stopping.<br />
<br />
The negative inceptive usually implies that it will start a bit later, and can often be translated as "not yet".<br />
<br />
====Remarks on specific auxiliaries====<br />
'''Is''' and '''éþ''' both indicate a necessity or an obligation, though '''is''' is a bit weaker than '''éþ'''. In the negative, however, it is the other way around: '''mis''' means "must not" whereas '''ñéþ''' means "doesn't have to".<br />
<br />
'''Ok''' and '''vök''' both indicate an intention, but '''vök''' additionally indicates that it will happen within the near future.<br />
<br />
'''Zes''' can indicate both a possibility or permission, depending on the context, and is used to indicate the future if the speaker is not sure it will actually happen.<br />
<br />
The inceptive forms of '''ñek''' indicate a repetition, and can be translated as "again".<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ''' and '''mus''' are generally used as copulas and lack a main verb in those cases. They are also used with verbs expressing a state.<br />
<br />
'''Úš''' is used for hypothetical things, such as conditionals. It is also used for hearsay.<br />
<br />
'''E''' is not only used as an imperative but also to express wishes. In the second person, it is not required to include a subject pronoun, though doing so is considered more polite.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
Conditionals are expressed by the conjunctions '''sorm''' ... '''šis'''. Either of these may be left out, though it is necessary to include at least one of the two.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm úš lék öslás nön, šis úš lék lǻþ mulás åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>if would 2SG.NOM now leave, then would 2SG.NOM correct LOC-hour arrive</small><br><br />
''If you leave now, you will arrive on time.''<br />
<br />
As can be seen, usually a form of the auxiliary '''úš''' is used in both parts of the sentence. However, when expressing general truths, it is only used in the if-part.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm úš ñál sen, šéf muzáþ.'''<br><br />
<small>if would too.much drink, start get.drunk</small><br><br />
''If you drink too much, you get drunk.''<br />
<br />
In the past tenses, '''úš''' in the if-part indicates a counterfactual. When simply expressing a condition in the past, another auxiliary must be used.<br />
<br />
'''Sorm únš i ñok hop, šis múš i én azes öslás.'''<br><br />
<small>if would.PERF 1SG more eat, then NEG.would 1SG hungry ESS-that now</small><br><br />
''If I had eaten more, I wouldn't be so hungry now.''<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-27T21:51:49Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, distinguishes three tenses, three aspects, affirmative and negative forms, and a large variety of moods, though it is not conjugated for person or number. There are twenty-three basic auxiliaries; in addition there are a few prefixes which are used to make inceptive, cessative and emphatic forms.<br />
<br />
====Basic auxiliaries====<br />
The twenty-three basic auxiliaries, along with their prototypical uses, are these.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! start<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! continue<br />
| ñek<br />
| ñeñk<br />
| ñekt<br />
| eñek<br />
| eñeñk<br />
| eñekt<br />
|-<br />
! stop<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! about to<br />
| péns<br />
| (péns)<br />
| pénst<br />
| epéns<br />
| (epéns)<br />
| epénst<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! barely<br />
| šens<br />
| (šens)<br />
| šenst<br />
| ešens<br />
| (ešens)<br />
| ešenst<br />
|-<br />
! fail<br />
| slór<br />
| slórn<br />
| slórt<br />
| mislór<br />
| mislórn<br />
| mislórt<br />
|-<br />
! be<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|-<br />
! emphatic<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| e<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
| ma<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derived auxiliaries====<br />
There are a few prefixes which can be used to derive more specific auxiliary verbs. These prefixes are quite transparently derived from full auxiliaries, and they do not vary for tense, though they do have separate affirmative and negative forms. The prefixes are:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Affirmative<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| še(f)-<br />
| ñe(f)-<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| t(o)-<br />
| me(þ)-<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pi(þ)-<br />
| e(f)-<br />
|}<br />
The emphatic prefix can combined with either of the other two prefixes. With a few exceptions, all combinations of a prefix and an auxiliary are theoretically possible (though some may be used only very rarely). Strictly ungrammatical combinations include ''*šešéf'', ''*šefǻþ'', ''*toto'', ''*pipöþ'' and anything with '''šis''' as the second part.<br />
<br />
As an example, here is the full set of auxiliaries derived from '''vå'''.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! Basic<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. inc.<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. cess.<br />
| pitovå<br />
| pitobön<br />
| pitoböt<br />
| emeþef<br />
| emeþemp<br />
| emeþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Tense and aspect usage====<br />
The present is used for things happening in the present. As there is no future tense, the present tense of certain auxiliaries is also used to talk about the future.<br />
<br />
The perfect is used to talk about completed actions and refers to a single point in time or the resulting state. The imperfect by contrast refers to longer periods of time, and can also indicate a repetition.<br />
<br />
The inceptive and cessative aspects refer to the beginning and the end of an action, respectively. The inceptive perfect often emphasises the resulting state, and the cessative perfect often indicates something which happened further back in the past, much like the past perfect in English. In both the inceptive and the cessative aspect the imperfect tense stresses the process of starting or stopping.<br />
<br />
The negative inceptive usually implies that it will start a bit later, and can often be translated as "not yet".<br />
<br />
====Remarks on specific auxiliaries====<br />
'''Is''' and '''éþ''' both indicate a necessity or an obligation, though '''is''' is a bit weaker than '''éþ'''. In the negative, however, it is the other way around: '''mis''' means "must not" whereas '''ñéþ''' means "doesn't have to".<br />
<br />
'''Ok''' and '''vök''' both indicate an intention, but '''vök''' additionally indicates that it will happen within the near future.<br />
<br />
'''Zes''' can indicate both a possibility or permission, depending on the context, and is used to indicate the future if the speaker is not sure it will actually happen.<br />
<br />
The inceptive forms of '''ñek''' indicate a repetition, and can be translated as "again".<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ''' and '''mus''' are generally used as copulas and lack a main verb in those cases. They are also used with verbs expressing a state.<br />
<br />
'''Úš''' is used for hypothetical things, such as conditionals. It is also used for hearsay.<br />
<br />
'''E''' is not only used as an imperative but also to express wishes. In the second person, it is not required to include a subject pronoun, though doing so is considered more polite.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-26T15:49:58Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Derived auxiliaries */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, distinguishes three tenses, three aspects, affirmative and negative forms, and a large variety of moods, though it is not conjugated for person or number. There are twenty-three basic auxiliaries; in addition there are a few prefixes which are used to make inceptive, cessative and emphatic forms.<br />
<br />
====Basic auxiliaries====<br />
The twenty-three basic auxiliaries, along with their prototypical uses, are these.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! start<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! continue<br />
| ñek<br />
| ñeñk<br />
| ñekt<br />
| eñek<br />
| eñeñk<br />
| eñekt<br />
|-<br />
! stop<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! about to<br />
| péns<br />
| (péns)<br />
| pénst<br />
| epéns<br />
| (epéns)<br />
| epénst<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! barely<br />
| šens<br />
| (šens)<br />
| šenst<br />
| ešens<br />
| (ešens)<br />
| ešenst<br />
|-<br />
! fail<br />
| slór<br />
| slórn<br />
| slórt<br />
| mislór<br />
| mislórn<br />
| mislórt<br />
|-<br />
! be<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|-<br />
! emphatic<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| e<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
| ma<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derived auxiliaries====<br />
There are a few prefixes which can be used to derive more specific auxiliary verbs. These prefixes are quite transparently derived from full auxiliaries, and they do not vary for tense, though they do have separate affirmative and negative forms. The prefixes are:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Affirmative<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| še(f)-<br />
| ñe(f)-<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| t(o)-<br />
| me(þ)-<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pi(þ)-<br />
| e(f)-<br />
|}<br />
The emphatic prefix can combined with either of the other two prefixes. With a few exceptions, all combinations of a prefix and an auxiliary are theoretically possible (though some may be used only very rarely). Strictly ungrammatical combinations include ''*šešéf'', ''*šefǻþ'', ''*toto'', ''*pipöþ'' and anything with '''šis''' as the second part.<br />
<br />
As an example, here is the full set of auxiliaries derived from '''vå'''.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! Basic<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! Inceptive<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Cessative<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|-<br />
! Emphatic<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. inc.<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|-<br />
! Emph. cess.<br />
| pitovå<br />
| pitobön<br />
| pitoböt<br />
| emeþef<br />
| emeþemp<br />
| emeþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-24T21:30:16Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, distinguishes three tenses, three aspects, affirmative and negative forms, and a large variety of moods, though it is not conjugated for person or number. There are twenty-three basic auxiliaries; in addition there are a few prefixes which are used to make inceptive, cessative and emphatic forms.<br />
<br />
====Basic auxiliaries====<br />
The twenty-three basic auxiliaries, along with their prototypical uses, are these.<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! start<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! continue<br />
| ñek<br />
| ñeñk<br />
| ñekt<br />
| eñek<br />
| eñeñk<br />
| eñekt<br />
|-<br />
! stop<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! about to<br />
| péns<br />
| (péns)<br />
| pénst<br />
| epéns<br />
| (epéns)<br />
| epénst<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! barely<br />
| šens<br />
| (šens)<br />
| šenst<br />
| ešens<br />
| (ešens)<br />
| ešenst<br />
|-<br />
! fail<br />
| slór<br />
| slórn<br />
| slórt<br />
| mislór<br />
| mislórn<br />
| mislórt<br />
|-<br />
! be<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|-<br />
! emphatic<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| e<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
| ma<br />
| -<br />
| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derived auxiliaries====<br />
<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-23T18:43:28Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Numerals */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik, nix-<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvőþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
'''Nik''' "nine" becomes '''nix-''' whenever a suffix is added.<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvőþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds". The word for 10,000 is '''as'''.<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvőþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvőþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nixep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
*'''uvőþ å våls å då zas''' 1,350,000<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-23T18:16:25Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears morpheme-initially, thus making the contrast between /h/ and /x/ very marginal. In addition, some speakers drop /h/ in prefixed forms, which means that for them there is no environment at all in which /h/ and /x/ are contrastive.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2017-01-23T18:11:32Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nahisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ihisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ahisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muhisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*Some speakers drop word-initial h after a prefix. The standard language however only does this after the plural prefix, keeping it in all the singular case forms.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-21T10:44:04Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time; ''(pl)'' time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br><br />
'''páþ''' ''n'' valley [''pada'']<br><br />
'''påf''' ''n'' disgust; ''v'' be disgusted [''poppu'']<br><br />
'''pǻk''' ''n'' horse; ''v'' ride [''pagu'']<br><br />
'''pe''' ''a'' big [''pya'']<br><br />
'''pedéns''' ''v'' understand [''pɨdyemis'']<br><br />
'''pef''' ''n'' breast; ''v'' breastfeed, nurse [''peppe'']<br><br />
'''pen''' ''n, v'' kiss [''pyen'']<br><br />
'''péns''' ''a'' ready; ''aux'' about to [''pesen'']<br><br />
'''pi''' ''n'' child [''pɨ'']<br><br />
'''pik''' ''a'' main, primary [''piggał'']<br><br />
'''pík''' ''v'' send [''piła'']<br><br />
'''pinír''' ''num'' ninety [''pya niro'']<br><br />
'''piñ''' ''n'' chicken [''piñña'']<br><br />
'''pisk''' ''a'' dead; ''n'' corpse [''pissił'']<br><br />
'''pok''' ''n'' orange [''połge'']<br><br />
'''ponš''' ''v'' count; ''n'' number [''potsna'']<br><br />
'''pont''' ''a'' purple [''ponda'']<br><br />
'''poþ''' ''v'' get, receive [''potte'' "find"]<br><br />
'''pök''' ''v'' ignore [''pwekku'' "snub"]<br><br />
'''pömp''' ''n'' rich person [''pyombu'' "bourgeois"]<br><br />
'''pön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' island [''pwen'']<br><br />
'''pön<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' with, having [''pyon'']<br><br />
'''Pörps''' ''n'' [[Poráš]] [''Pyopros'']<br><br />
'''pös''' ''n'' fish [''pyossa'']<br><br />
'''Pőxs''' ''n'' [[Peilaš]] [''Pyołas'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' loud; ''v'' ring (a bell), notify [''pyodde'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' emphatic auxiliary [''pyotta'']<br><br />
'''pren''' ''v'' design [''pryen'']<br><br />
'''pú''' ''n'' nose; ''v'' smell [''puwa'']<br><br />
'''puft''' ''v, n'' attack; ''a'' aggressive [''pubbɨt'']<br><br />
'''rak''' ''v'' pour [''rał'']<br><br />
'''råns''' ''n'' voter; ''v'' vote [''roznu'']<br><br />
'''råþ''' ''n'' property [''roddu'']<br><br />
'''re''' ''a'' straight [''re'']<br><br />
'''ref''' ''n, v'' substitute [''ryeppu'']<br><br />
'''rek''' ''a'' hot [''rełga'']<br><br />
'''rém''' ''pt'' introduces relative clauses [''rema'']<br><br />
'''ren''' ''prep'' like, in a ... way [''ryen'']<br><br />
'''réñ''' ''adv'' instead; ''prep'' instead of [''ryeñu'']<br><br />
'''Reñk''' ''n'' the plains of southwestern Huyfárah [''Reñło'']<br><br />
'''réñk''' ''n'' platform, storey, floor [''reñał'']<br><br />
'''reþ''' ''v'' hear, perceive [''ryettu'']<br><br />
'''reþk''' ''n'' jar, box [''ryeddeł'']<br><br />
'''rexs''' ''n, v'' nurse [''rełsa'']<br><br />
'''rezdǻ''' ''v, n'' delay [''rezdowa'' "waste time"]<br><br />
'''ro''' ''num'' ten [''ro'']<br><br />
'''roñk''' ''a'' insane [''rołña'']<br><br />
'''rot''' ''num'' tenth [''ro dya'']<br><br />
'''roþ''' ''v'' have [''rodda'']<br><br />
'''róþ''' ''v'' eat, have dinner [''rote'']<br><br />
'''röm''' ''n'' disaster [''ryommɨ'' "earthquake"]<br><br />
'''ruf''' ''v'' pull [''rubba'' "masturbate"]<br><br />
'''runs''' ''v'' slander [''russan'']<br><br />
'''ruñk''' ''pt'' where [''rułma'']<br><br />
'''rus''' ''n'' female member [''rudza'']<br><br />
'''rut''' ''n'' male member [''rud'']<br><br />
'''ruvos''' ''v'' argue; ''n'' argument [''rubosso'' "haggle"]<br><br />
'''så''' ''n'' knee, corner [''swa'']<br><br />
'''såt''' ''n'' sandwich [''sadwa'']<br><br />
'''sek''' ''n'' name; ''v'' call, mention [''sek'']<br><br />
'''sék''' ''n'' hearth [''seło'']<br><br />
'''sen''' ''v, n'' drink [''sɨn'']<br><br />
'''sens''' ''adv'' the day after tomorrow [''sɨnsɨ'']<br><br />
'''senš''' ''a'' fortunate [''settsin'']<br><br />
'''sént''' ''n'' civil servant [''senat'' "minister"]<br><br />
'''sénþ''' ''v'' discuss; ''n'' conversation [''setim'']<br><br />
'''señk''' ''n'' hurricane [''seggan'']<br><br />
'''ses''' ''a'' good, kind [''sɨs'']<br><br />
'''sés''' ''adv'' yesterday [''sɨso'']<br><br />
'''seš''' ''a'' both, each [''sɨts'']<br><br />
'''sešint''' ''n'' descent [''sestsinte'' "genealogy"]<br><br />
'''sexs''' ''n'' dragonfly [''sełsa'']<br><br />
'''Séþk''' ''n'' [[Sertek]] [''Setek'']<br><br />
'''skexp''' ''n'' clothing [''skełbo'']<br><br />
'''slór''' ''v'' forget to do/say something, fail [''slora'' "briefly forget"]<br><br />
'''smók''' ''n, v'' gossip [''smoło'']<br><br />
'''smóþ''' ''n, v'' farm [''smote'']<br><br />
'''smóþp''' ''n'' farmer [''smotebu'']<br><br />
'''snon''' ''n'' ground, base, foundation [''snon'']<br><br />
'''sóñk''' ''n, a'' fat [''sołan'']<br><br />
'''sorm''' ''pt'' when, if [''sorma'']<br><br />
'''sormp''' ''n'' teacher [''sobren'' "clever person"]<br><br />
'''sos<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' second day of the week [''sos'']<br><br />
'''sos<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' onion [''sozzi'']<br><br />
'''sós''' ''n'' woman [''sossa'']<br><br />
'''söpk''' ''n'' bag, sack [''swebło'']<br><br />
'''sus''' ''n'' olive oil [''suddzi'']<br><br />
'''ša''' ''v'' walk [''tsa'']<br><br />
'''šak''' ''n'' king [''tsak'']<br><br />
'''šan''' ''v'' ask; ''n'' question [''tsanno'']<br><br />
'''šanis''' ''n'' fugitive; ''v'' flee, deny [''tsanizzu'']<br><br />
'''šaps''' ''v'' sneeze [''tsapso'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' one [''tse'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' blue [''hya'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' student [''tsebu'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' start [''hyeppe'']<br><br />
'''šéfk''' ''v, n'' curse [''tsɨpał'']<br><br />
'''šélk''' ''v, n'' vomit [WF ''čekal'']<br><br />
'''Šels''' the Union [''tse las'' "one country"]<br><br />
'''šelš''' ''n'' danger, threat; ''a'' dangerous; ''v'' threaten [F ''čelč'']<br><br />
'''šem''' ''n'' south [''tyem'']<br><br />
'''šen''' ''n'' fire; ''v'' burn [''tsennu'']<br><br />
'''šens<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' weird, embarrassing [''tsenso'' "to embarrass"]<br><br />
'''šens<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' barely do [''tsɨssɨnza'' "barely make it through"]<br><br />
'''šeñk''' ''n'' religious school [''tsemmał'']<br><br />
'''šep''' ''v'' perform, act, utter, show [''syep'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' go bad, expire [''tset'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' coin, ''(pl)'' money, wealth; ''a'' rich [''syet'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>3</sup>''' ''num'' first [''tse dya'']<br><br />
'''ševön''' ''num'' eleven [''tsewen'']<br><br />
'''šexš''' ''n'' risk [''tsełts'']<br><br />
'''šeþ''' ''n'' house; ''v'' live, dwell [''tyeddi'']<br><br />
'''šíf''' ''n'' sail [''sipa'' "crab-claw sail"]<br><br />
'''šik''' ''v'' urinate, talk bullshit [''siggił'']<br><br />
'''šík''' ''n'' tooth [''siło'']<br><br />
'''šiñxs''' ''n'' beer [''tsiłtsɨn'']<br><br />
'''šír''' ''n'' whore, bitch [''sira'']<br><br />
'''šírk''' ''pron'' there [''siruł'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' do [''sis'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>2</sup>''' ''conj'' then, therefore [''sisso'']<br><br />
'''šislás''' ''pron'' then, at that time [''sisso lasa'' "then-hour'']<br><br />
'''šiš''' ''n'' lightning [''tsittsi'']<br><br />
'''šór''' ''n'' garbage, waste [''tsoro'' "junk"]<br><br />
'''šós''' ''adv'' tomorrow, soon; ''v'' come soon [''sisyozza'']<br><br />
'''šöm''' ''v, n'' delay; ''a'' slow [''hyomma'']<br><br />
'''šöñks''' ''n'' punt [''tyoñgas'']<br><br />
'''šös''' ''n'' morning; ''adv'' tomorrow [''syozza'']<br><br />
'''šöské''' ''n'' mist [''syoskaya'']<br><br />
'''šöxp''' ''n'' stranger, guest [''hyołbu'']<br><br />
'''šöþ''' ''a'' wide [''tyottu'']<br><br />
'''šőþ''' ''a'' true [''hyotte'' "correct"]<br><br />
'''šúr''' ''adv'' eventually [''tsure'' "some other time"]<br><br />
'''tamp''' ''v, a'' fake [WF ''tāmpa'' "mimic"]<br><br />
'''tå''' ''n'' lake [''twa'']<br><br />
'''te''' ''prep'' with, by [''te'']<br><br />
'''téfs''' ''n'' frame [''tɨpas'']<br><br />
'''tek''' ''n'' group [''teg'' "cluster" and ''tekka'' "large crowd"]<br><br />
'''teñ''' ''n'' stone, rock [''tɨñño'']<br><br />
'''tensk''' ''n'' second [''tɨnsał'']<br><br />
'''ti''' ''n'' door, opening [''tɨ'']<br><br />
'''tik''' ''n'' anchor; ''v, a'' set in stone [''tikwa'']<br><br />
'''tinþ''' ''a'' insignificant, irrelevant [''tiddin'']<br><br />
'''tit''' ''n'' speck, stain [''tid'']<br><br />
'''to''' ''aux'' stop [''to'']<br><br />
'''tok<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' despite, against [''te ołgo'' "by-despite"]<br><br />
'''tok<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' light, lamp [''toł'']<br><br />
'''Tók''' ''n'' [[Toło]] [''Toło'']<br><br />
'''tos''' ''v'' allow; ''a'' allowed [''tos'' "legal"]<br><br />
'''tós''' ''prep'' around, during [''tosse'']<br><br />
'''toš''' ''n'' elder sister [''tottsa'']<br><br />
'''tök''' ''n'' duck [''twełyo'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' hand [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' thin, weak [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tőn''' ''v'' prevent [F ''twæno'']<br><br />
'''túþ''' ''n'' metal [''tɨdu'']<br><br />
'''udrúk''' ''n'' morning [''ɨdruła'' "sunrise"]<br><br />
'''úf''' ''pron'' me [''ɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Úfs''' ''n'' the Ndak mother goddess [''Uboz'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' taste, smell [''ułga'']<br><br />
'''uk<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' after [''ugłu'']<br><br />
'''úk''' ''v'' grab, seize [''uła'' "pick up"]<br><br />
'''ulp''' ''v'' explain [F ''uplə'']<br><br />
'''úr''' ''a'' rude, impolite, unfriendly [''uro'' "hostile"]<br><br />
'''Us''' ''n'' [[Ussor]] [''Usso'']<br><br />
'''ús''' ''intj'' hey, hello [''ussa'']<br><br />
'''úš''' ''aux'' would [''utsis'']<br><br />
'''uvőþ''' ''num'' hundred [''ɨbweddu'']<br><br />
'''uxs''' ''n'' storm; ''v'' disrupt, destroy [''uggas'']<br><br />
'''vå''' ''aux'' can [''bwo'']<br><br />
'''våf''' ''v'' strike, hit [''wobba'']<br><br />
'''våk''' ''a'' quiet [''wogga'']<br><br />
'''våkóñ''' ''n'' shellfish, crustacean [''wogyo'' "shellfish" and ''oño'' "crayfish"]<br><br />
'''våls''' ''num'' thirty [''woslo'']<br><br />
'''våñk''' ''adv'' today, currently, at the moment [''wamyeg'']<br><br />
'''våns''' ''v'' mess up; ''n'' mess [''wozzon'']<br><br />
'''vås''' ''num'' three [''wos'']<br><br />
'''vǻs<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' this [''wosse'']<br><br />
'''vǻs''' ''adv'' tonight [''waso'']<br><br />
'''våsön''' ''num'' thirteen [''woswen'']<br><br />
'''våst''' ''num'' third [''wos dya'']<br><br />
'''våšos''' ''adv'' this morning [''wasyozza'']<br><br />
'''våþk''' ''v'' wear, carry; ''n'' clothing [''woddeł'']<br><br />
'''vö''' ''aux'' plan to [''we'']<br><br />
'''vöf''' ''v'' remember; ''n'' memory [''weppu'']<br><br />
'''vőf''' ''quant'' many, most [''weba'']<br><br />
'''vök''' ''pron'' here [''weł'']<br><br />
'''vők''' ''prep'' behind [''wegga'']<br><br />
'''Vöm''' ''n'' title for women, "Mrs." [''wemmu'' "lady"]<br><br />
'''vöñ''' ''a'' ugly, nasty [''weñña'']<br><br />
'''vöñk''' ''n'' younger sister [''wemmoł'']<br><br />
'''vöñőf''' ''a'' tired [''weñÿebu'']<br><br />
'''vös''' ''n'' friend [''wes'']<br><br />
'''vöþ''' ''n'' vegetable [''wedde'']<br><br />
'''vöþep''' ''n'' pickles [''weddɨbye'']<br><br />
'''vuk''' ''n'' castle [''wuł'' "country villa"]<br><br />
'''vúk''' ''v'' find guilty; ''a'' guilty [F ''wugu'']<br><br />
'''vum''' ''v'' live; ''n'' life [''wɨm'']<br><br />
'''vump''' ''n'' papyrus [''wɨmba'']<br><br />
'''vunsék''' ''n, v'' grill [''wɨnseło'']<br><br />
'''vuñk''' ''n'' bridge, connection; ''v'' connect [''wɨñgwe'']<br><br />
'''vuñők''' ''n'' canal [''wɨñÿeło'']<br><br />
'''výk''' ''n'' house, family [''wiło'']<br><br />
'''vym''' ''n'' marsh [''wimma'']<br><br />
'''vys''' ''n'' feast [''wizze'']<br><br />
'''ý''' ''prep'' after [''uyo'']<br><br />
'''yf''' ''n'' weapon; ''v'' attack [''ibbu'']<br><br />
'''ýþ''' ''n'' arm [''idÿe'']<br><br />
'''za''' ''pron'' who, what (nominative) [''dza'']<br><br />
'''zap''' ''v, n'' insult [''dzappa'']<br><br />
'''zás''' ''pron'' whose [''dza'' + ''yedza'']<br><br />
'''zåmp''' ''n'' traveller, merchant [''dzombu'']<br><br />
'''ze''' ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zek''' ''a'' violent [''dzegga'' "belligerent"]<br><br />
'''zenáf''' ''n'' smith [''dzɨnaba'' "ironsmith"]<br><br />
'''zénš''' ''n'' pig [''zetsan'']<br><br />
'''zér''' ''n'' copper [''zera'']<br><br />
'''zes''' ''pron'' that; ''art'' the [''dzeddze'']<br><br />
'''zgúrk''' ''n'' intestines [''zguruł'']<br><br />
'''zif''' ''a'' evil, bad (of behaviour) [''dzibbe'']<br><br />
'''zivof''' ''n'' misbehaviour [''zif'' + ''obbo'' "misdemeanour'']<br><br />
'''zmepk''' ''n'' countryside [''zmebło'']<br><br />
'''zoríš''' ''v'' wake up [''dzoritsi'']<br><br />
'''zönþ''' ''n'' face; ''v'' look at [''zodwen'']<br><br />
'''zu''' ''pron'' whom, what (accusative) [''dzu'']<br><br />
'''zuk''' ''n'' cheese [''zułk'']<br><br />
'''zum''' ''pron'' to whom [''dzum'']<br><br />
'''zúm''' ''v'' stay behind, remain; ''n'' remnant, relic [''zuma'' "loiter"]<br><br />
'''ži''' ''n'' apple [''zi'']<br><br />
'''žin''' ''n'' wine [''zin'']<br><br />
'''žñéf''' ''n'' tea [''znyoñɨbɨ'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-20T20:08:31Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br><br />
'''páþ''' ''n'' valley [''pada'']<br><br />
'''påf''' ''n'' disgust; ''v'' be disgusted [''poppu'']<br><br />
'''pǻk''' ''n'' horse; ''v'' ride [''pagu'']<br><br />
'''pe''' ''a'' big [''pya'']<br><br />
'''pedéns''' ''v'' understand [''pɨdyemis'']<br><br />
'''pef''' ''n'' breast; ''v'' breastfeed, nurse [''peppe'']<br><br />
'''pen''' ''n, v'' kiss [''pyen'']<br><br />
'''péns''' ''a'' ready; ''aux'' about to [''pesen'']<br><br />
'''pi''' ''n'' child [''pɨ'']<br><br />
'''pik''' ''a'' main, primary [''piggał'']<br><br />
'''pík''' ''v'' send [''piła'']<br><br />
'''pinír''' ''num'' ninety [''pya niro'']<br><br />
'''piñ''' ''n'' chicken [''piñña'']<br><br />
'''pisk''' ''a'' dead; ''n'' corpse [''pissił'']<br><br />
'''pok''' ''n'' orange [''połge'']<br><br />
'''ponš''' ''v'' count; ''n'' number [''potsna'']<br><br />
'''pont''' ''a'' purple [''ponda'']<br><br />
'''poþ''' ''v'' get, receive [''potte'' "find"]<br><br />
'''pök''' ''v'' ignore [''pwekku'' "snub"]<br><br />
'''pömp''' ''n'' rich person [''pyombu'' "bourgeois"]<br><br />
'''pön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' island [''pwen'']<br><br />
'''pön<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' with, having [''pyon'']<br><br />
'''Pörps''' ''n'' [[Poráš]] [''Pyopros'']<br><br />
'''pös''' ''n'' fish [''pyossa'']<br><br />
'''Pőxs''' ''n'' [[Peilaš]] [''Pyołas'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' loud; ''v'' ring (a bell), notify [''pyodde'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' emphatic auxiliary [''pyotta'']<br><br />
'''pren''' ''v'' design [''pryen'']<br><br />
'''pú''' ''n'' nose; ''v'' smell [''puwa'']<br><br />
'''puft''' ''v, n'' attack; ''a'' aggressive [''pubbɨt'']<br><br />
'''rak''' ''v'' pour [''rał'']<br><br />
'''råns''' ''n'' voter; ''v'' vote [''roznu'']<br><br />
'''råþ''' ''n'' property [''roddu'']<br><br />
'''re''' ''a'' straight [''re'']<br><br />
'''ref''' ''n, v'' substitute [''ryeppu'']<br><br />
'''rek''' ''a'' hot [''rełga'']<br><br />
'''rém''' ''pt'' introduces relative clauses [''rema'']<br><br />
'''ren''' ''prep'' like, in a ... way [''ryen'']<br><br />
'''réñ''' ''adv'' instead; ''prep'' instead of [''ryeñu'']<br><br />
'''Reñk''' ''n'' the plains of southwestern Huyfárah [''Reñło'']<br><br />
'''réñk''' ''n'' platform, storey, floor [''reñał'']<br><br />
'''reþ''' ''v'' hear, perceive [''ryettu'']<br><br />
'''reþk''' ''n'' jar, box [''ryeddeł'']<br><br />
'''rexs''' ''n, v'' nurse [''rełsa'']<br><br />
'''rezdǻ''' ''v, n'' delay [''rezdowa'' "waste time"]<br><br />
'''ro''' ''num'' ten [''ro'']<br><br />
'''roñk''' ''a'' insane [''rołña'']<br><br />
'''rot''' ''num'' tenth [''ro dya'']<br><br />
'''roþ''' ''v'' have [''rodda'']<br><br />
'''róþ''' ''v'' eat, have dinner [''rote'']<br><br />
'''röm''' ''n'' disaster [''ryommɨ'' "earthquake"]<br><br />
'''ruf''' ''v'' pull [''rubba'' "masturbate"]<br><br />
'''runs''' ''v'' slander [''russan'']<br><br />
'''ruñk''' ''pt'' where [''rułma'']<br><br />
'''rus''' ''n'' female member [''rudza'']<br><br />
'''rut''' ''n'' male member [''rud'']<br><br />
'''ruvos''' ''v'' argue; ''n'' argument [''rubosso'' "haggle"]<br><br />
'''så''' ''n'' knee, corner [''swa'']<br><br />
'''såt''' ''n'' sandwich [''sadwa'']<br><br />
'''sek''' ''n'' name; ''v'' call, mention [''sek'']<br><br />
'''sék''' ''n'' hearth [''seło'']<br><br />
'''sen''' ''v, n'' drink [''sɨn'']<br><br />
'''sens''' ''adv'' the day after tomorrow [''sɨnsɨ'']<br><br />
'''senš''' ''a'' fortunate [''settsin'']<br><br />
'''sént''' ''n'' civil servant [''senat'' "minister"]<br><br />
'''sénþ''' ''v'' discuss; ''n'' conversation [''setim'']<br><br />
'''señk''' ''n'' hurricane [''seggan'']<br><br />
'''ses''' ''a'' good, kind [''sɨs'']<br><br />
'''sés''' ''adv'' yesterday [''sɨso'']<br><br />
'''seš''' ''a'' both, each [''sɨts'']<br><br />
'''sešint''' ''n'' descent [''sestsinte'' "genealogy"]<br><br />
'''sexs''' ''n'' dragonfly [''sełsa'']<br><br />
'''Séþk''' ''n'' [[Sertek]] [''Setek'']<br><br />
'''skexp''' ''n'' clothing [''skełbo'']<br><br />
'''slór''' ''v'' forget to do/say something, fail [''slora'' "briefly forget"]<br><br />
'''smók''' ''n, v'' gossip [''smoło'']<br><br />
'''smóþ''' ''n, v'' farm [''smote'']<br><br />
'''smóþp''' ''n'' farmer [''smotebu'']<br><br />
'''snon''' ''n'' ground, base, foundation [''snon'']<br><br />
'''sóñk''' ''n, a'' fat [''sołan'']<br><br />
'''sorm''' ''pt'' when, if [''sorma'']<br><br />
'''sormp''' ''n'' teacher [''sobren'' "clever person"]<br><br />
'''sos<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' second day of the week [''sos'']<br><br />
'''sos<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' onion [''sozzi'']<br><br />
'''sós''' ''n'' woman [''sossa'']<br><br />
'''söpk''' ''n'' bag, sack [''swebło'']<br><br />
'''sus''' ''n'' olive oil [''suddzi'']<br><br />
'''ša''' ''v'' walk [''tsa'']<br><br />
'''šak''' ''n'' king [''tsak'']<br><br />
'''šan''' ''v'' ask; ''n'' question [''tsanno'']<br><br />
'''šanis''' ''n'' fugitive; ''v'' flee, deny [''tsanizzu'']<br><br />
'''šaps''' ''v'' sneeze [''tsapso'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' one [''tse'']<br><br />
'''še<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' blue [''hya'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' student [''tsebu'']<br><br />
'''šéf<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' start [''hyeppe'']<br><br />
'''šéfk''' ''v, n'' curse [''tsɨpał'']<br><br />
'''šélk''' ''v, n'' vomit [WF ''čekal'']<br><br />
'''Šels''' the Union [''tse las'' "one country"]<br><br />
'''šelš''' ''n'' danger, threat; ''a'' dangerous; ''v'' threaten [F ''čelč'']<br><br />
'''šem''' ''n'' south [''tyem'']<br><br />
'''šen''' ''n'' fire; ''v'' burn [''tsennu'']<br><br />
'''šens<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' weird, embarrassing [''tsenso'' "to embarrass"]<br><br />
'''šens<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' barely do [''tsɨssɨnza'' "barely make it through"]<br><br />
'''šeñk''' ''n'' religious school [''tsemmał'']<br><br />
'''šep''' ''v'' perform, act, utter, show [''syep'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' go bad, expire [''tset'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' coin, ''(pl)'' money, wealth; ''a'' rich [''syet'']<br><br />
'''šet<sup>3</sup>''' ''num'' first [''tse dya'']<br><br />
'''ševön''' ''num'' eleven [''tsewen'']<br><br />
'''šexš''' ''n'' risk [''tsełts'']<br><br />
'''šeþ''' ''n'' house; ''v'' live, dwell [''tyeddi'']<br><br />
'''šíf''' ''n'' sail [''sipa'' "crab-claw sail"]<br><br />
'''šik''' ''v'' urinate, talk bullshit [''siggił'']<br><br />
'''šík''' ''n'' tooth [''siło'']<br><br />
'''šiñxs''' ''n'' beer [''tsiłtsɨn'']<br><br />
'''šír''' ''n'' whore, bitch [''sira'']<br><br />
'''šírk''' ''pron'' there [''siruł'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' do [''sis'']<br><br />
'''šis<sup>2</sup>''' ''conj'' then, therefore [''sisso'']<br><br />
'''šislás''' ''pron'' then, at that time [''sisso lasa'' "then-hour'']<br><br />
'''šiš''' ''n'' lightning [''tsittsi'']<br><br />
'''šór''' ''n'' garbage, waste [''tsoro'' "junk"]<br><br />
'''šós''' ''adv'' tomorrow, soon; ''v'' come soon [''sisyozza'']<br><br />
'''šöm''' ''v, n'' delay; ''a'' slow [''hyomma'']<br><br />
'''šöñks''' ''n'' punt [''tyoñgas'']<br><br />
'''šös''' ''n'' morning; ''adv'' tomorrow [''syozza'']<br><br />
'''šöské''' ''n'' mist [''syoskaya'']<br><br />
'''šöxp''' ''n'' stranger, guest [''hyołbu'']<br><br />
'''šöþ''' ''a'' wide [''tyottu'']<br><br />
'''šőþ''' ''a'' true [''hyotte'' "correct"]<br><br />
'''šúr''' ''adv'' eventually [''tsure'' "some other time"]<br><br />
'''tamp''' ''v, a'' fake [WF ''tāmpa'' "mimic"]<br><br />
'''tå''' ''n'' lake [''twa'']<br><br />
'''te''' ''prep'' with, by [''te'']<br><br />
'''téfs''' ''n'' frame [''tɨpas'']<br><br />
'''tek''' ''n'' group [''teg'' "cluster" and ''tekka'' "large crowd"]<br><br />
'''teñ''' ''n'' stone, rock [''tɨñño'']<br><br />
'''tensk''' ''n'' second [''tɨnsał'']<br><br />
'''ti''' ''n'' door, opening [''tɨ'']<br><br />
'''tik''' ''n'' anchor; ''v, a'' set in stone [''tikwa'']<br><br />
'''tinþ''' ''a'' insignificant, irrelevant [''tiddin'']<br><br />
'''tit''' ''n'' speck, stain [''tid'']<br><br />
'''to''' ''aux'' stop [''to'']<br><br />
'''tok<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' despite, against [''te ołgo'' "by-despite"]<br><br />
'''tok<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' light, lamp [''toł'']<br><br />
'''Tók''' ''n'' [[Toło]] [''Toło'']<br><br />
'''tos''' ''v'' allow; ''a'' allowed [''tos'' "legal"]<br><br />
'''tós''' ''prep'' around, during [''tosse'']<br><br />
'''toš''' ''n'' elder sister [''tottsa'']<br><br />
'''tök''' ''n'' duck [''twełyo'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' hand [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tön<sup>2</sup>''' ''a'' thin, weak [''twen'']<br><br />
'''tőn''' ''v'' prevent [F ''twæno'']<br><br />
'''túþ''' ''n'' metal [''tɨdu'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A1ralo_alphabet.jpgFile:Fáralo alphabet.jpg2017-01-20T15:53:00Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Writing]]</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/F%C3%A1ralo_alphabetFáralo alphabet2017-01-20T15:52:28Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
<br />
The '''Fáralo alphabet''' is an alphabet which was originally invented for writing the [[Fáralo]] language, but was soon adapted for various other languages as well.<br />
<br />
==Script==<br />
[[File:Fáralo alphabet.jpg|thumb]]<br />
The letterforms of the Fáralo alphabet are shown in the image to the right together with their usual transliterations. The orthography was largely phonemic, with a few exceptions:<br />
* The sequences /iə uə/ were usually written as single letters, though some scribes preferred to write them as digraphs instead.<br />
* Unstressed word-initial /ɛ/ was written as /ə/.<br />
* Stops and affricates were represented by two different letters each. Their distribution was as follows:<br />
** For voiceless stops, '''p<sub>1</sub> t<sub>1</sub> č<sub>1</sub> k<sub>1</sub>''' were used word-medially whereas '''p<sub>2</sub> t<sub>2</sub> č<sub>2</sub> k<sub>2</sub>''' were used word-initially.<br />
** For voiced stops, '''b<sub>2</sub> d<sub>2</sub> g<sub>2</sub>''' were used to indicate /b d g/ deriving from the consonant mutation, and '''b<sub>1</sub> d<sub>1</sub> g<sub>1</sub>''' were used elsewhere.<br />
** Since /tʃ/ didn't participate in the consonant mutation, the usage of '''j<sub>2</sub>''' varied between scribes. Most used it for word-initial /dʒ/, while some others didn't use it at all.<br />
*/j/ was not distinguished from /i/.<br />
* Stress was not indicated.<br />
<br />
==Origins of the glyphs==<br />
The Fáralo alphabet descends from the [[Ndak syllabary]], which in turn descends from the [[Oryziform]] script. The Ndak syllabary consisted primarily of CV glyphs and was slightly defective, as it did not distinguish voicing, nor did it distinguish /s/ from /ts/. It did however have separate glyphs for prenasalised stops and a number of non-CV glyphs, including a full set for nasal vowels.<br />
<br />
As intervocalic stops were voiced during the development of Fáralo from Ndak Ta, the glyphs originally representing plain stops usually represented voiced stops in early Fáralo, whereas the prenasalised stops, not having undergone this sound change, could still be either voiceless or voiced. Therefore the glyphs representing prenasalised stops were chosen to represent voiceless stops and those representing plain stops were chosen for the voiced ones. Word-initially, however, the original voicing distinction was preserved, and a separate series of glyphs was taken from the original plain series to be used for word-initial voiceless stops alone. Mirrored variants of these came to be used to represent the consonant mutation.<br />
<br />
As /s/ and /ts/ were not distinguished in Ndak Ta, while both phonemes split into two phonemes in Fáralo, the original S-series was used for as many as four different consonant phonemes in early Fáralo: /s š z h/. Word-initial /š/, which only appeared in Faraghin loanwords, was written using the si glyph, which therefore became the sign for /š/ in the alphabet. The signs for /s/ and /h/ were randomly chosen from the other S-glyphs, and for /z/ a mirrored variant of /s/ was chosen.<br />
<br />
The sign for /f/, another phoneme which word-initially only appears in Faraghin loanwords, descends from a logogram which originally meant "people" and was adopted for the word "Fáralo".<br />
<br />
The full list of Fáralo letters and their origins is as follows:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Fáralo value<br />
! Ndak Ta syllable<br />
! Ndak Ta word<br />
! Oryziform glyph<br />
|-<br />
| '''a'''<br />
| '''a'''<br />
| ''asa'' "woman"<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| '''n'''<br />
| '''ne'''<br />
| ''nenga'' "leaf"<br />
| 67<br />
|-<br />
| '''ou'''<br />
| '''oN'''<br />
| ''omo'' "mother''<br />
| 73<br />
|-<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| '''ma'''<br />
| ''mabm'' "mouth''<br />
| 77<br />
|-<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| ''itwam'' "arm"<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| ''esul'' "take"<br />
| 288<br />
|-<br />
| '''r'''<br />
| '''ru'''<br />
| ''rud'' "man"<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| '''p<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''mpa'''<br />
| ''mpaiswa'' "fish"<br />
| 49<br />
|-<br />
| '''iə'''<br />
| '''iN'''<br />
| ''imbi'' "moon"<br />
| 72<br />
|-<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''so'''<br />
| ''tsondo'' "knee"<br />
| 63<br />
|-<br />
| '''j<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ke'''<br />
| ''kenla'' "teacher"<br />
| 108<br />
|-<br />
| '''o'''<br />
| '''o'''<br />
| ''okwa'' "ear"<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''s'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''k<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ngko'''<br />
| ''nggol'' "foot"<br />
| 52<br />
|-<br />
| '''uə'''<br />
| '''uN'''<br />
| ''untai'' "to joke"<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| '''u'''<br />
| '''u'''<br />
| ''ulwo'' "rope"<br />
| 92<br />
|-<br />
| '''w'''<br />
| '''we'''<br />
| ''wedn'' "herb"<br />
| 60<br />
|-<br />
| '''g<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ko'''<br />
| ''komwa'' "tongue"<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| '''ei'''<br />
| '''eN'''<br />
| ''empi'' "grass"<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| '''d<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''to'''<br />
| ''ton'' "hand"<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| '''č<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ngki'''<br />
| ''ngkilba'' "plough"<br />
| 198<br />
|-<br />
| '''p<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''pa'''<br />
| ''pap'' "shield"<br />
| 97<br />
|-<br />
| '''b<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''p<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''t<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ta'''<br />
| ''daing'' "mountain"<br />
| 75<br />
|-<br />
| '''d<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''t<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''k<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ka'''<br />
| ''gan'' "knife"<br />
| 65<br />
|-<br />
| '''g<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''k<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''h'''<br />
| '''su'''<br />
| ''susi'' "mouse"<br />
| 76<br />
|-<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''From a logogram representing the word "Fáralo".''<br />
|-<br />
| '''b<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''po'''<br />
| ''pon'' "island"<br />
| 62<br />
|-<br />
| '''l'''<br />
| '''la'''<br />
| ''lai'' "bird"<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| '''ŋ'''<br />
| '''nga'''<br />
| ''ngane'' "neck"<br />
| 81<br />
|-<br />
| '''t<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''nta'''<br />
| ''ndai'' "tree"<br />
| 112<br />
|-<br />
| '''č<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ki'''<br />
| ''kil'' "barley"<br />
| 31<br />
|-<br />
| '''j<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''č<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''æ'''<br />
| '''aN'''<br />
| ''ande'' "stand"<br />
| 282<br />
|-<br />
| '''š'''<br />
| '''si'''<br />
| ''tsilâu'' "tooth"<br />
| 111<br />
|-<br />
| '''ə'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Variant of '''a'''.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Writing]]</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ndak_Ta/LexiconNdak Ta/Lexicon2017-01-20T15:50:10Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Ndak Ta Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}<br />
|-<br />
! class="l"| NT word<br />
! class<br />
! meaning<br />
! etymology<br />
|-<br />
| '''abwe''' || adj. || stable || <br />
|-<br />
| '''adwa''' || adj. || dark || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ainggàu''' || adj. || crooked, askew, awry, amiss || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ainte''' || adj. || feeble || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aio''' || adj. || chief, most important, most salient || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aiwa''' || adj. || good || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aklu''' || adj. || ugly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''algo''' || adj. || sweet || <br />
|-<br />
| '''alngai''' || adj. || common || <br />
|-<br />
| '''anai''' || adj. || empty, hungry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ansetra''' || adj. || prototypical || <br />
|-<br />
| '''anto''' || adj. || old || <br />
|-<br />
| '''asnàn''' || adj. || dry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aubai''' || adj. || active || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aubo''' || adj. || easy, happy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''auntòn''' || adj. || thin || <br />
|-<br />
| '''auntu''' || adj. || rich (wealthy) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aurne''' || adj. || muddy, murky, unclear, obscured || <br />
|-<br />
| '''auspi''' || adj. || green || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bad''' || adj. || cultured || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bagng''' || adj. || rough || <br />
|-<br />
| '''basti''' || adj. || gentle || <br />
|-<br />
| '''baura''' || adj. || great, famous || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bekwâu''' || adj. || insufficient || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bendut''' || adj. || tight || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bot''' || adj. || same || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bubwits''' || adj. || warm || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dado''' || adj. || male || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dautin''' || adj. || holy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dauwai''' || adj. || white || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dêka''' || adj. || mystical, spiritual || <br />
|-<br />
| '''disau''' || adj. || usual || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ditai''' || adj. || possible || <br />
|-<br />
| '''elge''' || adj. || clean || <br />
|-<br />
| '''emau''' || adj. || loose || <br />
|-<br />
| '''eno''' || adj. || bitter || <br />
|-<br />
| '''epwaip''' || adj. || light (non-heavy) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gâga''' || adj. || angry, violent, bloodthirsty || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gaut''' || adj. || dull || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gets''' || adj. || likely, probable || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gibm''' || adj. || bad || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gilna''' || adj. || slow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gingko''' || adj. || hard || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gingwi''' || adj. || tall || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gom''' || adj. || high || <br />
|-<br />
| '''goso''' || adj. || difficult || <br />
|-<br />
| '''idur''' || adj. || sour || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ikwa''' || adj. || straight || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ilki''' || adj. || black || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ilmo''' || adj. || beautiful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imbai''' || adj. || blind || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imbenta''' || adj. || cheerful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isi''' || adj. || sudden || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iske''' || adj. || equal || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kâtsum''' || adj. || powerful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kelki''' || adj. || dangerous || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ketsus''' || adj. || unsafe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kinto''' || adj. || generous || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kola''' || adj. || funny || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kukail''' || adj. || tame || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kun''' || adj. || stiff, sturdy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kuntor''' || adj. || bright, well-lit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwaidn''' || adj. || loud || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwaim''' || adj. || round || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwat''' || adj. || bad-smelling || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kweda''' || adj. || ready || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lairi''' || adj. || young || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lanag''' || adj. || good-smelling || <br />
|-<br />
| '''langàng''' || adj. || familiar || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lantai''' || adj. || fast || <br />
|-<br />
| '''larmai''' || adj. || long || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lêtsau''' || adj. || cold || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lonte''' || adj. || correct || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mab''' || adj. || blunt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''madn''' || adj. || violent || <br />
|-<br />
| '''malâwe''' || adj. || successful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mauro''' || adj. || narrow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbâur''' || adj. || short || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbesta''' || adj. || ordered, organized || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbibo''' || adj. || guilty || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbiski''' || adj. || necessary || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbopm''' || adj. || enough || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbwura''' || adj. || unusual || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mingwa''' || adj. || powerful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mits''' || adj. || late || <br />
|-<br />
| '''molan''' || adj. || awake, on the ball, "on top of things" || <br />
|-<br />
| '''more''' || adj. || dark, dim || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpag''' || adj. || far || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpitau''' || adj. || private || <br />
|-<br />
| '''musmis''' || adj. || stupid (said of people) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''muspê''' || adj. || stupid (said of actions) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mwarwobm''' || adj. || heavy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nabâu''' || adj. || regular, predictable, reliable || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nam''' || adj. || sick || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nambam''' || adj. || small || <br />
|-<br />
| '''namowi''' || adj. || brown, orange || <br />
|-<br />
| '''napê''' || adj. || red || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndabwa''' || adj. || dirty || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndapi''' || adj. || smart || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndaun''' || adj. || pure || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndêwu''' || adj. || safe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngâ''' || adj. || adult, mature || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngabra''' || adj. || thick || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngauro''' || adj. || ancient, antique || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nggam''' || adj. || audible || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngimbu''' || adj. || sharp || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngune''' || adj. || moderate || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwolâi''' || adj. || full || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntausia''' || adj. || false || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntia''' || adj. || true || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntial''' || adj. || same || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntomatn''' || adj. || complex || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntupa''' || adj. || peaceful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nuwe''' || adj. || smooth || <br />
|-<br />
| '''olto''' || adj. || new || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ompa''' || adj. || flat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ompu''' || adj. || deep || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ondisi''' || adj. || expert || <br />
|-<br />
| '''oru''' || adj. || visible || <br />
|-<br />
| '''osma''' || adj. || recent || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pai''' || adj. || big || <br />
|-<br />
| '''palmambi''' || adj. || secret || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pekwa''' || adj. || last || <br />
|-<br />
| '''peras''' || adj. || brave, valiant, courageous || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pim''' || adj. || low || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pipm''' || adj. || useful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''piwel''' || adj. || early || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rampa''' || adj. || abundant || <br />
|-<br />
| '''râwa''' || adj. || mature || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rorma''' || adj. || typical || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sadlo''' || adj. || rich-tasting || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sai''' || adj. || female || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sai''' || adj. || foreign, alien, inscrutable || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sai''' || adj. || blue || <br />
|-<br />
| '''saimpo''' || adj. || alone || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sanlena''' || adj. || public || < Ngauro<br />
|-<br />
| '''santa''' || adj. || legal || < Ngauro<br />
|-<br />
| '''santau''' || adj. || illegal || < Ngauro<br />
|-<br />
| '''selkon''' || adj. || hostile || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sête''' || adj. || tidy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sim''' || adj. || lucky || <br />
|-<br />
| '''simwai''' || adj. || rotten || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sîteng''' || adj. || different || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sonulak''' || adj. || imaginary, unrealistic, nebulous || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sumo''' || adj. || wrong || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tento''' || adj. || wide || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsâuki''' || adj. || soft || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsese''' || adj. || steep || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsingki''' || adj. || separate || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsuts''' || adj. || near || <br />
|-<br />
| '''udu''' || adj. || cruel || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ulmài''' || adj. || yellow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''unggu''' || adj. || lame, crippled || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wampum''' || adj. || hollow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wawaik''' || adj. || calm || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wing''' || adj. || wet || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aina''' || adv. || downward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ambwa''' || adv. || moderately || <br />
|-<br />
| '''auso''' || adv. || yesterday || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bau''' || adv. || again || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwut''' || adv. || rightward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''daid''' || adv. || this year || <br />
|-<br />
| '''intaing''' || adv. || in favor of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iwen''' || adv. || well (as in "did well") || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kapm''' || adv. || last year || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwentu''' || adv. || apart || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ladn''' || adv. || a little || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lasti''' || adv. || healthy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mâg''' || adv. || today || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbai''' || adv. || leftward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbubwa''' || adv. || recently || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpau''' || adv. || because of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''naisngai''' || adv. || pointlessly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngal''' || adv. || very || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nggai''' || adv. || upward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwogng''' || adv. || backward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntsand''' || adv. || greatly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rampen''' || adv. || instead of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''râwebm''' || adv. || incompetently || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rolu''' || adv. || forward || <br />
|-<br />
| '''taibm''' || adv. || together || <br />
|-<br />
| '''taudu''' || adv. || somewhat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsuri''' || adv. || tomorrow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ubwu''' || adv. || soon || <br />
|-<br />
| '''au''' || art. || a || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lu''' || art. || the || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndo''' || art. || a || <br />
|-<br />
| '''boda''' || cj. || either/or (exclusive or) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dal''' || cj. || but || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gunto''' || cj. || so, thus || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lik''' || cj. || neither/nor || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mi''' || cj. || or || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nin''' || cj. || therefore, if/then || <br />
|-<br />
| '''on''' || cj. || and || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bodat''' || cj.gap. || either/or (exclusive or) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''daldâ''' || cj.gap. || but || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gundâ''' || cj.gap. || so, thus || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ligâ''' || cj.gap. || neither/nor || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mit''' || cj.gap. || or || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nindâ''' || cj.gap. || therefore, if/then || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ongwâ''' || cj.gap. || and || <br />
|-<br />
| '''abâi''' || n. || swamp || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ailàu''' || n. || flower || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aimbu''' || n. || peasant, farmer, beggar || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aimwa''' || n. || snake || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aisab''' || n. || husband || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aise''' || n. || snow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''âka''' || n. || air || <br />
|-<br />
| '''akremo''' || n. || wax || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ammi''' || n. || fly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''angài''' || n. || war, battles || <br />
|-<br />
| '''apwi''' || n. || fruit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''arâwa''' || n. || dinner || <br />
|-<br />
| '''arbwa''' || n. || craftsman || <br />
|-<br />
| '''arwa''' || n. || fog || <br />
|-<br />
| '''asa''' || n. || woman || <br />
|-<br />
| '''âukwai''' || n. || sculpture || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aunti''' || n. || river || <br />
|-<br />
| '''baitrai''' || n. || leg || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bandoro''' || n. || early meal || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bâpu''' || n. || root, anchor || <br />
|-<br />
| '''batsn''' || n. || stick, branch, twig || <br />
|-<br />
| '''baus''' || n. || ox || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bongga''' || n. || back || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwai''' || n. || star || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwaikti''' || n. || feast || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwed''' || n. || son || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwenggautsu''' || n. || birthright, inheritance || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwogig''' || n. || bay || <br />
|-<br />
| '''daing''' || n. || mountain, hill, incline (anything large with a notable slope) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dalsur''' || n. || honey || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dasi''' || n. || goddess || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dempi''' || n. || child, young (of an animal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dene''' || n. || reason || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dengi''' || n. || finger || <br />
|-<br />
| '''diàka''' || n. || king (any sort of ruler of either gender) || < Ngauro ''*djak(a)''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dikon''' || n. || thing || <br />
|-<br />
| '''engka''' || n. || animal (includes insects but excludes aquatic life) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''eplain''' || n. || ball || <br />
|-<br />
| '''etsn''' || n. || manner, method, way || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gaibra''' || n. || sheep || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gaido''' || n. || rabbit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gan''' || n. || knife || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gau''' || n. || road, path, trail, street || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gauron''' || n. || semiarid land || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gempa''' || n. || burn, insult || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ginig''' || n. || iron || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gubm''' || n. || life, survival || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iadopm''' || n. || summer || <br />
|-<br />
| '''idâu''' || n. || noble || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imai''' || n. || name, symbol, sign || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imbi''' || n. || moon, month || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imu''' || n. || head, apex, point || <br />
|-<br />
| '''indùng''' || n. || sea || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ingkotu''' || n. || wealth || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ingkwi''' || n. || liver || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iswau''' || n. || night, calendar day || <br />
|-<br />
| '''itwam''' || n. || arm || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kak''' || n. || edge, border || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kenla''' || n. || teacher, scribe, literate person || < Ngauro<br />
|-<br />
| '''komwa''' || n. || tongue || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwagan''' || n. || bean || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwats''' || n. || chair || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwi''' || n. || fingernail || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwir''' || n. || goat || < Faraghin ''xoir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lai''' || n. || bird || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laid''' || n. || year || <br />
|-<br />
| '''langkwo''' || n. || bone || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lartsartsa''' || n. || hour || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lats''' || n. || country, nation, land, region || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lâwa''' || n. || delta || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lewai''' || n. || word || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lewaitsâi''' || n. || poetry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mabm''' || n. || mouth || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mâisâ''' || n. || cow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''maki''' || n. || table || <br />
|-<br />
| '''maldo''' || n. || human being || <br />
|-<br />
| '''maunde''' || n. || heart || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mauro''' || n. || narrows (of a river) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbod''' || n. || color || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbontai''' || n. || seed, source, origin || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbusmu''' || n. || belly, any soft part of an animal || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mebwe''' || n. || father || <br />
|-<br />
| '''merkàt''' || n. || brother || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mik''' || n. || bread || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mikwisma''' || n. || dough || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mombwai''' || n. || worm || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mos''' || n. || city, any settlement larger than a village || < Ngauro ''*mos''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mpaiswa''' || n. || fish, all aquatic life || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpepm''' || n. || breast || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpurnim''' || n. || heathen, infidel, philistine || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mulâ''' || n. || ice || <br />
|-<br />
| '''murdak''' || n. || dream || <br />
|-<br />
| '''naka''' || n. || god || < Ngauro ''*naka(ʔ)''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nalaròr''' || n. || horse || < Gezoro<br />
|-<br />
| '''ndai''' || n. || tree; anything tall (including people) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndalidn''' || n. || energy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nenga''' || n. || leaf || <br />
|-<br />
| '''netrai''' || n. || wife || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngaktìs''' || n. || slave, captive, prisoner || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngane''' || n. || neck, anything narrow connecting two larger things || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngemba''' || n. || toe, any bits at the bottom of something || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nggol''' || n. || foot, foundation, basis || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngkai''' || n. || egg || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngkilba''' || n. || plough || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwartsi''' || n. || tool || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwau''' || n. || skin || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntêwâ''' || n. || tail, penis || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntindo''' || n. || metal || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nukwàkâ''' || n. || slime, mucus || <br />
|-<br />
| '''odam''' || n. || right || <br />
|-<br />
| '''okwa''' || n. || ear || <br />
|-<br />
| '''olau''' || n. || place || <br />
|-<br />
| '''oldau''' || n. || eye, any vulnerable spot || <br />
|-<br />
| '''omau''' || n. || sister || <br />
|-<br />
| '''Ombàsi''' || n. || Mother Goddess || <br />
|-<br />
| '''omo''' || n. || mother || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ospàk''' || n. || throne, status symbol || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pailbe''' || n. || sand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''palda''' || n. || valley || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pap''' || n. || shield || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pon''' || n. || island || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ponî''' || n. || plant, vegetation || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pungwa''' || n. || nose || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rande''' || n. || sky || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rander''' || n. || jar || <br />
|-<br />
| '''raung''' || n. || plain || <br />
|-<br />
| '''remor''' || n. || earthquake || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rikraun''' || n. || winter || <br />
|-<br />
| '''robm''' || n. || feather || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rorop''' || n. || peninsula || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rud''' || n. || man || <br />
|-<br />
| '''runnak''' || n. || priest || (''rud'' "man" + ''naka'' "god") <br />
|-<br />
| '''saisung''' || n. || left || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sarsâ''' || n. || tube, pipe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sau''' || n. || coast || < Ngauro ''*sou'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''sikadn''' || n. || hurricane || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sim''' || n. || cloud || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sonîda''' || n. || gravesite || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sonîlau''' || n. || graveyard || <br />
|-<br />
| '''susi''' || n. || mouse || <br />
|-<br />
| '''taindi''' || n. || wing, shield, shelter || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tarang''' || n. || daughter || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tau''' || n. || lake || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tingkàu''' || n. || stone || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tiska''' || n. || flax || <br />
|-<br />
| '''titi''' || n. || flea || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tol''' || n. || sun, light or any source of it || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ton''' || n. || hand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''topai''' || n. || horn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsar''' || n. || moon || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tselô''' || n. || spear || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsêtsi''' || n. || louse || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsilâu''' || n. || tooth, fang || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsis''' || n. || dog || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsong''' || n. || knee || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsurgî''' || n. || pressure || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ulwo''' || n. || rope, vine, string, twine || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wat''' || n. || age || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wedn''' || n. || herb (any useful plant, including vegetables) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wimès''' || n. || neighbor || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ainda''' || n.mass. || ashes, remains, corpses || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aini''' || n.mass. || hair || <br />
|-<br />
| '''airti''' || n.mass. || day (refers only to daytime) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ali''' || n.mass. || fire, heat, warmth || <br />
|-<br />
| '''altò''' || n.mass. || wind || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bambor''' || n.mass. || strength || <br />
|-<br />
| '''baulai''' || n.mass. || earth/soil || <br />
|-<br />
| '''borma''' || n.mass. || wheat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwai iskaimel''' || n.mass. || astronomy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dimbau''' || n.mass. || fat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''empi''' || n.mass. || grass || <br />
|-<br />
| '''emwel''' || n.mass. || west || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gatn''' || n.mass. || wood || <br />
|-<br />
| '''guro''' || n.mass. || guts || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ibli''' || n.mass. || north || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isesìgen''' || n.mass. || metallurgy || < Gezoro<br />
|-<br />
| '''kil''' || n.mass. || barley || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbâro''' || n.mass. || bark || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbop''' || n.mass. || music || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpêlo''' || n.mass. || rain || <br />
|-<br />
| '''naka iskaimel''' || n.mass. || soothsaying || <br />
|-<br />
| '''napnge''' || n.mass. || loot || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nasa''' || n.mass. || east || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndimu''' || n.mass. || mercy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntâug''' || n.mass. || forest || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntse''' || n.mass. || blood || <br />
|-<br />
| '''odai''' || n.mass. || salt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pumâ''' || n.mass. || smoke, steam || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sa''' || n.mass. || meat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''saungwe''' || n.mass. || water || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tam''' || n.mass. || south || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsondo''' || n.mass. || dust || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wedn iskaimel''' || n.mass. || herblore || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wisma''' || n.mass. || mud || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bu''' || num. || four || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dau''' || num. || five || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ets''' || num. || six || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imbi''' || num. || hundred || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ke''' || num. || one || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mam''' || num. || seven || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngi''' || num. || two || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nil''' || num. || nine || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ro''' || num. || ten || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sudn''' || num. || eight || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wos''' || num. || three || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ta''' || particle || (dynamic) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''âk''' || pp. || of, by, since || <br />
|-<br />
| '''al''' || pp. || without, besides, except for || <br />
|-<br />
| '''anda''' || pp. || into || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isla''' || pp. || to, towards, before || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwen''' || pp. || with, in the company of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lita''' || pp. || throughout || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbembu''' || pp. || between, among || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nai''' || pp. || in || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nggairit''' || pp. || as far as, as much as, until || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngu''' || pp. || as || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntatsn''' || pp. || surrounding, all around || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nte''' || pp. || with, using || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ob''' || pp. || at, near to || <br />
|-<br />
| '''puk''' || pp. || per, for each || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rambe''' || pp. || along, via, during || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sa''' || pp. || from out of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''um''' || pp. || made of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''uwa''' || pp. || from, after || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wau''' || pp. || for, concerning, with respect to || <br />
|-<br />
| '''â''' || pron. || him, her, it (3sg.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''a''' || pron. || he, she, it (3sg.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ag''' || pron. || they two (3dl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ak''' || pron. || they (3pl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''am''' || pron. || to him/her/it/them (3.dat) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''as''' || pron. || them (3pl/dl.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''do''' || pron. || thou (2sg.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dog''' || pron. || ye two (2dl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dok''' || pron. || ye (2pl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dom''' || pron. || to you (2.dat) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dong''' || pron. || thee (2sg.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dos''' || pron. || ye (2dl/pl.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ege''' || pron. || everyone/everything || <br />
|-<br />
| '''elul''' || pron. || everywhere || <br />
|-<br />
| '''etsau''' || pron. || always || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ewe''' || pron. || every/all || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ewip''' || pron. || every way / for every reason || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gâ''' || pron. || that (by you) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gâge''' || pron. || that (by you) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gâlul''' || pron. || there (by you) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gewa''' || pron. || who/what || <br />
|-<br />
| '''î''' || pron. || me (1sg.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''i''' || pron. || I (1sg.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ig''' || pron. || we two (1dl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ik''' || pron. || we (1pl.subj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''im''' || pron. || to me/us (1.dat) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ipa''' || pron. || how || <br />
|-<br />
| '''is''' || pron. || us (1dl/pl.obj) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iwa''' || pron. || which || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingko''' || pron. || thou (2sg.subj formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingkog''' || pron. || ye two (2dl.subj formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingkok''' || pron. || ye (2pl.subj formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingkom''' || pron. || to you (2.dat formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingkong''' || pron. || thee (2sg.obj formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''laingkos''' || pron. || ye (2dl/pl.obj formal) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ma''' || pron. || no || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mage''' || pron. || nobody, nothing || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mala''' || pron. || where || <br />
|-<br />
| '''malul''' || pron. || nowhere || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mandu''' || pron. || for no reason || <br />
|-<br />
| '''matsau''' || pron. || never || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mip''' || pron. || no way || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nambau''' || pron. || sometime || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nambe''' || pron. || someone, something || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nambu''' || pron. || for some reason || <br />
|-<br />
| '''namê''' || pron. || some || <br />
|-<br />
| '''namip''' || pron. || somehow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''namlul''' || pron. || somewhere || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nduwa''' || pron. || why || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sola''' || pron. || when || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsi''' || pron. || that (far away) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsige''' || pron. || that (far away) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsilul''' || pron. || there (over there) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsindu''' || pron. || this reason || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsip''' || pron. || thus || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsitsau''' || pron. || then || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wai''' || pron. || this || <br />
|-<br />
| '''waige''' || pron. || this || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wailul''' || pron. || here || <br />
|-<br />
| '''waitsau''' || pron. || now || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ais''' || qu. || a large number of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ewe''' || qu. || all, every || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mi''' || qu. || no, none of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nam''' || qu. || some, more than one || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwa''' || qu. || few, a few || <br />
|-<br />
| '''omba''' || qu. || many || <br />
|-<br />
| '''or''' || qu. || each one of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''Kasadgad''' || top. || [[Kasca]] || < Ngauro ''*kasd-kasd''<br />
|-<br />
| '''abbwa''' || v. || to bloom || <br />
|-<br />
| '''abmod''' || v. || to walk || <br />
|-<br />
| '''abwodnodn''' || v. || to thunder || <br />
|-<br />
| '''âidai''' || v. || to need || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ailpabm''' || v. || to melt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ain''' || v. || to farm || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aisi''' || v. || to color, to paint || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aitn''' || v. || to keep || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aitsu''' || v. || to promise || <br />
|-<br />
| '''albitra''' || v. || to explode || <br />
|-<br />
| '''alnia''' || v. || to fly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''alpau''' || v. || to make, to create || ? < Ngauro ''*alpou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''apridn''' || v. || to be horrified || <br />
|-<br />
| '''atulsa''' || v. || to tell || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aulmo''' || v. || to steal || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aumu''' || v. || to spit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ausa''' || v. || to sacrifice || <br />
|-<br />
| '''awio''' || v. || to hope || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bâil''' || v. || to burp || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bambi''' || v. || to fail || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bâre''' || v. || to have, to possess || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bespi''' || v. || to punish || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bimbo''' || v. || to rub || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bontu''' || v. || to stab || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bora''' || v. || to nurse || <br />
|-<br />
| '''budna''' || v. || to listen || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bungia''' || v. || to reward, to bless || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bungie''' || v. || to wound, to hurt, to injure || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwats''' || v. || to sweat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bwenggor''' || v. || to honor, to respect || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dalmit''' || v. || to host, to hold, to present || <br />
|-<br />
| '''darem''' || v. || to warn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''das''' || v. || to fight || <br />
|-<br />
| '''deki''' || v. || to hate || <br />
|-<br />
| '''denai''' || v. || to punish || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dengie''' || v. || to please || <br />
|-<br />
| '''depmai''' || v. || to shave || <br />
|-<br />
| '''desmog''' || v. || to hunt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''diedel''' || v. || to bribe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dimbang''' || v. || to store, to put away || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dioba''' || v. || to imagine || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dowo''' || v. || to grumble, to mutter || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dungwi''' || v. || to praise || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dusam''' || v. || to regret || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ebraib''' || v. || to describe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ebri''' || v. || to destroy, to delete, to render nonexistent or nonrepairable || <br />
|-<br />
| '''egran''' || v. || to scratch || <br />
|-<br />
| '''êlakra''' || v. || to urge || <br />
|-<br />
| '''em''' || v. || to turn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''embur''' || v. || to swim || <br />
|-<br />
| '''engku''' || v. || to kill || <br />
|-<br />
| '''eptàg''' || v. || to shine || <br />
|-<br />
| '''eskidn''' || v. || to cook || <br />
|-<br />
| '''eslê''' || v. || to pour || <br />
|-<br />
| '''estasa''' || v. || to change || <br />
|-<br />
| '''estela''' || v. || to burn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''esul''' || v. || to take || <br />
|-<br />
| '''etsen''' || v. || to act, to behave || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gabbwa''' || v. || to share || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gagak''' || v. || to smile || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gangio''' || v. || to move || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gondag''' || v. || to dream || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gonggai''' || v. || to break || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gua''' || v. || to follow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''gubab''' || v. || to mark, to make a mark on || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ibbwen''' || v. || to fold || <br />
|-<br />
| '''idgir''' || v. || to whisper || <br />
|-<br />
| '''igrik''' || v. || to absorb || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ingkwak''' || v. || to sense, to perceive || <br />
|-<br />
| '''inta''' || v. || to be hanging (non-execution) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isâri''' || v. || to allow, to permit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isma''' || v. || to sew || <br />
|-<br />
| '''isten''' || v. || to lose || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kail''' || v. || to don (clothing) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kaime''' || v. || to study || < Ngauro ''*kaime''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kaktod''' || v. || to greet || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kasil''' || v. || to look (at) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kasnie''' || v. || to avoid || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kaumisi''' || v. || to reprimand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kek''' || v. || to throw || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kenau''' || v. || to ask || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kîbai''' || v. || to tie || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kikik''' || v. || to lightning || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kimpal''' || v. || to complain || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kosiriman''' || v. || to desert || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kota''' || v. || to cover || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kuk''' || v. || to hurry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kumâi''' || v. || to repair || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kumba''' || v. || to waste || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kumpaiwa''' || v. || to believe || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kutso''' || v. || to cough || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwain''' || v. || to bite, to chew || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwatopm''' || v. || to smash || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwengatsak''' || v. || to exile || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwetsn''' || v. || to drop, to let go of || <br />
|-<br />
| '''kwindamis''' || v. || to understand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lane''' || v. || to aim || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lapabap''' || v. || to ignore || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lasetn''' || v. || to build || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lasi''' || v. || to close, to shut || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lekta''' || v. || to collect || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lewalpau''' || v. || to write || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ligio''' || v. || to form || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lisedgo''' || v. || to shake || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lolmau''' || v. || to visit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lonsia''' || v. || to answer, to reply || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lusit''' || v. || to try || <br />
|-<br />
| '''makras''' || v. || to face || <br />
|-<br />
| '''malwe''' || v. || to suck || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mastu''' || v. || to whistle || <br />
|-<br />
| '''matn''' || v. || to know, to understand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mâuk''' || v. || to protest (against), to complain (about) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbi''' || v. || to say || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbîbwe''' || v. || to sing || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mboraul''' || v. || to be careful || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbunwe''' || v. || to hold || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbura''' || v. || to decide || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mbwawe''' || v. || to push || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mebis''' || v. || to lack || <br />
|-<br />
| '''meledn''' || v. || to include || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mêli''' || v. || to read || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mese''' || v. || to meet || <br />
|-<br />
| '''midgai''' || v. || to thank || <br />
|-<br />
| '''miga''' || v. || to trust || <br />
|-<br />
| '''miskwi''' || v. || to blame || <br />
|-<br />
| '''miukur''' || v. || to try || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mondu''' || v. || to count, to measure || <br />
|-<br />
| '''morar''' || v. || to prefer || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mowâ''' || v. || to dawn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpaskali''' || v. || to assert, to declare || <br />
|-<br />
| '''muba''' || v. || to exchange || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nagebi''' || v. || to work || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nailin''' || v. || to judge || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nalunguk''' || v. || to organize || <br />
|-<br />
| '''narno''' || v. || to cut, to use a knife upon || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nde''' || v. || to touch || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndegret''' || v. || to shout || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndepes''' || v. || to gather || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndulabm''' || v. || to arrange || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nelgan''' || v. || to twist || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nembi''' || v. || to mean, to intend || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngende''' || v. || to wipe, to scrape || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nggawi''' || v. || to put || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngguko''' || v. || to deceive || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngkasta''' || v. || to continue || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngket''' || v. || to wilt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngkwaimpaugng''' || v. || to vomit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwâi''' || v. || to think, to believe, to have faith in || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwargudn''' || v. || to sneeze || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwerde''' || v. || to squirt, to spurt || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nises''' || v. || to annul || <br />
|-<br />
| '''non''' || v. || to go (any motion toward somewhere other than 'here') || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nta''' || v. || to stop || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntsertim''' || v. || to discuss || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nugats''' || v. || to trade || <br />
|-<br />
| '''numagi''' || v. || to boast || <br />
|-<br />
| '''obial''' || v. || to offer || <br />
|-<br />
| '''odgabm''' || v. || to suffer || <br />
|-<br />
| '''omula''' || v. || to chat, to converse || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ongiu''' || v. || to guess || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ôriwal''' || v. || to ignite || <br />
|-<br />
| '''orngi''' || v. || to squeeze || <br />
|-<br />
| '''orte''' || v. || to run || <br />
|-<br />
| '''oslòk''' || v. || to forget || <br />
|-<br />
| '''owu''' || v. || to grieve, to mourn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''papau''' || v. || to name || <br />
|-<br />
| '''papsadn''' || v. || to hiccup || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pasto''' || v. || to attack, to provoke a fight || <br />
|-<br />
| '''penta''' || v. || to fuck up (highly insulting when said of someone else) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pesa''' || v. || to defecate || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pilai''' || v. || to send || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pirain''' || v. || to plan || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pokpo''' || v. || to refuse || <br />
|-<br />
| '''popu''' || v. || to dance || <br />
|-<br />
| '''posmun''' || v. || to flee || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pupibat''' || v. || to threaten || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ragol''' || v. || to fill || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ranto''' || v. || to hear || <br />
|-<br />
| '''raula''' || v. || to love || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rebli''' || v. || to oppose || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rekibas''' || v. || to flood || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rêlek''' || v. || to ride || < Gezoro <br />
|-<br />
| '''relsi''' || v. || to be hot (weather) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''riam''' || v. || to learn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''rowa''' || v. || to play (a musical instrument) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''salatpu''' || v. || to dispose of, to throw away || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sapmi''' || v. || to force || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sapum''' || v. || to derive from || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sasamas''' || v. || to crown || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sebbwa''' || v. || to lie || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sema''' || v. || to wait || <br />
|-<br />
| '''semen''' || v. || to deny || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sepen''' || v. || to murmur, to mumble || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sides''' || v. || to jump || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sien''' || v. || to prove || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sikîda''' || v. || to corrupt, to influence (so.) to behave badly || <br />
|-<br />
| '''simbor''' || v. || to boil || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sompìs''' || v. || to defeat, to conquer, to pwn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sungiar''' || v. || to help || <br />
|-<br />
| '''susi''' || v. || to record || <br />
|-<br />
| '''targo''' || v. || to rebel || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tasbam''' || v. || to imply || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tautsi''' || v. || to bend || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tengo''' || v. || to pull || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tianai''' || v. || to marry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tingia''' || v. || to flash || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tingke''' || v. || to compel, to coerce || <br />
|-<br />
| '''totoli''' || v. || to be clumsy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsaisai''' || v. || to arise || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsampi''' || v. || to give || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsatsa''' || v. || to sneeze || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsebor''' || v. || to pour || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsesir''' || v. || to be born || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsig''' || v. || to urinate || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsin''' || v. || to like || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsobi''' || v. || to control || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsurtor''' || v. || to insult, to burn || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tuanau''' || v. || to avoid, to prevent, to ward off || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tutu''' || v. || to amaze || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ubapm''' || v. || to allow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ulbor''' || v. || to kneel || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ulwa''' || v. || to taste || <br />
|-<br />
| '''unma''' || v. || to play (any non-serious action) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''untsi''' || v. || to blow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''upla''' || v. || to explain || <br />
|-<br />
| '''uru''' || v. || to cure || <br />
|-<br />
| '''uwaits''' || v. || to be cloudy || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wapa''' || v. || to hit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wats''' || v. || to dig || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wim''' || v. || to live || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wirdel''' || v. || to wear || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wisai''' || v. || to yell, to cry out || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wompo''' || v. || to remember || <br />
|-<br />
| '''wuku''' || v. || to blame || <br />
|-<br />
| '''aipi''' || v.erg. || to freeze || <br />
|-<br />
| '''alen''' || v.erg. || to split || <br />
|-<br />
| '''banai''' || v.erg. || to worship || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dodo''' || v.erg. || to weary || <br />
|-<br />
| '''dumbo''' || v.erg. || to smell || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imbwa''' || v.erg. || to use || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ina''' || v.erg. || to see || <br />
|-<br />
| '''iro''' || v.erg. || to open || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mus''' || v.erg. || to grow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngata''' || v.erg. || to sleep || <br />
|-<br />
| '''paingkwu''' || v.erg. || to fear || <br />
|-<br />
| '''pitsi''' || v.erg. || to pale || <br />
|-<br />
| '''randèl''' || v.erg. || to hurry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sab''' || v.erg. || to drink, to swallow || <br />
|-<br />
| '''sâpabm''' || v.erg. || to lift || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsaing''' || v.erg. || to wash || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tsampa''' || v.erg. || to free || <br />
|-<br />
| '''tu''' || v.erg. || to eat || <br />
|-<br />
| '''bal''' || v.erg.intr. || to lie || <br />
|-<br />
| '''enànda''' || v.erg.intr. || to feel, to have emotion || <br />
|-<br />
| '''endu''' || v.erg.intr. || to fall || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ispe''' || v.erg.intr. || to feel, to physically experience || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ndenam''' || v.erg.intr. || to breathe, to live || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nots''' || v.erg.intr. || to die || <br />
|-<br />
| '''abâ''' || v.intr. || to commit crime || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ande''' || v.intr. || to stand || <br />
|-<br />
| '''erbo''' || v.intr. || to rest || <br />
|-<br />
| '''imlana''' || v.intr. || to flood || <br />
|-<br />
| '''keng''' || v.intr. || to walk || <br />
|-<br />
| '''lail''' || v.intr. || to flow (any continuous motion) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''limu''' || v.intr. || to laugh (quietly) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mê''' || v.intr. || to journey || <br />
|-<br />
| '''miasko''' || v.intr. || to celebrate, to party, to have a good time || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpaim''' || v.intr. || to cry || <br />
|-<br />
| '''mpe''' || v.intr. || to sit || <br />
|-<br />
| '''nambepm''' || v.intr. || to swell || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ngango''' || v.intr. || to laugh (loudly) || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ntetsn''' || v.intr. || to float || <br />
|-<br />
| '''oto''' || v.intr. || to come (any motion toward 'here') || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ula''' || v.intr. || to rise || <br />
|-<br />
| '''untai''' || v.intr. || to joke || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Idiomatic mood forms ==<br />
<br />
Definitions are given as ''"(meaning of root) → (idiomatic meaning after morphology applied)"''.<br />
<br />
=== ngwi-, admonitive ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwitsampi''' || v. || give → owe<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwisab''' || v. || drink → be egged on; be emboldened<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwipaingkwul''' || adj. || fear+PASS → terrible, frightening<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwinon''' || v. || go → be unwelcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwibespil''' || n. || punish+PASS → one deserving of punishment<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwipopu''' || v. || dance → socialize<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwideki''' || v. || hate → be wronged by sth.<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwiawio''' || v. || hope → have a (bright) future<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwikuk''' || v. || hurry → be running late<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwidepmai''' || v. || shave → be unkempt<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwimidgai''' || v. || thank → owe gratitude<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwiupla''' || v. || explain → owe an explanation for<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwitianai''' || v. || marry → get (someone) pregnant<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== uk-, optative ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukonggai''' || v. || break → be extremely upset<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukwuku''' || v. || blame → have a failure of conscience<br />
|-<br />
| '''upmiasko''' || v. || celebrate → be joyous<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukoto''' || v. || come → anticipate<br />
|-<br />
| '''uktsobi''' || v. || control → covet<br />
|-<br />
| '''upmondu''' || v. || count → be picky about<br />
|-<br />
| '''utnots''' || v. || die → be suicidal<br />
|-<br />
| '''uksab''' || v. || drink → want to participate in; look forward to<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukain''' || v. || farm → be unambitious<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukoslok''' || v. || forget → have a bad experience with<br />
|-<br />
| '''uktsampi''' || v. || give → be horny<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukpenta''' || n. || fuck up → loser, lowlife<br />
|-<br />
| '''ugbâre''' || v. || have → lack<br />
|-<br />
| '''uktsutorla''' || v. || insult → deserve disdain<br />
|-<br />
| '''upmatn''' || v. || know → investigate<br />
|-<br />
| '''ugbal''' || v. || lie down → be sleepy<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukumâi''' || adj.; v. || repair → repentant / seek restitution<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukausabu''' || n. || sacrifice+NOM → bloodthirsty priest<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukambi''' || v. || say → announce<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukula''' || v. || rise → enroll in the priesthood<br />
|-<br />
| '''upmalwe''' || v. || suck → suck (in the English colloquial sense)<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukembur''' || v. || swim → behave recklessly<br />
|-<br />
| '''uktsaing''' || v. || wash → be dirty<br />
|-<br />
| '''ugbanai''' || v. || worship → worship (heartfelt)<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukem''' || v. || turn → judge oneself harshly<br />
|-<br />
| '''upmakraspu''' || n. || face → supplicate+NOM → supplicant<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukawio''' || adj. || hope → hopeless<br />
|-<br />
| '''uktianai''' || v. || marry → be engaged to<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukumpaiwal''' || v. || believe+PASS → want to be believed<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukupla''' || v. || explain → be apologetic<br />
|-<br />
| '''ugdungwil''' || v. || praise+PASS → seek attention<br />
|-<br />
| '''ugmidgail''' || v. || thank+PASS → feel gratitude is due one<br />
|-<br />
| '''uklusit''' || v. || try → be eager<br />
|-<br />
| '''ukistendu''' || n. || lose → subterfuge+NOM → wily/crafty/devious person<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== ru-, habitive (habitually X) ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''rorte''' || v. || run → be athletic<br />
|-<br />
| '''rembur''' || v. || swim → drown<br />
|-<br />
| '''rimbwa''' || v. || use → normally use<br />
|-<br />
| '''rungwâi''' || v. || think → be intelligent<br />
|-<br />
| '''rulolmau''' || v. || visit → be a regular visitor<br />
|-<br />
| '''rulmo''' || v. || steal → be a professional thief<br />
|-<br />
| '''rungata''' || v. || sleep → be lazy<br />
|-<br />
| '''rubimbo''' || v. || rub → masturbate excessively (derog.)<br />
|-<br />
| '''rumêli''' || v. || read → study (a particular subject)<br />
|-<br />
| '''ruwapa''' || v. || hit → mismanage<br />
|-<br />
| '''râidai''' || v. || need → be hooked on<br />
|-<br />
| '''rungango''' || v. || laugh → be insensitive<br />
|-<br />
| '''raitn''' || v. || keep → be greedy<br />
|-<br />
| '''rubâre''' || v. || have → be accustomed to privilege<br />
|-<br />
| '''rungguko''' || v. || deceive → be a liar<br />
|-<br />
| '''rupasto''' || v. || attack → be agressive<br />
|-<br />
| '''rukpokpo''' || v. || refuse → opt. be stubborn<br />
|-<br />
| '''rudioba''' || v. || imagine → be daydreamy<br />
|-<br />
| '''ruposmun''' || v. || flee → be cowardly<br />
|-<br />
| '''rugua''' || v. || follow → be gullible<br />
|-<br />
| '''risten''' || v. || lose → have bad luck<br />
|-<br />
| '''rungkasta''' || v. || continue → always make it through<br />
|-<br />
| '''rututu''' || v. || amaze → be unpredictable<br />
|-<br />
| '''runumagi''' || v. || boast → always be full of shit<br />
|-<br />
| '''retsen''' || v. || behave → characteristically be or act (like something or in some manner)<br />
|-<br />
| '''rupiraindu''' || n. || plan+NOM → one who has foresight<br />
|-<br />
| '''rugbungialbu''' || n. || reward+OPT+PASS+NOM → one who always wants to be rewarded<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== ol-, reputative/obligative (should X) ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''oloto''' || v. || come → deserve a place, be legitimately included<br />
|-<br />
| '''olnon''' || v. || go → need to use the bathroom<br />
|-<br />
| '''olkenau''' || v. || ask → need permission for<br />
|-<br />
| '''olkenaun''' || v. || ask+PAST → trespass<br />
|-<br />
| '''olnotsn''' || v. || die+PAST → survive (a dangerous experience)<br />
|-<br />
| '''oltu''' || v. || eat → be starving<br />
|-<br />
| '''oldas''' || v. || fight → be a conscripted soldier<br />
|-<br />
| '''olmatn''' || v. || know → be expected to know; be responsible for knowing or being an expert on<br />
|-<br />
| '''olngango''' || v. || laugh → be serious (in tone)<br />
|-<br />
| '''olaitsu''' || v. || promise → be serious (about a relationship)<br />
|-<br />
| '''olerbo''' || v. || rest → be exhausted<br />
|-<br />
| '''olina''' || v. || see → be blind to<br />
|-<br />
| '''olanta''' || v. || stop → do too much<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== er-, futilitative/approximative (trying to X) ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''ersab''' || v. || drink → choke, have food/water go down the wrong way<br />
|-<br />
| '''erandenam''' || v. || breathe → gasp<br />
|-<br />
| '''ernots''' || v. || die → seriously sicken; be very or terminally ill<br />
|-<br />
| '''erbambi''' || v. || fail → accidentally succeed<br />
|-<br />
| '''ernarno''' || v. || cut → do (something, to one's own detriment)<br />
|-<br />
| '''eroto''' || v. || come → to work towards, try for<br />
|-<br />
| '''erdas''' || v. || fight → be agressive<br />
|-<br />
| '''eralnia''' || v. || fly → be insane<br />
|-<br />
| '''eranto''' || v. || hear → listen<br />
|-<br />
| '''eruntai''' || n. || joke → failed joke<br />
|-<br />
| '''eraula''' || v. || love → be impotent<br />
|-<br />
| '''eraitsu''' || v. || promise → con, defraud<br />
|-<br />
| '''erwompo''' || v. || remember → forget<br />
|-<br />
| '''erambi''' || v. || say → babble, ramble<br />
|-<br />
| '''erande''' || v. || stand → fall down, be drunk<br />
|-<br />
| '''erembur''' || v. || swim → drown<br />
|-<br />
| '''erkeng''' || v. || walk → hobble, limp<br />
|-<br />
| '''erimbwa''' || v. || use → be clumsy with<br />
|-<br />
| '''eralpau''' || v. || make → work on (making something)<br />
|-<br />
| '''erangwâi''' || v. || think → confuse (something)<br />
|-<br />
| '''erem''' || v. || turn → fail to change (e.g. a bad trait or habit)<br />
|-<br />
| '''ertutu''' || v. || amaze → be adequate<br />
|-<br />
| '''erabbwabu''' || n. || bloom+NOM → one who never quite gets anywhere<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== tso-, hyperprobabilitive ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsomebisn''' || v. || lack-PAST → be hungry for<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsopirain''' || v. || plan-PAST → be successful at<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsetsen''' || v. || behave → mimic<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsodgabm''' || v. || suffer → deserve pity<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsisten''' || v. || lose-PAST → be depressed<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Derivations ==<br />
<br />
=== -lau (place of X) ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''banailau''' || n. || worship → temple, church<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsainglau''' || n. || wash → bathroom, toilet room<br />
|-<br />
| '''otolau''' || n. || come → destination<br />
|-<br />
| '''emlau''' || n. || turn → bend in the road<br />
|-<br />
| '''kaimlau''' || n. || study → school<br />
|-<br />
| '''mêlau''' || n. || journey → destination<br />
|-<br />
| '''ntalau''' || n. || stop → death, funeral<br />
|-<br />
| '''mbilau''' || n. || say → auditorium, podium, pulpit<br />
|-<br />
| '''ismalau''' || n. || sew → seamstress' shop<br />
|-<br />
| '''ausalau''' || n. || sacrifice → altar<br />
|-<br />
| '''erbolau''' || n. || rest → sickhouse<br />
|-<br />
| '''kumlau''' || n. || repair → repair shop<br />
|-<br />
| '''rolau''' || n. || play (instrument) → stage<br />
|-<br />
| '''alpaulau''' || n. || make → workshop<br />
|-<br />
| '''wimlau''' || n. || live → home, house<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngatlau''' || n. || sleep → bed<br />
|-<br />
| '''rantolau''' || n. || hear → place where an audience sits/stands<br />
|-<br />
| '''muslau''' || n. || grow → place of origin; childhood home<br />
|-<br />
| '''osloklau''' || n. || forget → old age<br />
|-<br />
| '''daslau''' || n. || fight → battlefield<br />
|-<br />
| '''ainlau''' || n. || farm v. → farm<br />
|-<br />
| '''tulau''' || n. || eat → table<br />
|-<br />
| '''watslau''' || n. || dig → hole (in the ground)<br />
|-<br />
| '''ebrilau''' || n. || destroy → ruins<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngguklau''' || n. || deceive → marketplace<br />
|-<br />
| '''sigdalau''' || n. || corrupt → brothel<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsoblau''' || n. || control → office<br />
|-<br />
| '''ablau''' || n. || commit crime → crime scene<br />
|-<br />
| '''gonggailau''' || n. || break → weak point, achilles' heel<br />
|-<br />
| '''engkalau''' || n. || animal → animal den<br />
|-<br />
| '''aindlau''' || n. || ashes → dump, trash heap<br />
|-<br />
| '''kilau''' || n. || barley → bushel<br />
|-<br />
| '''moslau''' || n. || city → large city<br />
|-<br />
| '''simlau''' || n. || cloud → sky<br />
|-<br />
| '''mâislau''' || n. || cow → pasture<br />
|-<br />
| '''alilau''' || n. || fire → hearth, fireplace<br />
|-<br />
| '''mpaislau''' || n. || fish → fishing hole<br />
|-<br />
| '''wenlau''' || n. || herb → garden<br />
|-<br />
| '''mulau''' || n. || ice → the Northern Mountains<br />
|-<br />
| '''salau''' || n. || meat → butcher's shop<br />
|-<br />
| '''ntindolau''' || n. || metal → smithy<br />
|-<br />
| '''wismalau''' || n. || mud → swamp<br />
|-<br />
| '''pailbelau''' || n. || sand → beach<br />
|-<br />
| '''gaidlau''' || n. || rabbit → rabbit warren<br />
|-<br />
| '''nakaimelau''' || n. || soothsaying → fortune-teller's shop<br />
|-<br />
| '''bamborlau''' || n. || strength → capital city<br />
|-<br />
| '''ospaklau''' || n. || throne → palace, castle<br />
|-<br />
| '''ongiulau''' || n. || guess → courtroom, trial (deprecative)<br />
|-<br />
| '''sungiarlau''' || n. || help → sanctuary<br />
|-<br />
| '''pirainlau''' || n. || plan → conference room<br />
|-<br />
| '''susilau''' || n. || record → archive<br />
|-<br />
| '''dimbanglau''' || n. || store → closet, storage room<br />
|-<br />
| '''semalau''' || n. || wait → line, queue<br />
|-<br />
| '''kumbalau''' || n. || waste → outhouse, cesspit<br />
|-<br />
| '''nagebilau''' || n. || work → workplace<br />
|-<br />
| '''tautsilau''' || n. || bend → crease<br />
|-<br />
| '''nailinlau''' || n. || judge → courtroom (formal)<br />
|-<br />
| '''eskidnalau''' || n. || cook → kitchen<br />
|-<br />
| '''kimpalau''' || n. || complain → tavern, watering hole<br />
|-<br />
| '''meselau''' || n. || meet → meeting place<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -bu, agentive/patientive ===<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''kendu''' || n. || ask → skeptic<br />
|-<br />
| '''untsibu''' || n. || blow → cloud<br />
|-<br />
| '''otobu''' || n. || come → event<br />
|-<br />
| '''abâbu''' || n. || commit crime → criminal<br />
|-<br />
| '''mondubu''' || n. || count/measure → accountant, manager<br />
|-<br />
| '''notsabu''' || n. || die v.erg. → corpse<br />
|-<br />
| '''ebribu''' || n. || destroy → one who destroys<br />
|-<br />
| '''sompispu''' || n. || defeat → battle leader<br />
|-<br />
| '''nggukobu''' || n. || deceive → liar<br />
|-<br />
| '''watsabu''' || n. || dig → beggar<br />
|-<br />
| '''daspu''' || n. || fight → warrior<br />
|-<br />
| '''aipu''' || n. || freeze v.erg. → frost<br />
|-<br />
| '''muspu''' || n. || grow v.erg. → penis<br />
|-<br />
| '''bârbu''' || n. || have/possess → owner<br />
|-<br />
| '''rantobu''' || n. || hear → audience<br />
|-<br />
| '''bwenggorbu''' || n. || honor → pilgrim, grave visitor<br />
|-<br />
| '''randelbu''' || n. || hurry v.erg. → runner<br />
|-<br />
| '''desmogbu''' || n. || hunt → hunter<br />
|-<br />
| '''untaibu''' || n. || joke → comedian<br />
|-<br />
| '''mêbu''' || n. || journey → traveler<br />
|-<br />
| '''aitnabu''' || n. || keep → a (material) possession<br />
|-<br />
| '''engkubu''' || n. || kill → murderer<br />
|-<br />
| '''matnabu''' || n. || know → wise man, sage<br />
|-<br />
| '''balbu''' || n. || lie down v.erg. → sick person<br />
|-<br />
| '''tsinbu''' || n. || like → boyfriend, girlfriend, lover<br />
|-<br />
| '''alpaubu''' || n. || make → creator, inventor<br />
|-<br />
| '''robu''' || n. || play an instrument → musician<br />
|-<br />
| '''bespibu''' || n. || punish → slavemaster<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngadbu''' || n. || sleep v.erg. → sleeping person<br />
|-<br />
| '''mbîbwebu''' || n. || sing → singer<br />
|-<br />
| '''aulmobu''' || n. || steal → thief<br />
|-<br />
| '''kaimbu''' || n. || study → student<br />
|-<br />
| '''ngwâibu''' || n. || think/believe → believer, follower<br />
|-<br />
| '''imbwabu''' || n. || use v.erg. → instrument, tool<br />
|-<br />
| '''banaibu''' || n. || worship v.erg. → prophet<br />
|-<br />
| '''lewalpaubu ''' || n. || write → writer, poet<br />
|-<br />
| '''urubu''' || n. || cure → doctor<br />
|-<br />
| '''sidespu''' || n. || jump → frog<br />
|-<br />
| '''bungiabu''' || n. || bless → priest<br />
|-<br />
| '''nugatspu''' || n. || trade → trader<br />
|-<br />
| '''nagebibu''' || n. || work → laborer<br />
|-<br />
| '''gondagbu''' || n. || dream → dreamer, mystical person, prophet<br />
|-<br />
| '''lusidbu''' || n. || try → failure<br />
|-<br />
| '''eskidnabu''' || n. || cook → a cook<br />
|-<br />
| '''nailindu''' || n. || judge → a judge<br />
|-<br />
| '''aisibu''' || n. || color → artist, painter<br />
|-<br />
| '''lektabu''' || n. || collect → hobbyist, collector<br />
|-<br />
| '''kimpalbu''' || n. || complain → woman who complains too much; shrew<br />
|-<br />
| '''wisaibu''' || n. || yell → someone easily angered<br />
|-<br />
| '''budnabu''' || n. || listen → a spy<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Ndak Ta]]<br />
* [http://staff.washington.edu/salmiak/akana/lexicon_alph.html The original Ndak Ta lexicon] ''{broken link &rarr; [https://web.archive.org/web/20081120150338/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~bpawlows/temp/lexicon_alph.html backup]}'' - content duplicated here<br />
* [http://staff.washington.edu/salmiak/akana/Ndak-Extended.txt Extensions to the Ndak Ta lexicon] ''{broken link &rarr; [http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/NT-extended.txt backup]}'' - content duplicated here<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lexicography]]<br />
[[Category:Talo-Edastean languages]]<br />
[[Category:Edastean languages]]</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/F%C3%A1raloFáralo2017-01-20T15:49:00Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{DEFAULTSORT:Faralo}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Fáralo<br />
| phonetic = [ˈfa.ra.lɔ]<br />
| date = c. 0-200 YP<br />
| place = Huyfárah<br />
| speakers = c. 7.5 million<br />
| script = [[Fáralo alphabet]]<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Eastern Edastean <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;Fáralo<br />
| word-or = AuxSOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Article}}<br />
<br />
'''Fáralo''' was the language of [[Huyfárah]], the most powerful nation of [[Peilaš]] in the time period around 0 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is an [[Edastean]] language descended from the northern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], showing heavy influence from languages of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]], specifically [[Faraghin]]. Sister languages of Fáralo include [[Adāta]], [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]], [[Ndok Aisô]], and [[Komejech]].<br />
<br />
It was the first language to be written in an [[Fáralo alphabet|alphabet]].<br />
<br />
== Genealogy ==<br />
<br />
{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}<br />
<br />
<br />
Among the daughter languages of Fáralo are [[Woltu Falla]], [[Namɨdu]], [[Cəssın]], and [[Puoni]].<br />
<br />
== Sample ==<br />
* ''Siš Siənčæn ebí, kraš lu-diágə æm lu-laš Kazəgad ouwa lu-meokát æm lu-iodol luŋ-iəboun, sip: Isə lu-epén i na epélo æm æč badew, ædešei ege lu-klaš heil iəm čosk.''<br />
* [ siʃ ˈsi.ən.ʧæn ɛˈbi | kraʃ lu.diˈa.ɡə æm luˈlaʃ ˈka.zə.ɡad ˈo.wa lu.meɔ̯ˈkat æm luˈiɔ̯.dɔl luˈŋi.ə.bon | sip ‖ ˈi.sə lu.ɛˈpɛn i na ɛˈpɛlɔ æm æʧ ˈba.dew | ˈæ.dɛ.ʃe ˈɛ.ɡɛ luˈklaʃ hel ˈi.əm ʧɔsk ]<br />
* <small>NULL.AUX Siənčæn speak, brave the-Edák.ruler to.it the-land Kazəgad and the-younger.brother to.them the-sun the-moon-and, thus: before the-sit-PST I in chair to.him my father, stay-PST.PL all the.PL-land foreign to.me hostile</small><br />
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm Fáralo grammar] (dating to 130 YP)<br />
* [[Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Fáralo]]<br />
* [[Huyfárah]]<br />
<br />
<br />
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[[Category:Edastean languages]]<br />
[[Category:1st millennium]]<br />
[[Category:Huyfárah]]<br />
{{Stub}}</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/F%C3%A1ralo_alphabetFáralo alphabet2017-01-20T15:48:13Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: Created page with "The '''Fáralo alphabet''' is an alphabet which was originally invented for writing the Fáralo language, but was soon adapted for various other languages as well. ==Scri..."</p>
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<div>The '''Fáralo alphabet''' is an alphabet which was originally invented for writing the [[Fáralo]] language, but was soon adapted for various other languages as well.<br />
<br />
==Script==<br />
[[File:Fáralo alphabet.jpg|thumb]]<br />
The letterforms of the Fáralo alphabet are shown in the image to the right together with their usual transliterations. The orthography was largely phonemic, with a few exceptions:<br />
* The sequences /iə uə/ were usually written as single letters, though some scribes preferred to write them as digraphs instead.<br />
* Unstressed word-initial /ɛ/ was written as /ə/.<br />
* Stops and affricates were represented by two different letters each. Their distribution was as follows:<br />
** For voiceless stops, '''p<sub>1</sub> t<sub>1</sub> č<sub>1</sub> k<sub>1</sub>''' were used word-medially whereas '''p<sub>2</sub> t<sub>2</sub> č<sub>2</sub> k<sub>2</sub>''' were used word-initially.<br />
** For voiced stops, '''b<sub>2</sub> d<sub>2</sub> g<sub>2</sub>''' were used to indicate /b d g/ deriving from the consonant mutation, and '''b<sub>1</sub> d<sub>1</sub> g<sub>1</sub>''' were used elsewhere.<br />
** Since /tʃ/ didn't participate in the consonant mutation, the usage of '''j<sub>2</sub>''' varied between scribes. Most used it for word-initial /dʒ/, while some others didn't use it at all.<br />
*/j/ was not distinguished from /i/.<br />
* Stress was not indicated.<br />
<br />
==Origins of the glyphs==<br />
The Fáralo alphabet descends from the [[Ndak syllabary]], which in turn descends from the [[Oryziform]] script. The Ndak syllabary consisted primarily of CV glyphs and was slightly defective, as it did not distinguish voicing, nor did it distinguish /s/ from /ts/. It did however have separate glyphs for prenasalised stops and a number of non-CV glyphs, including a full set for nasal vowels.<br />
<br />
As intervocalic stops were voiced during the development of Fáralo from Ndak Ta, the glyphs originally representing plain stops usually represented voiced stops in early Fáralo, whereas the prenasalised stops, not having undergone this sound change, could still be either voiceless or voiced. Therefore the glyphs representing prenasalised stops were chosen to represent voiceless stops and those representing plain stops were chosen for the voiced ones. Word-initially, however, the original voicing distinction was preserved, and a separate series of glyphs was taken from the original plain series to be used for word-initial voiceless stops alone. Mirrored variants of these came to be used to represent the consonant mutation.<br />
<br />
As /s/ and /ts/ were not distinguished in Ndak Ta, while both phonemes split into two phonemes in Fáralo, the original S-series was used for as many as four different consonant phonemes in early Fáralo: /s š z h/. Word-initial /š/, which only appeared in Faraghin loanwords, was written using the si glyph, which therefore became the sign for /š/ in the alphabet. The signs for /s/ and /h/ were randomly chosen from the other S-glyphs, and for /z/ a mirrored variant of /s/ was chosen.<br />
<br />
The sign for /f/, another phoneme which word-initially only appears in Faraghin loanwords, descends from a logogram which originally meant "people" and was adopted for the word "Fáralo".<br />
<br />
The full list of Fáralo letters and their origins is as follows:<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Fáralo value<br />
! Ndak Ta syllable<br />
! Ndak Ta word<br />
! Oryziform glyph<br />
|-<br />
| '''a'''<br />
| '''a'''<br />
| ''asa'' "woman"<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| '''n'''<br />
| '''ne'''<br />
| ''nenga'' "leaf"<br />
| 67<br />
|-<br />
| '''ou'''<br />
| '''oN'''<br />
| ''omo'' "mother''<br />
| 73<br />
|-<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| '''ma'''<br />
| ''mabm'' "mouth''<br />
| 77<br />
|-<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| ''itwam'' "arm"<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| ''esul'' "take"<br />
| 288<br />
|-<br />
| '''r'''<br />
| '''ru'''<br />
| ''rud'' "man"<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| '''p<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''mpa'''<br />
| ''mpaiswa'' "fish"<br />
| 49<br />
|-<br />
| '''iə'''<br />
| '''iN'''<br />
| ''imbi'' "moon"<br />
| 72<br />
|-<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''so'''<br />
| ''tsondo'' "knee"<br />
| 63<br />
|-<br />
| '''j<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ke'''<br />
| ''kenla'' "teacher"<br />
| 108<br />
|-<br />
| '''o'''<br />
| '''o'''<br />
| ''okwa'' "ear"<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''s'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''k<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ngko'''<br />
| ''nggol'' "foot"<br />
| 52<br />
|-<br />
| '''uə'''<br />
| '''uN'''<br />
| ''untai'' "to joke"<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| '''u'''<br />
| '''u'''<br />
| ''ulwo'' "rope"<br />
| 92<br />
|-<br />
| '''w'''<br />
| '''we'''<br />
| ''wedn'' "herb"<br />
| 60<br />
|-<br />
| '''g<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ko'''<br />
| ''komwa'' "tongue"<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| '''ei'''<br />
| '''eN'''<br />
| ''empi'' "grass"<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| '''d<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''to'''<br />
| ''ton'' "hand"<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| '''č<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''ngki'''<br />
| ''ngkilba'' "plough"<br />
| 198<br />
|-<br />
| '''p<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''pa'''<br />
| ''pap'' "shield"<br />
| 97<br />
|-<br />
| '''b<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''p<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''t<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ta'''<br />
| ''daing'' "mountain"<br />
| 75<br />
|-<br />
| '''d<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''t<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''k<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ka'''<br />
| ''gan'' "knife"<br />
| 65<br />
|-<br />
| '''g<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''k<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''h'''<br />
| '''su'''<br />
| ''susi'' "mouse"<br />
| 76<br />
|-<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''From a logogram representing the word "Fáralo".''<br />
|-<br />
| '''b<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''po'''<br />
| ''pon'' "island"<br />
| 62<br />
|-<br />
| '''l'''<br />
| '''la'''<br />
| ''lai'' "bird"<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| '''ŋ'''<br />
| '''nga'''<br />
| ''ngane'' "neck"<br />
| 81<br />
|-<br />
| '''t<sub>1</sub>'''<br />
| '''nta'''<br />
| ''ndai'' "tree"<br />
| 112<br />
|-<br />
| '''č<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| '''ki'''<br />
| ''kil'' "barley"<br />
| 31<br />
|-<br />
| '''j<sub>2</sub>'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Mirrored variant of '''č<sub>2</sub>'''.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''æ'''<br />
| '''aN'''<br />
| ''ande'' "stand"<br />
| 282<br />
|-<br />
| '''š'''<br />
| '''si'''<br />
| ''tsilâu'' "tooth"<br />
| 111<br />
|-<br />
| '''ə'''<br />
| colspan="3" | ''Variant of '''a'''.<br />
|}</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A1ralo_alphabet.jpgFile:Fáralo alphabet.jpg2017-01-20T15:46:17Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
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<div></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-19T19:55:55Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
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<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br><br />
'''páþ''' ''n'' valley [''pada'']<br><br />
'''påf''' ''n'' disgust; ''v'' be disgusted [''poppu'']<br><br />
'''pǻk''' ''n'' horse; ''v'' ride [''pagu'']<br><br />
'''pe''' ''a'' big [''pya'']<br><br />
'''pedéns''' ''v'' understand [''pɨdyemis'']<br><br />
'''pef''' ''n'' breast; ''v'' breastfeed, nurse [''peppe'']<br><br />
'''pen''' ''n, v'' kiss [''pyen'']<br><br />
'''péns''' ''a'' ready; ''aux'' about to [''pesen'']<br><br />
'''pi''' ''n'' child [''pɨ'']<br><br />
'''pik''' ''a'' main, primary [''piggał'']<br><br />
'''pík''' ''v'' send [''piła'']<br><br />
'''pinír''' ''num'' ninety [''pya niro'']<br><br />
'''piñ''' ''n'' chicken [''piñña'']<br><br />
'''pisk''' ''a'' dead; ''n'' corpse [''pissił'']<br><br />
'''pok''' ''n'' orange [''połge'']<br><br />
'''ponš''' ''v'' count; ''n'' number [''potsna'']<br><br />
'''pont''' ''a'' purple [''ponda'']<br><br />
'''poþ''' ''v'' get, receive [''potte'' "find"]<br><br />
'''pök''' ''v'' ignore [''pwekku'' "snub"]<br><br />
'''pömp''' ''n'' rich person [''pyombu'' "bourgeois"]<br><br />
'''pön<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' island [''pwen'']<br><br />
'''pön<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' with, having [''pyon'']<br><br />
'''Pörps''' ''n'' [[Poráš]] [''Pyopros'']<br><br />
'''pös''' ''n'' fish [''pyossa'']<br><br />
'''Pőxs''' ''n'' [[Peilaš]] [''Pyołas'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' loud; ''v'' ring (a bell), notify [''pyodde'']<br><br />
'''pöþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' emphatic auxiliary [''pyotta'']<br><br />
'''pren''' ''v'' design [''pryen'']<br><br />
'''pú''' ''n'' nose; ''v'' smell [''puwa'']<br><br />
'''puft''' ''v, n'' attack; ''a'' aggressive [''pubbɨt'']<br><br />
'''rak''' ''v'' pour [''rał'']<br><br />
'''råns''' ''n'' voter; ''v'' vote [''roznu'']<br><br />
'''råþ''' ''n'' property [''roddu'']<br><br />
'''re''' ''a'' straight [''re'']<br><br />
'''ref''' ''n, v'' substitute [''ryeppu'']<br><br />
'''rek''' ''a'' hot [''rełga'']<br><br />
'''rém''' ''pt'' introduces relative clauses [''rema'']<br><br />
'''ren''' ''prep'' like, in a ... way [''ryen'']<br><br />
'''réñ''' ''adv'' instead; ''prep'' instead of [''ryeñu'']<br><br />
'''Reñk''' ''n'' the plains of southwestern Huyfárah [''Reñło'']<br><br />
'''réñk''' ''n'' platform, storey, floor [''reñał'']<br><br />
'''reþ''' ''v'' hear, perceive [''ryettu'']<br><br />
'''reþk''' ''n'' jar, box [''ryeddeł'']<br><br />
'''rexs''' ''n, v'' nurse [''rełsa'']<br><br />
'''rezdǻ''' ''v, n'' delay [''rezdowa'' "waste time"]<br><br />
'''ro''' ''num'' ten [''ro'']<br><br />
'''roñk''' ''a'' insane [''rołña'']<br><br />
'''rot''' ''num'' tenth [''ro dya'']<br><br />
'''roþ''' ''v'' have [''rodda'']<br><br />
'''róþ''' ''v'' eat, have dinner [''rote'']<br><br />
'''röm''' ''n'' disaster [''ryommɨ'' "earthquake"]<br><br />
'''ruf''' ''v'' pull [''rubba'' "masturbate"]<br><br />
'''runs''' ''v'' slander [''russan'']<br><br />
'''ruñk''' ''pt'' where [''rułma'']<br><br />
'''rus''' ''n'' female member [''rudza'']<br><br />
'''rut''' ''n'' male member [''rud'']<br><br />
'''ruvos''' ''v'' argue; ''n'' argument [''rubosso'' "haggle"]<br><br />
'''så''' ''n'' knee, corner [''swa'']<br><br />
'''såt''' ''n'' sandwich [''sadwa'']<br><br />
'''sek''' ''n'' name; ''v'' call, mention [''sek'']<br><br />
'''sék''' ''n'' hearth [''seło'']<br><br />
'''sen''' ''v, n'' drink [''sɨn'']<br><br />
'''sens''' ''adv'' the day after tomorrow [''sɨnsɨ'']<br><br />
'''senš''' ''a'' fortunate [''settsin'']<br><br />
'''sént''' ''n'' civil servant [''senat'' "minister"]<br><br />
'''sénþ''' ''v'' discuss; ''n'' conversation [''setim'']<br><br />
'''señk''' ''n'' hurricane [''seggan'']<br><br />
'''ses''' ''a'' good, kind [''sɨs'']<br><br />
'''sés''' ''adv'' yesterday [''sɨso'']<br><br />
'''seš''' ''a'' both, each [''sɨts'']<br><br />
'''sešint''' ''n'' descent [''sestsinte'' "genealogy"]<br><br />
'''sexs''' ''n'' dragonfly [''sełsa'']<br><br />
'''Séþk''' ''n'' [[Sertek]] [''Setek'']<br><br />
'''skexp''' ''n'' clothing [''skełbo'']<br><br />
'''slór''' ''v'' forget to do/say something, fail [''slora'' "briefly forget"]<br><br />
'''smók''' ''n, v'' gossip [''smoło'']<br><br />
'''smóþ''' ''n, v'' farm [''smote'']<br><br />
'''smóþp''' ''n'' farmer [''smotebu'']<br><br />
'''snon''' ''n'' ground, base, foundation [''snon'']<br><br />
'''sóñk''' ''n, a'' fat [''sołan'']<br><br />
'''sorm''' ''pt'' when, if [''sorma'']<br><br />
'''sormp''' ''n'' teacher [''sobren'' "clever person"]<br><br />
'''sos<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' second day of the week [''sos'']<br><br />
'''sos<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' onion [''sozzi'']<br><br />
'''sós''' ''n'' woman [''sossa'']<br><br />
'''söpk''' ''n'' bag, sack [''swebło'']<br><br />
'''sus''' ''n'' olive oil [''suddzi'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-14T10:11:58Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-14T10:11:21Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br><br />
'''of''' ''n'' fruit [''oppo'']<br><br />
'''ofk''' ''n'' ear; ''v'' hear, listen [''oppał'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>1</sup>''' ''aux'' want [''oł'']<br><br />
'''ok<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' they [''ak'']<br><br />
'''okp''' ''v'' build, construct [''ołpo'']<br><br />
'''ól''' ''a'' ugly [''olo'']<br><br />
'''omp''' ''n, v'' thunder; ''a'' angry [''ombe'']<br><br />
'''ons''' ''a'' heavy, importat [''ossin'']<br><br />
'''ónþ''' ''a'' weak [WF ''oton'' "thin"]<br><br />
'''óñ''' ''a'' impossible [''oñan'' "unreachable"]<br><br />
'''oñk''' ''v'' forget; ''n'' ignorance [''ołna'' "not know"]<br><br />
'''órk''' ''v'' set on fire [''oreł'']<br><br />
'''ós''' ''v'' play; ''n'' game [''oso'']<br><br />
'''osǻ''' ''n'' barbarian or cruel act [''osawu'' "human sacrifice"]<br><br />
'''ósk''' ''v'' propose [''osał'']<br><br />
'''oxé''' ''pron'' their [''ok'' + ''yeya'']<br><br />
'''oxtk''' ''n'' storage; ''v'' store [''ołtoł'']<br><br />
'''oþ''' ''v'' protect [''otte'']<br><br />
'''óþ''' ''v'' hurry [F ''ote'']<br><br />
'''óþk''' ''n'' eye [''odoł'']<br><br />
'''óþp''' ''n'' guard [''ottebu'']<br><br />
'''ö''' ''intj'' no [''ÿa'']<br><br />
'''ő''' ''a'' stupid [''yoha'']<br><br />
'''öf''' ''v'' swim [''yobbɨ'']<br><br />
'''őf''' ''v, n'' sleep [''ebu'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' foot [''yoł'']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>2</sup>''' ''prep'' below [''ÿoł''']<br><br />
'''ök<sup>3</sup>''' ''v'' put down [''yog'']<br><br />
'''Ök<sup>4</sup>''' ''n'' [[Aiwa]] [''Yogga'']<br><br />
'''ők''' ''n'' west [''yoweł'']<br><br />
'''öm''' ''n'' right (side) [''ÿem'']<br><br />
'''ömp''' ''a'' very cold, frozen [''yobbin'']<br><br />
'''őñ''' ''conj'' but [''weñu'']<br><br />
'''öp''' ''a'' green [''yob'']<br><br />
'''ör''' ''n'' string, thread [''yorya'']<br><br />
'''őr''' ''n, v'' love [''ÿere'']<br><br />
'''öslás''' ''adv'' now [''ÿosso lasa'' "now-hour"]<br><br />
'''övők''' ''n'' garden, park [''yob ÿoło'' "green garden"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' previous, last [''yettu'' "former"]<br><br />
'''öþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' spring [''yodda'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''prep'' of, about [''ÿeta'']<br><br />
'''őþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everything [''yotu'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-10T17:45:10Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' "in any (way)"]<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya'']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br><br />
'''ñaf''' ''n'' toe [''ñabba'']<br><br />
'''ñál''' ''n'' excess; ''a'' excessive [F ''ŋalər'']<br><br />
'''ñalaspt''' ''a'' confusing, weird [''ñalazbod'']<br><br />
'''ñaxos''' ''n'' leather [''ñagosso'']<br><br />
'''ñaþ''' ''v'' empty [''ñadde'' "clean"]<br><br />
'''ñáþ''' ''pron'' never [''myati'']<br><br />
'''ñaþúf''' ''n'' dog [''ñadɨbu'']<br><br />
'''Ñǻr''' ''n, a'' [[Ngauro]] [''Ñoru'']<br><br />
'''ñe''' ''n, v'' trade [''mya'']<br><br />
'''ñef''' ''pron'' somewhere [''nyebwe'']<br><br />
'''ñéf''' ''pron'' something [''nyeba'']<br><br />
'''ñéfk''' ''n'' cake [''myebił'' "cookie"]<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' day [''myeg'']<br><br />
'''ñek<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' follow; ''aux'' continue [''ñegłu'' "accompany"]<br><br />
'''ñem''' ''num'' seven [''myem'']<br><br />
'''ñemön''' ''num'' seventeen [''myemwen'']<br><br />
'''ñen''' ''n'' neck [''ñenne'']<br><br />
'''ñent''' ''num'' seventh [''myem dya'']<br><br />
'''ñep''' ''pron'' sometimes [''nyebło'']<br><br />
'''ñerm''' ''num'' seventy [''myemro'']<br><br />
'''ñerp''' ''pron'' someone [''nyebru'']<br><br />
'''ñes''' ''n'' cow [''myessa'']<br><br />
'''ñeséns''' ''n'' seventh day of the week [''myem sesen'' "seven-''sesen''"]<br><br />
'''ñi''' ''num'' two [''ñi'']<br><br />
'''ñit''' ''num'' second [''ñi dya'']<br><br />
'''ñivön''' ''num'' twelve [''ñiwen'']<br><br />
'''ñok''' ''a, adv'' more [''ñoł'']<br><br />
'''ñoks''' ''a'' tall [''ñołdzi'']<br><br />
'''ñon''' ''n'' business connection [''ñonne'']<br><br />
'''ñops''' ''a'' heavy, difficult [''ñopsa'']<br><br />
'''ñosk''' ''n'' idiot [''ñosłok'']<br><br />
'''ñök''' ''v'' read [''myoł'']<br><br />
'''Ñől''' ''n'' [[Ñolo]] [''Ñÿalo'']<br><br />
'''ñöm''' ''a'' read [''nyemmu'']<br><br />
'''ñőr''' ''a'' ancient [''ñÿeru'']<br><br />
'''ñuf''' ''n'' cat [''ñuffe'']<br><br />
'''ñúfk''' ''n'' needle; ''v'' pierce [''ñɨbuł'']<br><br />
'''ñúr''' ''a'' dark-haired [''ñura'' "brown"]<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2017-01-08T14:31:33Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' in any (way)'']<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br><br />
'''nañk''' ''v, n'' split [''nañga'']<br><br />
'''naplék''' ''intj'' goodbye; ''n'' goodbye; ''v'' say goodbye [''naplekɨ'']<br><br />
'''našk''' ''prep'' between [''nazyoł'']<br><br />
'''našt''' ''prep'' next to; ''n'' neigbour; ''a'' neighbouring, nearby [''nazdya'']<br><br />
'''natk''' ''v'' put in, insert [''nadyog'']<br><br />
'''naþél''' ''n, a'' secret [''nadɨlo'']<br><br />
'''nǻ''' ''n'' noodles [''noyu'']<br><br />
'''nåk''' ''n'' bear [''noggu'']<br><br />
'''nǻn''' ''v, n'' cut [''nanu'']<br><br />
'''nånös''' ''n'' saw [''nanu yossi'' "cut-saw"]<br><br />
'''nåñk''' ''v'' clean up; ''a'' tidy, neat [''nołñu'']<br><br />
'''nåvím''' ''n'' clay [''nobwima'']<br><br />
'''né''' ''n'' war; ''v'' fight [''nɨya']<br><br />
'''nek''' ''a'' best [''negge'']<br><br />
'''nél''' ''n'' cemetery [''nɨlo'' "mass grave"]<br><br />
'''nem''' ''n'' disease, illness [F ''næm'']<br><br />
'''ném''' ''a'' arrogant [''nɨma'' "condescending"]<br><br />
'''neñks''' ''v, n'' change [''nełdzen'' "adjust"]<br><br />
'''nes''' ''a'' ill, sick [''nes'']<br><br />
'''nik''' ''num'' nine [''nił'']<br><br />
'''níñ''' ''a'' boring [''niñi'' "pointless"]<br><br />
'''nixön''' ''num'' nineteen [''niłwen'']<br><br />
'''nixt''' ''num'' ninth [''nił dya'']<br><br />
'''nof''' ''a'' brown [''nobbe'' "dark red"]<br><br />
'''nok''' ''n'' room, space [''nogga'']<br><br />
'''nom''' ''a'' small [''nom'']<br><br />
'''nompi''' ''n'' detail [''nom pi'' "small thing"]<br><br />
'''nonǻn''' ''v'' crumble [''nonnanu'' "cut into small pieces"]<br><br />
'''noñír''' ''num'' twenty [''nom ñiro'']<br><br />
'''nór''' ''v, n'' exit [''nora'']<br><br />
'''nos''' ''n'' east [''nozza'']<br><br />
'''nosk''' ''v'' remove [''noskɨ'']<br><br />
'''nošak''' ''n'' god, goddess [''nogga tsak'' "god-king"]<br><br />
'''nő''' ''n, v'' work [''noyo'']<br><br />
'''nők''' ''n'' street [''nweło'']<br><br />
'''nön''' ''v'' go to (+dat), leave [''nwen'']<br><br />
'''nönš''' ''v'' forget (a fact) [''nwentsi'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-22T20:45:15Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Quantifiers */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' and '''míf''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-22T20:45:00Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''ǻþ''' ''aux'' be [''odu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''em''' ''aux'' cause [''ɨm'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''íþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' seem, apparently [''ida'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br><br />
'''lám''' ''a'' high, tall [''lama'']<br><br />
'''lás''' ''n'' hour, point in time [''lasa'']<br><br />
'''lat''' ''a'' healthy [F ''lad'']<br><br />
'''lǻs''' ''n, a'' past [''lodzu'']<br><br />
'''lǻþ''' ''a'' right, correct [F ''loute'']<br><br />
'''le''' ''pt'' indicates a question; yes [''le'']<br><br />
'''lefék''' ''n'' throne [''lepeło'']<br><br />
'''legös''' ''n'' poem, poetry [''legyossa'']<br><br />
'''lek''' ''n'' word; ''v'' write [''legga'' "word", ''leggał'' "write" and ''leł'' "scribble"]<br><br />
'''lék''' ''pron'' you, your (singular nom, acc and gen) [''leku'', ''yeku'']<br><br />
'''lénþ''' ''pron'' to us [''lɨtam'']<br><br />
'''léñk''' ''pron'' to you (singular) [''lekum'']<br><br />
'''les''' ''a'' reckless [''les'' "free"]<br><br />
'''leš<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' steady [''lestsa'']<br><br />
'''leš<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' eighth day of the week [''lettse'']<br><br />
'''léþk''' ''n'' sun; ''v'' shine [''lɨdoł'']<br><br />
'''lont''' ''n'' bullshit; ''a'' fake [''lonte'' "quackery"]<br><br />
'''loñeñk''' ''n'' ceremony [''loñeñga'']<br><br />
'''los''' ''n'' land, area, nation [''los'']<br><br />
'''lósk''' ''v'' agree; ''n'' agreement [''losał'']<br><br />
'''loslýšk''' ''n'' earthquake [''los lizyuł'' "earth-shiver"]<br><br />
'''lot''' ''a'' honest [''lod'']<br><br />
'''loxp''' ''v'' heal, repair [''lołpo'']<br><br />
'''lő''' ''n'' delta [F ''lewə'']<br><br />
'''lők''' ''n'' cage, cell [''lyoło'' "birdcage"]<br><br />
'''lön''' ''n'' hunger, desire [''lÿenna'']<br><br />
'''löns''' ''a'' free [''leswɨm'']<br><br />
'''lös''' ''a'' free; ''v'' set free, liberate [F ''lews'']<br><br />
'''lösk''' ''n'' winter; failure; ''v'' fail [''lyosło'']<br><br />
'''löt''' ''n'' year [''lyod'']<br><br />
'''lúk''' ''pron'' we [''luki'']<br><br />
'''lúm''' ''v'' smile, like (+dat) [''lɨmu'']<br><br />
'''lump''' ''a'' stupid [''lumbye'' "act foolishly"]<br><br />
'''lúmp''' ''n'' moon [''luñɨb'']<br><br />
'''lúps''' ''n'' sixth day of the week [''luboz'']<br><br />
'''lús''' ''pron'' us [''luzis'']<br><br />
'''lúsk''' ''n'' name [''lusek'']<br><br />
'''luxéš''' ''pron'' our [''luki'' + ''yetsi'']<br><br />
'''lý''' ''n'' loser, coward [''liwu'']<br><br />
'''lýšk''' ''v'' shiver, shake [''lizyuł'']<br><br />
'''ma''' ''pron'' to him, to her [''yem-'' + ''a'']<br><br />
'''mál''' ''n'' man, guy; ''pron'' one [''male'']<br><br />
'''mám''' ''n'' mother [''mamma'']<br><br />
'''máns''' ''a'' useless [''madzen'']<br><br />
'''mas''' ''n'' hammer [''mas'']<br><br />
'''más''' ''n'' milk [''masa'' "cow milk"]<br><br />
'''masér''' ''v'' hate; ''n'' hatred [''masere'']<br><br />
'''masof''' ''v'' make a mistake; ''n'' mistake [''masobba'']<br><br />
'''mášt''' ''n'' slave [F ''mačud'']<br><br />
'''maþoþ''' ''v'' disapprove, dislike [''madottɨ'']<br><br />
'''må''' ''n'' skin, outside [''mwa'']<br><br />
'''mås''' ''n'' harbour [''moswe'']<br><br />
'''måšt''' ''n'' servant, helper; ''v'' serve, help [''mottsud'' "slave"]<br><br />
'''mǻþ''' ''prep'' before, in front of [''modu'']<br><br />
'''méf''' ''a'' deaf, blind [''mɨpa'' "deaf" and ''mɨdo'' "blind"]<br><br />
'''memis''' ''v'' fascinate [''mɨmisso'' "enchant"]<br><br />
'''memps''' ''a'' simple, easy [''mɨbzin'' "primitive"]<br><br />
'''Ment''' ''n'' [[Mæmedéi]] [''Myendya'']<br><br />
'''méxt''' ''n'' younger brother [''mekot'']<br><br />
'''mi''' ''pron'' to me [''yem-'' + ''i'']<br><br />
'''míf''' ''quant'' no, none; ''pron'' nothing [''mipi'']<br><br />
'''mífk''' ''a'' rude [''mipoł'' "impolite"]<br><br />
'''mífs''' ''v'' destroy [''mipi'' "nothing" + ''-so'']<br><br />
'''mik''' ''n'' bread; ''v'' bake [''mik'']<br><br />
'''mínš''' ''a'' cold [''mitsen'']<br><br />
'''mír''' ''pron'' nobody [''miru'']<br><br />
'''mís''' ''v'' give; ''n'' gift [''mise'']<br><br />
'''misorm''' ''conj'' or [''mi-'' + ''sorma'']<br><br />
'''mišiþp''' ''n'' baker [''mittsidde'' "bake" + ''-bu'']<br><br />
'''mizen''' ''v'' cheat on; ''a'' unfaithful; ''n'' affair [''midzenna'']<br><br />
'''mo''' ''n'' colour; ''v'' paint [''mo'']<br><br />
'''mof''' ''n'' mouth [''mobbe'']<br><br />
'''mofk''' ''n'' magnet; ''v'' attract [''moppał'']<br><br />
'''mok''' ''pron'' to them [''yem-'' + ''ok'']<br><br />
'''mók''' ''a'' full; ''v'' fill [''moła'']<br><br />
'''mól''' ''pron'' where [''mola'']<br><br />
'''mons''' ''a'' public [''mossin'']<br><br />
'''moñk''' ''v'' find, discover [''mołna'' "notice"]<br><br />
'''mos''' ''quant'' some, few [''mos'']<br><br />
'''mosp''' ''n'' penis (formal) [''mospo'']<br><br />
'''moš''' ''n'' kitchen [''mots'']<br><br />
'''moþéns''' ''n'' violence; ''a'' violent [''moddesen'']<br><br />
'''mő''' ''v'' fuck; ''n'' sex (vulgar) [''mowe'']<br><br />
'''mök''' ''intj'' anyway [''mu yak'' in any (way)'']<br><br />
'''mőr''' ''a'' narrow [''mweru'']<br><br />
'''möþ''' ''n'' number [''mweddu'']<br><br />
'''muf''' ''n'' worm [''mubba'']<br><br />
'''múk''' ''n'' ice; ''v'' freeze [''muła'']<br><br />
'''mus''' ''aux'' become [''mus'']<br><br />
'''musúþ''' ''n'' belief; ''v'' believe [''mussuta'']<br><br />
'''muzáþ''' ''v'' get drunk [''mudzada'' "take drugs"]<br><br />
'''mý<sup>1</sup>''' ''pron'' nowhere [''miwe'']<br><br />
'''mý<sup>2</sup>''' ''quant'' no, none [''miwa'']<br><br />
'''myšk''' ''v'' have fun; ''n'' fun [''mayuttsił'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-18T20:55:15Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>3</sup>''' ''aux'' need [''yeda'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''is<sup>2</sup>''' ''aux'' should [''is'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br><br />
'''kaš''' ''n'' aunt [''kattsa'']<br><br />
'''kát''' ''n'' gold, money [''katya'']<br><br />
'''kaxt''' ''n'' wind; ''v'' blow [''kałto'']<br><br />
'''kå''' ''a'' awful [''kwo'']<br><br />
'''ke''' ''n'' egg [''kya'']<br><br />
'''ké''' ''n'' fog [''kaya'']<br><br />
'''kéfš''' ''n'' meal, food [''kebbats'' "supper"]<br><br />
'''kéln''' ''n'' wool [''kyelin'']<br><br />
'''kens''' ''a'' good [''kɨnzo'']<br><br />
'''kenš''' ''n, v'' honour [''kettsem'']<br><br />
'''keñk''' ''n'' hair [''kyennił'']<br><br />
'''keš''' ''a'' angry, mad, evil [''kets'']<br><br />
'''Kešen''' ''n'' the world, [[Akana]] [''Ketsenna'']<br><br />
'''keþ''' ''n'' ash [''kyedda'']<br><br />
'''kéþ''' ''n'' annoying person [''kɨta'' "demon"]<br><br />
'''kif''' ''n'' alcohol, ethanol [''kippa'' "booze"]<br><br />
'''kinåk''' ''n'' fur [''kyennił nokwi'' "hair-fur"]<br><br />
'''kóf''' ''prep'' ago [''koppe'' "ages past"]<br><br />
'''kok''' ''n'' border, limit [''kokło'']<br><br />
'''kósk''' ''v'' see [''kozził'']<br><br />
'''Kóšt''' ''n'' [[Kasca]] [''Kozyad'']<br><br />
'''koþ''' ''v, n'' cover; ''n'' curtain [''kodda'']<br><br />
'''kő''' ''n'' egg white, protein [''kyewe'']<br><br />
'''kők''' ''n'' shirt [''kyołu'']<br><br />
'''könt''' ''n'' medicine [''kyonte'']<br><br />
'''köñ''' ''n'' ring, circle [''kweñña'']<br><br />
'''köp''' ''n'' grass [''kyop'']<br><br />
'''kös''' ''n, v'' snow [''kyozze'']<br><br />
'''kpém''' ''n'' smoke [''kpɨma'']<br><br />
'''kréþ''' ''v'' seize, grab [''kreta'' "capture"]<br><br />
'''kros''' ''a'' mighty, powerful [''kros'']<br><br />
'''krő''' ''n'' breakfast [''kryewa'']<br><br />
'''ku''' ''n'' thought; ''v'' think; ''aux'' dare [''ku'' "spirit"]<br><br />
'''kuk''' ''n, v'' hiccup [''kukka'']<br><br />
'''kúk''' ''v'' speak, say [''kwuła'']<br><br />
'''kuls''' ''n'' library [F ''kuzlo'']<br><br />
'''kumpk''' ''n'' grave, burial; ''v'' bury [''kumpeł'' "tomb"]<br><br />
'''kuñops''' ''n'' brooch [''kwañopsi'']<br><br />
'''kurnš''' ''n'' olive [''kusryem'']<br><br />
'''kus''' ''n'' book; ''v'' read [''kuz'']<br><br />
'''kús''' ''v, n'' cough [''kussu'']<br><br />
'''kusk''' ''n'' bookshelf [''kuzło'']<br><br />
'''kyn''' ''a'' sacred, holy [''kwin'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-18T15:53:53Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Case usage */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
He is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-18T15:53:34Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Case usage */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ a pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be 3SG big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
'''Vǻs''' "this" and '''zes''' "that", when used as determiners, are followed by nouns in the essive case.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes amál ő.'''<br><br />
<small>be that ESS-man stupid</small><br><br />
''That man is stupid.''<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-18T15:48:30Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Neutral auxiliaries */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|-<br />
! try<br />
| isösk<br />
| isönsk<br />
| isöskt<br />
| misösk<br />
| misönsk<br />
| misöskt<br />
|-<br />
! cause<br />
| em<br />
| én<br />
| ént<br />
| mem<br />
| mén<br />
| mént<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-18T15:45:02Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br><br />
'''gamálk''' ''a'' pure [WF ''gamakel'' "naked"]<br><br />
'''gas''' ''n'' boat; ''v'' sail, travel by boat [''gas'']<br><br />
'''gå''' ''n'' road, manner [''gwa'']<br><br />
'''gås''' ''n'' rabbit [''gossu'']<br><br />
'''gef''' ''v'' reply, react; ''n'' reaction [''gɨppi'']<br><br />
'''geš''' ''n'' fourth day of the week [''gets'']<br><br />
'''gíš''' ''v'' wait [''gitsa-gitsa'' "wait a minute"]<br><br />
'''go''' ''v'' ignore [''go'' "reject"]<br><br />
'''gofš''' ''n'' crime; ''a'' criminal [''goffats'']<br><br />
'''gon''' ''n (irr.)'' elder brother [''gonnin'']<br><br />
'''goþ''' ''n'' wood; ''a'' wooden [''gotte'']<br><br />
'''goþs''' ''n'' ship [''gottats'' "galley"]<br><br />
'''gö''' ''prep'' to, towards [''gyo'']<br><br />
'''göps''' ''n'' sheep [''gyopsa'']<br><br />
'''gőrt''' ''prep'' until [''gyorit'']<br><br />
'''göþ''' ''n, v'' dream [''gwedda'']<br><br />
'''grím''' ''v'' betray, tell a secret [''gurima'']<br><br />
'''gryk''' ''pt'' until [''gyorikłu'']<br><br />
'''guf''' ''v'' let go, accept [''gubbe'']<br><br />
'''hant''' ''n'' village [''handya'']<br><br />
'''háþ''' ''prep'' near [''hadɨ'' "outside of"]<br><br />
'''hå''' ''n'' beach [''hwa'']<br><br />
'''hǻ''' ''n'' broth [''howe'']<br><br />
'''hålt''' ''a'' exciting, fun [WF ''hadlu'']<br><br />
'''hǻn''' ''n'' food [''howen'']<br><br />
'''héf''' ''v'' cook [''hɨbɨ'']<br><br />
'''hem''' ''n'' cloud; ''a'' cloudy, unclear [''hɨm'']<br><br />
'''hens''' ''v'' fix, adjust [''hɨnsa'']<br><br />
'''héns''' ''n'' coat [''hesom'']<br><br />
'''hesár''' ''v'' organise [''hessara'']<br><br />
'''héþ''' ''a'' strange [''hɨte'']<br><br />
'''Hisén''' ''n'' [[Siixtaguna]] [''Hissɨna'']<br><br />
'''hisk''' ''n'' son [''hisłu'']<br><br />
'''ho''' ''n'' animal [''ho'' "meat"]<br><br />
'''hól''' ''pron'' when [''hola'']<br><br />
'''hóns''' ''n'' mountain pass [''hodzan'']<br><br />
'''hop''' ''v'' eat [''hob'']<br><br />
'''hovás''' ''n'' oesophagus [''hobasa'']<br><br />
'''hoxnǻþ''' ''n'' city-state within the Union [''hołnadu'' "republic"]<br><br />
'''hóxs''' ''n'' problem [''hokez'' "caveat"]<br><br />
'''hő''' ''n'' water [''hewe'']<br><br />
'''hőf''' ''a'' specific [''hebu'']<br><br />
'''hös''' ''n, a'' left (side) [''hwezzu'']<br><br />
'''húf''' ''n'' frog [''hɨbu'']<br><br />
'''hurt''' ''num'' eighty [''hudro'']<br><br />
'''hus''' ''n'' rat [''huz'']<br><br />
'''hut''' ''num'' eighth [''hud dya'']<br><br />
'''Huvǻr''' ''n'' [[Huyfárah]] [''Hɨwora'']<br><br />
'''húþ''' ''num'' eight [''hudde'']<br><br />
'''huþön''' ''num'' eighteen [''hudwen'']<br><br />
'''i''' ''pron'' I [''i'']<br><br />
'''í''' ''pron'' which [''iya'']<br><br />
'''if''' ''v, n'' use; ''a'' useful [''ibbe'']<br><br />
'''ifk''' ''n, a'' north [''ibbał'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' thing, object [''igga'']<br><br />
'''ik<sup>2</sup>''' ''pt'' before [''isłu'']<br><br />
'''ins''' ''v, n'' gasp [''iznɨs'']<br><br />
'''ír''' ''n'' acid; ''a'' acidic [F ''ior'']<br><br />
'''irk''' ''v'' receive, accept, tolerate [''igri'']<br><br />
'''is''' ''n'' cotton [''isso'']<br><br />
'''ís''' ''prep'' before (temporal) [''isa'']<br><br />
'''isáf''' ''n'' summer, success; ''v'' succeed [''issape'']<br><br />
'''isösk''' ''v'' take, capture; ''aux'' try [''isezzuł'']<br><br />
'''išen''' ''n'' salvation [''isyenna'']<br><br />
'''ixsés''' ''n'' sunrise, dawn, beginning [''iłseza'' "morning glory"]<br><br />
'''ixš''' ''a'' black [''iłts'']<br><br />
'''ixšáns''' ''a'' impossible [''iłtsazin'' "forbidden"]<br><br />
'''Ixšém''' ''n'' the river flowing through Múþ [''Iłtsizɨme'']<br><br />
'''ixúk''' ''v'' raise, lift [''yekka uła'' "raise in the air"]<br><br />
'''izén''' ''n'' iron [''iłts dzɨni'' "black iron"]<br><br />
'''íþ''' ''n'' sea [''idɨ'']<br><br />
'''iþéñ''' ''n'' salt [''idɨño'']<br><br />
'''iþent''' ''n'' fishing; ''v'' fish [''idɨnda'' "fisherman"]<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-17T20:14:50Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but<sup>1</sup>''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''but<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' fourth [''bu dya'']<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''döt''' ''num'' fifth [''dwe dya'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br><br />
'''é''' ''pron'' his, her [''a'' + ''ya'']<br><br />
'''ebőrk''' ''n'' husk, shell [''ebyeruł'']<br><br />
'''ebreš''' ''n'' menstruation [''ɨb rettsis'' "month-menstruation]<br><br />
'''edől''' ''n'' city [F ''ædelu'']<br><br />
'''edön''' ''a'' holy [F ''edewnin'']<br><br />
'''edőxs''' ''n'' forest [''edyołas'']<br><br />
'''ef''' ''a'' smart [''yebba'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' similar to (+dat) [''epa'' "likeness"]<br><br />
'''éf<sup>2</sup>''' ''v'' sit [''epe'']<br><br />
'''éf<sup>3</sup>''' ''pron'' him, her [''yebu'']<br><br />
'''efáþ''' ''n, v'' research [F ''epáte'']<br><br />
'''egöf''' ''n'' rebel [''yegwebbu'']<br><br />
'''egöš''' ''n'' stairs [''egyottsa'']<br><br />
'''ek''' ''quant'' all [''yak'']<br><br />
'''ék''' ''n'' third day of the week [''ekɨ'']<br><br />
'''ekes''' ''pron'' always [''yak yesso'' "all-always"]<br><br />
'''ekő''' ''pron'' everywhere [''yak yewe'' "all-everywhere"]<br><br />
'''ekp''' ''v'' melt [''ełpe'']<br><br />
'''els''' ''num'' sixty [''eslo'']<br><br />
'''en''' ''a'' hungry; ''n'' hunger [''yenna'']<br><br />
'''én''' ''a'' bizarre [''yane'']<br><br />
'''ens''' ''v'' behave, act; ''n'' action [''essen'']<br><br />
'''eñák''' ''n'' army; ''v'' invade [''yeñało'']<br><br />
'''éñ''' ''a'' yellow [''ɨmya'']<br><br />
'''eñk''' ''n'' egg yolk [''yemmał'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' month [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''ep<sup>2</sup>''' ''num'' hundred ''(mainly used in compounds)'' [''ɨb'']<br><br />
'''epún''' ''n'' pagan, infidel [F ''epúonim'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>1</sup>''' ''a'' annoying, bad (''of weather'') [''ero'']<br><br />
'''ér<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' everyone [''yeru'']<br><br />
'''erof''' ''n'' vinegar [''ɨroppo'']<br><br />
'''es''' ''num'' six [''es'']<br><br />
'''esk''' ''a'' hospitable; ''v'' receive, accept [''esko'']<br><br />
'''esön''' ''num'' sixteen [''eswen'']<br><br />
'''est''' ''num'' sixth [''es dya'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' lose; ''n'' loss [''etsa'']<br><br />
'''éš<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' my [''i'' + ''yets'']<br><br />
'''ešín''' ''v'' suffocate [F ''eosíən'']<br><br />
'''ešk''' ''n'' bird; ''v'' fly [''yestsoł'']<br><br />
'''ét''' ''n'' tree [''edya'']<br><br />
'''Ezáþ''' ''n'' [[Yād]] [''Edzada'' "[[Æðadĕ]]"]<br><br />
'''eþ''' ''v'' stand, exist [''yedde'']<br><br />
'''Éþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' title for men, "Mr.", "Sir" [''ɨda'']<br><br />
'''éþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' week [''yati'']<br><br />
'''Eþanst''' ''a'' Edastean, relating to the Aiwa valley [''Edastan'']<br><br />
'''Eþos''' ''n'' [[Wippwo]] [''Edossa'' "[[Naidda]]"]<br><br />
'''eþök''' ''n'' evening [''ɨdołyog'' "sunset"]<br><br />
'''Farál''' ''n'' [[Fáralo]] [F ''Fáralo'']<br><br />
'''fis''' ''n, a'' criminal [''fissas'']<br><br />
'''fok''' ''n'' shop; ''v'' sell, trade [''fogło'']<br><br />
'''fók''' ''v'' make, create [''fogga'']<br><br />
'''fork''' ''n'' language [''Forło'' "Fáralo"]<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-17T13:22:13Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br><br />
'''bál''' ''n'' fifth day of the week [''balɨ'']<br><br />
'''Banok''' ''n'' [[Barnágo]] [''Banoggo'']<br><br />
'''bapt''' ''n'' uncle [''babde'']<br><br />
'''bat''' ''a'' great, excellent [WF ''bad'' "sweet"]<br><br />
'''báþk''' ''n'' statue [''badał'']<br><br />
'''bebul''' ''n'' genitals [F ''beibul'']<br><br />
'''ben''' ''v'' ask, request; ''n'' question, request [''byenna'']<br><br />
'''bes''' ''n'' first day of the week [''bes'']<br><br />
'''béþ''' ''a'' certain about (+dat) [''bɨda'']<br><br />
'''béþs''' ''v'' convince [''bɨdaso'']<br><br />
'''biñók''' ''n'' temple [''byenyoło'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' teach; ''n'' knowledge [''bissa'']<br><br />
'''bis<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' leg, branch [''biddzi'']<br><br />
'''bís''' ''n'' fly [onomatopoeia]<br><br />
'''bom''' ''n'' grain [''bomma'' "wheat"]<br><br />
'''bop''' ''n'' song; ''v'' sing [''bop'' "chant"]<br><br />
'''bór''' ''v'' choose; ''n'' choice [''borɨ'' "appoint"]<br><br />
'''bort''' ''v'' pay; ''n'' price, fee [''borda'' "buy"]<br><br />
'''boþ''' ''n'' father [''bodde'']<br><br />
'''boþk''' ''n'' grape [''boddał'']<br><br />
'''bö''' ''n'' star [''bÿa'']<br><br />
'''bő''' ''n'' location [''bÿoya'' "latitude"]<br><br />
'''bőn''' ''n'' head of a city-state within the Union [''boÿon'' "landlord"]<br><br />
'''bönt''' ''n'' astronomy [''bÿonte'']<br><br />
'''böps''' ''n'' idiot [''byopsa'' "vagina"]<br><br />
'''bös''' ''n'' ox [''bwes'']<br><br />
'''böš''' ''n'' daughter [''bwettsa'']<br><br />
'''bu''' ''num'' four [''bu'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>1</sup>''' ''num'' fourty [''buro'']<br><br />
'''búr<sup>2</sup>''' ''v, n'' vote [''bura'']<br><br />
'''but''' ''adv'' almost [''but'' "near"]<br><br />
'''buvön''' ''num'' fourteen [''buwen'']<br><br />
'''dánþ''' ''v, n'' dance [''dadan'']<br><br />
'''då''' ''num'' five [''dwa'']<br><br />
'''dǻrt''' ''n'' man [''darud'']<br><br />
'''dåvön''' ''num'' fifteen [''dwewen'']<br><br />
'''de''' ''n'' thumb [''dya'']<br><br />
'''dék''' ''n'' stage [''deło'']<br><br />
'''dél''' ''n, a'' secret; ''v'' hide [''dɨlo'']<br><br />
'''demp''' ''n'' goat [''dyempi'']<br><br />
'''denš''' ''n'' ink; ''v'' write [''dettsin'']<br><br />
'''deñk''' ''n'' finger; ''v'' point at (+dat) [''deññeł'']<br><br />
'''depk''' ''n'' autumn, fall [''debło'']<br><br />
'''diþ''' ''a'' unlikely [''didda'']<br><br />
'''do''' ''pron'' you (plural nom and acc) [''do'']<br><br />
'''dof''' ''a'' white [''dobba'']<br><br />
'''dok''' ''a'' responsible [''doggɨ'' "be in charge"]<br><br />
'''dóñ''' ''pron'' your (plural) [''do'' + ''yeñu'']<br><br />
'''dopšt''' ''n'' silver [''dobzyet'']<br><br />
'''dórš''' ''n'' lunch [''dorats'']<br><br />
'''dök''' ''a'' haunted by (+dat) [''dyok'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>1</sup>''' ''n'' glass [''dwemma'']<br><br />
'''döm<sup>2</sup>''' ''pron'' to you (plural) [''dwem'']<br><br />
'''dőm''' ''v, n'' hunt [''demu'']<br><br />
'''dön''' ''n'' skill; ''a'' skilled; ''v'' be good at [''dyonne'']<br><br />
'''döp''' ''a'' childish, stubborn [''dyop'' "punk"]<br><br />
'''dőr''' ''num'' fifty [''dwero'']<br><br />
'''duk''' ''pron'' why [''dugga'']<br><br />
'''duxs''' ''n'' teacher, master [''dukkas'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BE/LexiconNåmúþ/Lexicon2016-12-17T12:21:10Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: Created page with "Notes: *Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not. *When unspecified, the source language of a wo..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Notes:<br />
*Most words can function as either nouns, verbs or adjectives. Sometimes all of these senses are included, sometimes not.<br />
*When unspecified, the source language of a word is [[Namɨdu]]. Otherwise, it's from:<br />
**F [[Fáralo]]<br />
**WF [[Woltu Falla]]<br />
**Wip [[Wippwo]]<br />
<br />
'''a''' ''pron'' he, she [''a'']<br><br />
'''á''' ''n, v'' fear, worry [''aya'']<br><br />
'''áf''' ''n'' construction worker [''aba'' "mason"]<br><br />
'''agå''' ''a'' wrong [F ''ægóu'']<br><br />
'''ák''' ''n'' flower; ''v'' flourish [''ała'']<br><br />
'''al''' ''v'' like [WF ''al'' "want"]<br><br />
'''alökt''' ''n'' rule, law [''alegdu'' "constitution"]<br><br />
'''áns''' ''a'' complicated, difficult [''azin'' "sophisticated"]<br><br />
'''Antk''' ''n, a'' Ndok [''Andok'']<br><br />
'''añ''' ''a, v'' dry; ''n'' drought [''anyen'']<br><br />
'''apríþ''' ''n'' horror, terror [F ''apridu'']<br><br />
'''árk''' ''n'' politics; ''a'' political [''areł'']<br><br />
'''árkp''' ''n'' politician [''arełbu'']<br><br />
'''as''' ''num'' ten thousand [F ''as'' "many"]<br><br />
'''asösk''' ''v'' conquer, defeat; ''n'' conquest, victory [''asezzuł'']<br><br />
'''axóþk''' ''n'' a type of wine [''akodag'']<br><br />
'''Ažböf''' ''n'' [[Azbǽbu]] [''Azbyebbu'']<br><br />
'''áþ''' ''n'' ruin [WF ''ada'' "corpse"]<br><br />
'''å''' ''conj'' and [''wa'']<br><br />
'''ǻf''' ''pron'' them [''obu'']<br><br />
'''åmp''' ''n, a'' criminal [''ombu'']<br><br />
'''ånþ''' ''a'' wealthy, rich [''ottun'']<br><br />
'''åñk''' ''n'' wax [''okmu'']<br><br />
'''ǻp''' ''n'' stew [''opwo'']<br><br />
'''åpt''' ''v'' disturb, interrupt; ''a'' disturbing [''optu'']<br><br />
'''ǻs''' ''v'' tell; ''n'' story [''odza'' and ''odzu'']<br><br />
'''åsp''' ''n'' leader [''ospu'']<br><br />
'''ǻt''' ''a'' unknown [''odwa'']<br><br />
'''åvåf''' ''a'' sad [''awobbo'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>1</sup>''' ''v'' come, arrive; ''n'' arrival [''oddu'']<br><br />
'''åþ<sup>2</sup>''' ''n'' wealth [''ottu'']<br></div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-17T11:40:38Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| gon<br />
| zgon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvön<br />
| nazgon<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivön<br />
| izgon<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvön<br />
| azgon<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvön<br />
| muzgon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a single consonant (that is, not a cluster), a consonant mutation takes place which changes /p b f t d k g/ to /f v v þ þ x Ø/ respectively. The word '''gon''' "elder brother" in addition features an irregular vowel change.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and a new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''. The irregular vowel change in '''gon''' results from the historical fronting of vowels after /j/; similar vowel changes historically affected other nouns but those have since been reverted by analogy.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-15T19:48:31Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
By this time, Múþ is by far the biggest and most influential city of Huyfárah, and the de facto capital of the [[Union of Huyfárah and Kasca]] (Nåmúþ: ''Šels Nåhuvǻr å Nakóšt'', informally just ''ze Šels''), which consists of various city-states which retain some degree of autonomy. Because of the great influence of Múþ, Nåmúþ is the lingua franca of the region and in some areas, particularly in Kasca, it is replacing the local languages.<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-15T19:03:04Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Sample */ Tired of having this one last pre-revision bit here...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
''Updated translation will appear at an unspecified point in the future. I, knowing myself, am unfortunately unable to promise it will be soon.''<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-15T17:40:15Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-15T17:39:47Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Other pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslás''' now<br />
* '''šislás''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-14T20:31:11Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Case usage */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The essive indicates a state or a similarity.<br />
<br />
'''Set i afi öf őr.'''<br><br />
<small>IMPF 1SG.NOM ESS-child swim like</small><br><br />
As a child, I liked swimming.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþ zes mál pe ånåk.'''<br><br />
<small>be that man big ESS-bear</small><br><br />
That man is as big as a bear.<br />
<br />
It is also used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM ESS-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-14T20:24:03Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Essive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, essive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-12-14T20:23:14Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Numerals */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Larger numbers are formed using the conjunction '''å'''. Multiples of hundred may be made either by compounding with '''ep''' or by using the plural of either word for hundred. (Note that when used alone '''uvéþ''' is the more common word for "hundred" whereas in compounds '''ep''' predominates.) There is no word for "thousand", instead one says "ten hundreds".<br />
<br />
*'''búr å ñi''' 42<br />
*'''uvéþ å noñír å šet''' 121<br />
*'''våsep''' or '''vås zep''' or '''vås zuvéþ''' 300<br />
*'''ro zep å hurt å ñem''' 1087<br />
*'''pinír å nikep å pinír å nik''' 9999<br />
<br />
Ordinals are formed by adding -t to the last word. In the standard variety, there are two slightly irregular forms, namely '''döt''' "fifth" and '''hut''' "eighth". In the colloquial language however, the more regular forms '''dåt''' and '''húþt''' are also heard.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-16T16:22:15Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===The noun phrase===<br />
The word order of noun phrases is determiner - number - adjectives - noun - genitive/dative/prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
'''ze vǻs pe zvuk išak'''<br><br />
<small>DEF three big PL-castle DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's three big castles<br />
<br />
'''ze mál pön vǻs sisk'''<br><br />
<small>DEF man with three PL-son</small><br><br />
the man with three sons<br />
<br />
Genitive pronouns come in the determiner slot, unlike genitive nouns.<br />
<br />
'''éš vuk''' but '''vuk našak'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.GEN castle / castle GEN-king</small><br><br />
my castle / the king's castle<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Conditionals===<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-16T14:30:31Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Case usage */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis ze pi šeþ kósk.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX DEF child house see.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive is used to indicate possession and other types of relationships. Often it can be, and is, replaced by a dative, but when a pronoun is used, you have to use a genitive.<br />
<br />
'''skexp našak''' or '''skexp išak.'''<br><br />
<small>clothes GEN-king / DAT-king</small><br><br />
the king's clothes<br />
<br />
'''lék méxt''' but not '''*léñk méxt'''<br><br />
<small>2SG.GEN brother / 2SG.DAT brother</small><br><br />
your brother<br />
<br />
The genitive cannot be replaced by a dative when it indicates composition.<br />
<br />
'''šeþ nagoþ'''<br><br />
<small>house GEN-wood</small><br><br />
a wooden house<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a kus imám mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG.NOM book DAT-mother give.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i améxt iléþk å ilúmp'''<br><br />
<small>1SG.NOM APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''sorm set i mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPF 1SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
By extension, the locative can also indicate a time.<br />
<br />
'''Ǻþt i vőf muzñek våk.'''<br><br />
<small>be.IMPF 1SG many LOC-PL-day silent</small><br><br />
I was silent for many days.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-15T19:51:36Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Other pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mý''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekő''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñep''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-14T17:36:59Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| naxašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ixašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| axašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| muxašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mýf''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekö''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñepek''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-14T16:49:07Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Questions */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| nakašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ikašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| akašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| mukašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mýf''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekö''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñepek''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ze kus ñåk le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG.NOM DEF book read Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
Interrogative pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence, before the auxiliary. Questions with an interrogative pronoun still require the particle '''le'''.<br />
<br />
'''Mól ǻþ éš šiñxs le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where be 1SG.GEN beer Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
The particle '''le''' can also be used to form tag questions after both affirmative and negative sentences.<br />
<br />
'''Šis lék izuk lúm, le?'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 2SG.NOM DAT-cheese like, Q?</small><br><br />
You like cheese, right?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-12T18:30:52Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| nakašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ikašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| akašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| mukašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mýf''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekö''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñepek''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i mik hop.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG bread eat.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Ok ze mál Imúþ nön.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man DAT-Múþ go</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ze šak šet mi mís.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king coin 1SG.DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis. Doing this requires the use of an emphatic auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''I pöþ Mumúþ šeþ, lék eföþ.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG EMPH LOC-Múþ live, 2SG NEG.EMPH.</small><br><br />
''I'' live in Múþ, ''you'' don't.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
There are several subordinating particles. The most basic one is '''rém''', which can form both noun classes and relative clauses.<br />
<br />
'''sen do šeþ kósk''' > '''šeþ rém sen do kósk'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL house see > house REL PERF 2PL see</small><br><br />
You (pl) saw the house > the house that you (pl) saw<br />
<br />
Within the relative clause, a pronoun referring to the antecedent is always included.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a úf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Occasionally, it is not directly clear whether the antecedent is the subject or the object of the relative clause, as in the below example in which either of the two third person singular pronouns could refer to the man. In such cases, that has to be inferred from the context.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a éf kósk'''<br><br />
<small>mal REL NULL.AUX 3SG.NOM 3SG.ACC see</small><br><br />
the man that sees him/the man that he sees<br />
<br />
The same particle can also be used to form noun clauses.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i musúþ rém píl a vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM believe REL just.did 3SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I believe he's just arrived.<br />
<br />
After verbs relating to speech, however, noun clauses are not introduced by the particle '''rém''', but rather by '''bi'''.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi píl lék vök åþ.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT just.did 2SG.NOM here arrive</small><br><br />
I've told him that you're here.<br />
<br />
The particle '''bi''' can also be followed by a direct quotation.<br />
<br />
'''Sen i ma ǻs bi: "ǻþ lék ñesk pisk."'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 1SG.NOM 3SG.DAT tell QUOT: be 2SG.GEN cow dead.</small><br><br />
I said to him: "your cow is dead."<br />
<br />
Relative "where" uses the particle '''ruñk'''.<br />
<br />
'''edől ruñk šis i šeþ'''<br><br />
<small>city where.REL NULL.AUX 1SG.NOM live</small><br><br />
the city where I live<br />
<br />
There are four temporal subordinating particles: '''sorm''' "when", '''ik''' "before", '''uk''' "after" and '''gryk''' "until". '''Ik''' always takes an inceptive auxiliary, and '''uk''' always takes a cessative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
'''sårm ǻþt a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>when be.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
when he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''ik šéft a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>before start.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
before he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''uk tot a mulefék éf'''<br><br />
<small>after stop.IMPF 3SG.NOM LOC-throne sit</small><br><br />
after he sat on the throne<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ñåk kus le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG read book Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
'''Mól šisen i es óþ le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where beer 1SG GEN be Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-09T15:34:11Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Personal pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| nakašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ikašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| akašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| mukašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''A''' and '''ok''' and their case-forms can only refer to people.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mýf''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekö''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñepek''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - main verb - object.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i håp mik.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG eat bread.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Åk ses mál ven Emúþ.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man ga DAT-Múþ</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ses šak mís šet i em.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king give coin 1SG DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis.<br />
<br />
'''I šis vem Mumúþ, lék mošis vem šíruk.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG NULL.AUX live LOC-Múþ, 2SG NEG live there.</small><br><br />
I live in Múþ, you don't live there.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
The most basic form of subordination is relativisation, which is accomplished by the particle '''rém'''.<br />
<br />
'''sen do koslek šéþ''' > '''šéþ rém sen do koslek'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL see-PL house > house REL PERF 2PL see-PL</small><br><br />
You (pl) see the house > the house that you (pl) see<br />
<br />
If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a kósik i'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG see 1SG</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i kósik'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Relative "when" uses the particle '''sårm''', and relative "where" uses '''ruñx'''.<br />
<br />
'''sårm šéfen a éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when start-PERF 3SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When he started to sit on the throne<br />
<br />
'''hañ ruñx sen lúk léxek ses kus'''<br><br />
<small>town where PERF 1PL write-PL DEF book</small><br><br />
The town where we wrote that book<br />
<br />
Noun clauses use the construction '''a rém''' (literally "it that").<br />
<br />
'''Sen a vúk a rém ve bǻþ i es dém kåho.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG say 3SG REL FUT father 1SG GEN hunt PL-animal.</small><br><br />
He said that my father is going to hunt animals.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ñåk kus le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG read book Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
'''Mól šisen i es óþ le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where beer 1SG GEN be Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
<br />
''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
<br />
''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉrhttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/N%C3%A5m%C3%BA%C3%BENåmúþ2016-10-09T15:29:55Z<p>Dē Graut Bʉr: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| language = Nåmúþ<br />
| phonetic = [nɒmúθ]<br />
| date = c. 2000 YP<br />
| place = Southern Huyfárah, northern Kasca<br />
| speakers = <br />
| script = adapted <br>Ngauro script<br />
| family = Edastean <br>&nbsp;Fáralo <br>&nbsp;&nbsp; Namɨdu<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nåmúþ<br />
| word-or = AuxSVO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = direct<br />
| author = [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Nåmúþ''' is the language spoken in and around the city of [[Mɨdu|Múþ]] and in northern [[Kasca]] around 2000 YP. It is a descendant of [[Namɨdu]].<br />
<br />
==Sound changes==<br />
# Following a tendency in Namɨdu, /ɨ/ merges with /u/ if the following syllable contains an /u/ or a /w/, with /i/ at the end of a word and /ɛ/ otherwise.<br />
# A little later, a similar change affects other vowels. /ɔ/ and /a/ are consistently rounded to /ɒ/, but /ɛ/ and /i/ are only sporadically rounded.<br />
# /w/ rounds following vowels, /j/ fronts them, and /ɥ/ does both. /ɥ/ is then dropped, but /j/ and /w/ are kept.<br />
# /ɔ/ is unrounded to /ʌ/ in a non-rounding environment.<br />
# /ʟ/ becomes /x/ through /ɰ/.<br />
# Intervocalic stops (including geminates) become fricatives. Somewhere in the development of Nåmúþ intervocalic /w j/ disappeared; this may have happened at the same time as the lenition of stops.<br />
# /ð ɣ/ merge with their voiceless counterparts /θ x/. /w dz/ merge with /v z/.<br />
# Tonogenesis:<br />
## Stressed vowels get a high tone in open syllables. Geminated consonants block this change but are simplified afterwards, phonemicising this change.<br />
## A few common words with geminated consonants seem to have simplified them before this change.<br />
## Monosyllabic words always have low tone.<br />
# Syncope of unstressed vowels:<br />
## Final vowels are always dropped; if this creates an illegal cluster it is metathesised.<br />
## /j v/ can vocalise to /i u/ is an adjacent vowel is dropped.<br />
## As a consequence of this change, most words have become stressed on the final syllable. This rule is generalised to all words.<br />
## Initial vowels are never dropped.<br />
# Final consonants are devoiced.<br />
# Palatalisation:<br />
## /ts/ becomes /ʃ/.<br />
## /s z/ become /ʃ ʒ/ before /i/.<br />
## /sj zj/ become /ʃ ʒ/, any nasal + /j/ combination becomes /ɲ/.<br />
## /hj/ becomes /ʃ/ in the standard variety, though some other dialects turn it into a distinct /ç/ phoneme.<br />
## Remaining /j/ is dropped.<br />
# Word-final /x/ is hardened to /k/.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m /m/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n /n/<br />
|<br />
| ñ /ɲ/<br />
| (ñ /ŋ/)<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b /p b/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t d /t d/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k g /k g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f v /f v/<br />
| þ /θ/<br />
| s z /s z/<br />
| š ž /ʃ ʒ/<br />
| <br />
| x /x/<br />
| h /h/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r /r/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! High<br />
| i y /i y/<br />
| u /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e ö /ɛ œ/<br />
| o /ʌ/<br />
|-<br />
! Low<br />
| a /a/<br />
| å /ɒ/<br />
|}<br />
Nåmúþ is a tonal language with two tones: high and low. High tone is indicated with an acute accent (but /œ́/ is written ő), and low tone is not indicated in the orthography. A high-tone word following another high-tone word is pronounced with a somewhat higher tone, and similarly a low-tone word following another low-tone word is pronounced somewhat lower. A word following one with the opposite tone is pronounced with a medium tone.<br />
<br />
Stress is on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ is not phonemic, as it only occurs before other velars. As in Namɨdu, it is analysed as an allophone of /ɲ/ and therefore it is written ñ.<br />
<br />
/θ/ and /x/ never appear word-initially, whereas /h/ only appears word initially. For this reason, /h/ and /x/ are sometimes considered allophones of a single phoneme, even though they come from entirely different sources historically.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| bö<br />
| zbö<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvö<br />
| nazbö<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ivö<br />
| izbö<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvö<br />
| azbö<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvö<br />
| muzbö<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| šak<br />
| kašak<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| našak<br />
| nakašak<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| išak<br />
| ikašak<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| ašak<br />
| akašak<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| mušak<br />
| mukašak<br />
|}<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Unmarked<br />
| hisk<br />
| sisk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nåvisk<br />
| nasisk<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| imisk<br />
| isisk<br />
|-<br />
! Appositive<br />
| åvisk<br />
| asisk<br />
|-<br />
! Locative<br />
| muvisk<br />
| musisk<br />
|}<br />
*Plural is marked with the prefix s- or z-, depending on the voicing of the initial consonant. Before a sibilant, ka-/kå- is used instead.<br />
*The genitive, dative, appositive and locative cases are marked with the prefixes na-/nå-, i-, a-/å- and mu- respectively. If the root begins with a plosive and a vowel, the plosive becomes a fricative.<br />
*Before vowels, the case prefixes become nåv-, im-, åv- and muv- respectively.<br />
*Some prefixes have two forms, one with -å- and one with -a-. The form with -å- is used if the next syllable contains any of /u ʌ ɒ v/ and the form with -a- is used otherwise.<br />
*In words beginning with h-, the h- is dropped when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The nominative/accusative distinction of Namɨdu was dropped, and the genitive was over the centuries slowly replaced by the dative, though the genitive is still used, mostly in literature. A new locative case was acquired through the preposition ''mu''.</font><br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! Person<br />
! Nom.<br />
! Acc.<br />
! Gen.<br />
! Dat.<br />
|-<br />
! 1sg<br />
| i<br />
| úf<br />
| éš<br />
| mi<br />
|-<br />
! 2sg<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| lék<br />
| léñk<br />
|-<br />
! 3sg<br />
| a<br />
| éf<br />
| é<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
! 1pl<br />
| lúk<br />
| lús<br />
| lukéš<br />
| lénþ<br />
|-<br />
! 2pl<br />
| do<br />
| do<br />
| dóñ<br />
| döm<br />
|-<br />
! 3pl<br />
| ok<br />
| ǻf<br />
| oxé<br />
| mok<br />
|-<br />
! Interrogative<br />
| za<br />
| zu<br />
| zás<br />
| zum<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>The sound changes made several of the genitive and dative pronouns sound similar, if not identical. In the genitive, they were disambiguated by adding a nominative pronoun which eventually fused with the original genitive. New dative pronouns were invented by adding the regular dative prefixes to the nominative pronouns and then dropping the i-.</font><br />
<br />
====Quantifiers====<br />
* '''mý''' no, none<br />
* '''mos''' some, few<br />
* '''vőf''' many, most<br />
* '''ek''' all<br />
<br />
====Other pronouns====<br />
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''vǻs''' (this) and '''zes''' (that). These inflect for case and number, just like nouns. '''Zes''' is also used as a definite article. When used as a definite article, the final -s is dropped if the following word begins with a vowel.<br />
<br />
Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''í?''' which?<br />
* '''ñéf''' something<br />
* '''ñerp''' someone<br />
* '''míf''' nothing<br />
* '''mír''' nobody<br />
* '''őþ''' everything<br />
* '''ér''' everyone<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''mól?''' where?<br />
* '''vök''' here<br />
* '''sírk''' there<br />
* '''mýf''' nowhere<br />
* '''ñef''' somewhere<br />
* '''ekö''' everywhere<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''hól?''' when?<br />
* '''öslas''' now<br />
* '''šislas''' then<br />
* '''ñepek''' sometimes<br />
* '''ekes''' always<br />
* '''ñáþ''' never<br />
<br />
<br />
* '''duk''' why?<br />
<br />
The negative indefinite pronouns are always used together with a negative auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! <br />
! x<br />
! 10x<br />
! x+10<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| še<br />
| ro<br />
| ševön<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| ñi<br />
| noñír<br />
| ñivön<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| vås<br />
| våls<br />
| våsön<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| bu<br />
| búr<br />
| buvön<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| då<br />
| dőr<br />
| dåvön<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| es<br />
| els<br />
| esön<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| ñem<br />
| ñerm<br />
| ñemön<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| húþ<br />
| hurt<br />
| huþön<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| nik<br />
| pinír<br />
| nixön<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| ro<br />
| uvéþ, ep<br />
| noñir<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<font color=#990033>In Namɨdu, the words for twenty and ninety had come to sound very similar. Therefore they were disambiguated as ''nom ñiro'' and ''pya niro'' respectively, which is where the forms ''nåñír'' and ''pinír'' come from. Similarly ''ɨbweddu'' was sometimes shortened to ''ɨb'', which is why there are two words for "hundred" as well.<br />
<br />
The regular outcomes of the x+10 forms would have been considerably less regular, but they were regularised during the 18th century.</font><br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
As in Namɨdu, verbs consist of two parts: the main verb, and an auxiliary verb, which gives some fairly detailed information about tense, mood and aspect. The main verb is not inflected at all.<br />
<br />
The auxiliary, on the other hand, is traditionally analysed as having neutral, inceptive and cessative series, each distinguishing three tenses, a variety of moods, and affirmative and negative forms. In addition, there are several affixes which can be added to the auxiliary modify its meaning.<br />
<br />
====Neutral auxiliaries====<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šis<br />
| sen<br />
| set<br />
| móš<br />
| móns<br />
| móst<br />
|-<br />
! can<br />
| vå<br />
| bön<br />
| böt<br />
| ef<br />
| emp<br />
| ept<br />
|-<br />
! should<br />
| is<br />
| íns<br />
| íst<br />
| mis<br />
| míns<br />
| míst<br />
|-<br />
! would<br />
| úš<br />
| únš<br />
| úšt<br />
| múš<br />
| múnš<br />
| múšt<br />
|-<br />
! may<br />
| zes<br />
| zens<br />
| zest<br />
| mes<br />
| mens<br />
| mest<br />
|-<br />
! dare<br />
| ku<br />
| kun<br />
| kut<br />
| ék<br />
| éñk<br />
| ékt<br />
|-<br />
! plan to<br />
| vö<br />
| vön<br />
| vöt<br />
| me<br />
| men<br />
| met<br />
|-<br />
! want<br />
| ok<br />
| óln<br />
| ólt<br />
| mok<br />
| móln<br />
| mólt<br />
|-<br />
! need<br />
| éþ<br />
| énþ<br />
| éþt<br />
| ñéþ<br />
| ñénþ<br />
| ñéþt<br />
|-<br />
! seem<br />
| íþ<br />
| idrin<br />
| idrit<br />
| míþ<br />
| midrin<br />
| midrit<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Inceptive auxiliaries====<br />
Most inceptive auxiliaries derive historically from compounds of forms of ''hyeppe'' "start" with other auxiliaries. Thus many inceptive auxiliaries can be derived from the neutral ones using the prefixes '''še(f)-''' (affirmative) '''ñe(f)-''' (negative), which are added to a fully conjugated auxiliary. There are however also a few which are not derived this way, notably the outcome of ''hyeppe'' itself.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| šéf<br />
| šémf<br />
| šéft<br />
| ñéf<br />
| ñémf<br />
| ñéft<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| ševå<br />
| šebön<br />
| šeböt<br />
| ñefef<br />
| ñefemp<br />
| ñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Cessative auxiliaries====<br />
Like the inceptive auxiliaries, the cessative auxiliaries mostly descend from compounds, with a few exceptions. The cessative prefixes are '''t(o)-''' (affirmative) and '''me(þ)-''' (negative).<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| to<br />
| ton<br />
| tot<br />
| méþ<br />
| ménþ<br />
| méþt<br />
|-<br />
! just did<br />
| píl<br />
| píln<br />
| pílt<br />
| efíl<br />
| efíln<br />
| efílt<br />
|-<br />
! derived<br />
| tovå<br />
| tobön<br />
| toböt<br />
| meþef<br />
| meþemp<br />
| meþept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The copula====<br />
The copula functions like an auxiliary without a main verb. Most of its forms are equal to the non-copula forms, but a few different forms exist. Note that the copula forms are also used with stative verbs.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| ǻþ<br />
| ǻnþ<br />
| ǻþt<br />
| mǻþ<br />
| mǻnþ<br />
| mǻþt<br />
|-<br />
! become<br />
| mus<br />
| muns<br />
| must<br />
| emus<br />
| emuns<br />
| emust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Emphatic forms====<br />
Emphatic forms can be derived from other auxiliaries using the prefixes '''pi(þ)-''' (affirmative) and '''e(f)-''' (negative). These prefixes precede inceptive/cessative prefixes. The null auxiliary has its own, non-derived, emphatic series.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
! rowspan="2" | <br />
! colspan="3" | Affirmative<br />
! colspan="3" | Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
! Present<br />
! Perfect<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|-<br />
! null<br />
| pöþ<br />
| pönþ<br />
| pöþt<br />
| eföþ<br />
| efönþ<br />
| eföþt<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | derived<br />
| pivå<br />
| pibön<br />
| piböt<br />
| efef<br />
| efemp<br />
| efept<br />
|-<br />
| piševå<br />
| pišebön<br />
| pišeböt<br />
| eñefef<br />
| eñefemp<br />
| eñefept<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Word order===<br />
The basic word order is auxiliary - subject - main verb - object.<br />
<br />
'''Šis i håp mik.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX 1SG eat bread.</small><br><br />
I'm eating some bread.<br />
<br />
'''Åk ses mál ven Emúþ.'''<br><br />
<small>want DEF man ga DAT-Múþ</small><br><br />
That man wants to go to Múþ.<br />
<br />
When there is both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence the direct object comes first.<br />
<br />
'''Sen ses šak mís šet i em.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF DEF king give coin 1SG DAT.</small><br><br />
The king gave me a coin.<br />
<br />
The subject can be fronted for emphasis.<br />
<br />
'''I šis vem Mumúþ, lék mošis vem šíruk.'''<br><br />
<small>1SG NULL.AUX live LOC-Múþ, 2SG NEG live there.</small><br><br />
I live in Múþ, you don't live there.<br />
<br />
===Subordination===<br />
The most basic form of subordination is relativisation, which is accomplished by the particle '''rém'''.<br />
<br />
'''sen do koslek šéþ''' > '''šéþ rém sen do koslek'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2PL see-PL house > house REL PERF 2PL see-PL</small><br><br />
You (pl) see the house > the house that you (pl) see<br />
<br />
If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur.<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis a kósik i'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 3SG see 1SG</small><br><br />
the man that sees me<br />
<br />
'''mál rém šis i kósik'''<br><br />
<small>man REL NULL.AUX 1SG see</small><br><br />
the man that I see<br />
<br />
Relative "when" uses the particle '''sårm''', and relative "where" uses '''ruñx'''.<br />
<br />
'''sårm šéfen a éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when start-PERF 3SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When he started to sit on the throne<br />
<br />
'''hañ ruñx sen lúk léxek ses kus'''<br><br />
<small>town where PERF 1PL write-PL DEF book</small><br><br />
The town where we wrote that book<br />
<br />
Noun clauses use the construction '''a rém''' (literally "it that").<br />
<br />
'''Sen a vúk a rém ve bǻþ i es dém kåho.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG say 3SG REL FUT father 1SG GEN hunt PL-animal.</small><br><br />
He said that my father is going to hunt animals.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
All questions use an interrogative particle '''le''', which is put at the end of the phrase.<br />
<br />
'''Sen lék ñåk kus le?'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 2SG read book Q?</small><br><br />
Did you read read the book?<br />
<br />
'''Mól šisen i es óþ le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where beer 1SG GEN be Q?</small><br><br />
Where is my beer?<br />
<br />
===Case usage===<br />
The neutral case is used for both subjects and direct objects.<br />
<br />
'''Šis pi kǻsik šéþ.'''<br><br />
<small>NULL.AUX child see house.</small><br><br />
The child sees a house.<br />
<br />
The genitive used to be used to indicate possession, but over the centuries this function was taken over by the dative, and nowadays the genitive of nouns is only used in speech as an archaism, while still being used sometimes in writing in very formal contexts. The genitive personal pronouns are however still always used for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Mól šis méxot lék es vem le?'''<br><br />
<small>Where NULL.AUX brother 2SG GEN live Q?</small><br><br />
Where does your brother live?<br />
<br />
The dative is used for indirect object, and, as mentioned above, for possession.<br />
<br />
'''Sen a mís kus emám.'''<br><br />
<small>PERF 3SG give book DAT-mother.</small><br><br />
He gave a book to his mother.<br />
<br />
'''Óþ šéþ emál ñåš.'''<br><br />
<small>Be house DAT-man big.</small><br><br />
The man's house is big.<br />
<br />
The appositive is used for appositive phrases.<br />
<br />
'''i åméxot eléþok å elúñep'''<br><br />
<small>1SG APP-brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon</small><br><br />
I, brother to the sun and moon<br />
<br />
The locative is used to indicate a place, but only if there is no preposition. Generally the locative is used when the exact position relative to the noun is somehow implied (i.e. you tend to sit ''on'' a chair, sitting ''next to'' it would make less sense).<br />
<br />
'''Sårm set i éf mulefék'''<br><br />
<small>when IMPERF 1SG sit LOC-throne</small><br><br />
When I sat on the throne<br />
<br />
'''Óþ véf spy muvék.'''<br><br />
<small>Be many PL-star LOC-sky.</small><br><br />
There are many stars in the sky.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
'''Xǻþ Senšen, krås åšak elås Kåšat, å åméxot eléþok å elúñep, vúk bi: Ik šéfen i éf mulefék evǻþ i, set ak sxåk esnek i em úr. Xǻþan šes sxåk vúxak bi: "Óþut a em bǻþ krås šak rém sen asésuk véf sxåk. Šéfet a óþ nǻk šís. Dåt óþ a pi, åmál rém šis a éf mulefék evǻþ a våšóm." Sårm sen i åméxot eléþok å elúñep éf mulefék evǻþ i, å ik ven i ven esxåk rém set åk esnek i em úr, sen i ven esýs Evúvos. Sen i kesen åk å sen i úk tån i es ñåþåxet emám. Sen i vúk bi: "Šés, tåk espy, píl sxåk rém sen åk máldak i "pi", šivúxak i. Šís, šéfen åk buñik kyn kåklås lúk es, Šés! E emíf ñásis! Sen Úvos ǻfak slék emǻf i. Sen a úk i å émen a musúk it i es. Sen i asésuk smál rém sen åk sivúxak i, sårm ro slåt. Sen i emíf åk. Sen i nåsk måšut å spus å skås, å sen i gúf åk elås Kåšat.'''<br />
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''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The foreign countries spoke thus: "His father was a great king who conquered many countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child." When I, the brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus: "O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!" The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.<br />
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''([[Tsinakan text]])''<br />
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==Lexicon==<br />
See [[/Lexicon]].</div>Dē Graut Bʉr