http://akana.conlang.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Caedes&feedformat=atomAkanaWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T19:58:43ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.23.1http://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-06-01T17:42:19Z<p>Caedes: /* Personal Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
The independent forms are used for emphasis. Of the less often used forms, which are listed after the usually used forms in the following table, the regularly-formed genitives ending in '''-dī''' are most important since they are often used after other nouns in the genitive like in '''tī-maondī te-bu shishendī sə̄''' ''my friend's and my dog''.<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā, masandī || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī, marendī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| somu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The proclitical forms do not destinguish between masculine and feminine in the 3rd person.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| ti-|| to- || tī-|| ta- || te- || ti-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| ma- || mo- || mā- || ma- || me- || ma-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG<br />
| ko-|| ko-|| te- || ha- || ke-|| ko-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| (ti)ta- || (ti)to- || (ti)tā- || tara-|| toke- || ta-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| kə- || ko- || kə̄- || ka- || ke- || kə-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata- || mato-|| matā- || mara- || mate-|| mata-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| tiri-|| tiro- || tirī-|| tira-|| tire-|| tiri-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| k(ər)i- || kəro- || kərī- || kəra- || kəre- || k(ər)i-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mi- || maro- || mī- || mira- || mire- || mi-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| tu- || tuko- || tū-|| tura-|| tuke-|| tu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| ku- || ko- || kū-|| kura- || kuke- || ku-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mu-|| mo- || mū-|| mura-|| me-|| mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL <br />
| ku-|| bo- ||bū-|| ba-||be-||bu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-06-01T17:17:04Z<p>Caedes: /* Personal Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
The independent forms are used for emphasis. Of the less often used forms, which are listed after the usually used forms in the following table, the regularly-formed genitives ending in '''-dī''' are most important since they are often used after other nouns in the genitive like in '''tī-maondī bu shishendī sə̄''' ''my friend's and my dog''.<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā, masandī || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī, marendī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| somu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The proclitical forms do not destinguish between masculine and feminine in the 3rd person.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| ti-|| to- || tī-|| ta- || te- || ti-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| ma- || mo- || mā- || ma- || me- || ma-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG<br />
| ko-|| ko-|| te- || ha- || ke-|| ko-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| (ti)ta- || (ti)to- || (ti)tā- || tara-|| toke- || ta-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| kə- || ko- || kə̄- || ka- || ke- || kə-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata- || mato-|| matā- || mara- || mate-|| mata-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| tiri-|| tiro- || tirī-|| tira-|| tire-|| tiri-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| k(ər)i- || kəro- || kərī- || kəra- || kəre- || k(ər)i-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mi- || maro- || mī- || mira- || mire- || mi-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| tu- || tuko- || tū-|| tura-|| tuke-|| tu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| ku- || ko- || kū-|| kura- || kuke- || ku-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mu-|| mo- || mū-|| mura-|| me-|| mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL <br />
| ku-|| bo- ||bū-|| ba-||be-||bu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-06-01T17:10:18Z<p>Caedes: /* Personal Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
The independent forms are used for emphasis. Of the less often used forms, which are listed after the usually used forms in the following table, the regularly-formed genitives ending in '''-dī''' are most important since they are often used after other nouns in the genitive like in '''tī-maondī bu shishendī sə̄''' ''my friend's and my dog''.<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| somu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The proclitical forms do not destinguish between masculine and feminine in the 3rd person.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| ti-|| to- || tī-|| ta- || te- || ti-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| ma- || mo- || mā- || ma- || me- || ma-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG<br />
| ko-|| ko-|| te- || ha- || ke-|| ko-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| (ti)ta- || (ti)to- || (ti)tā- || tara-|| toke- || ta-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| kə- || ko- || kə̄- || ka- || ke- || kə-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata- || mato-|| matā- || mara- || mate-|| mata-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| tiri-|| tiro- || tirī-|| tira-|| tire-|| tiri-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| k(ər)i- || kəro- || kərī- || kəra- || kəre- || k(ər)i-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mi- || maro- || mī- || mira- || mire- || mi-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| tu- || tuko- || tū-|| tura-|| tuke-|| tu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| ku- || ko- || kū-|| kura- || kuke- || ku-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mu-|| mo- || mū-|| mura-|| me-|| mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL <br />
| ku-|| bo- ||bū-|| ba-||be-||bu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-06-01T16:35:38Z<p>Caedes: /* Personal Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
The independent forms are as follows:<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| somu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The proclitical forms: <br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| ti-|| to- || tī-|| ta- || te- || ti-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| ma- || mo- || mā- || ma- || me- || ma-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG<br />
| ko-|| ko-|| te- || ha- || ke-|| ko-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| (ti)ta- || (ti)to- || (ti)tā- || tara-|| toke- || ta-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| kə- || ko- || kə̄- || ka- || ke- || kə-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata- || mato-|| matā- || mara- || mate-|| mata-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| tiri-|| tiro- || tirī-|| tira-|| tire-|| tiri-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| k(ər)i- || kəro- || kərī- || kəra- || kəre- || k(ər)i-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mi- || maro- || mī- || mira- || mire- || mi-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| tu- || tuko- || tū-|| tura-|| tuke-|| tu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| ku- || ko- || kū-|| kura- || kuke- || ku-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mu-|| mo- || mū-|| mura-|| me-|| mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL <br />
| ku-|| bo- ||bū-|| ba-||be-||bu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User:CaedesUser:Caedes2012-06-01T16:10:17Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>Current project: [[Wokatasuto]] - a T2 language<br />
<br />
[[Hośər]] - a Western language of the Çetázóic branch.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wokatasuto/LexiconWokatasuto/Lexicon2012-06-01T13:42:40Z<p>Caedes: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the examples given in the [[Wokatasuto|main article]].<br />
<br />
===Abbreviations===<br />
<br />
n noun <br><br />
pp personal pronoun<br><br />
ip interrogative pronoun<br><br />
dp demonstrative pronon<br><br />
conj conjunction<br><br />
v verb<br><br />
adv adverb<br><br />
(IP) inherrently possessed (inherently possessed nouns appear with the attached prefix for the 1st person singular in this lexicon)<br />
<br />
===Illustration of the verb stems===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Wokatasuto can have up to five stems. Those are given here in consecutive order, for example:<br />
<br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
<br />
This means that '''dəkə''' is stem 1, '''əhə-''' is stem 2a, '''əkə-''' is stem 3a, '''əhu-''' is stem 2b and '''əku-''' is stem 3b.<br />
<br />
===Lexicon===<br />
<br />
<br />
aku adv only <br><br />
baa n door <br><br />
bē n honey <br><br />
biri, wiri, wiri v be durty <br><br />
bomi n penis <br><br />
bu conj and <br><br />
buo n plant <br><br />
buri n ice <br><br />
danə n clay <br><br />
dape, afe, ape v drink <br><br />
daro, aro, aro v walk <br><br />
dē, agi, ē v be small <br><br />
dehi, əshi, əhi v be wise <br><br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
dema n tears <br><br />
di, ə, ə v be, exist <br><br />
dini, andi, əni v be young <br><br />
dita, əsa, əta v be slow <br><br />
diwo, əgo, əwo v hunt <br><br />
do, o, o v work <br><br />
doha, osha, oha v like, enjoy <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v lose, be defeated <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v be dumb <br><br />
doma, onba, oma v take <br><br />
dopa n mushroom, fungus <br><br />
dota, osa, ota v doubt <br><br />
feke n flour <br><br />
fipi conj and (with a shade of contrast) <br><br />
fo adv but <br><br />
foki n bow (weapon) <br><br />
foko n drum <br><br />
gə̄ n oven, kiln <br><br />
geko, iho, iko v jump <br><br />
gī, ige, ike v sing <br><br />
gini, enbi, ini v be feeble <br><br />
gō, obo, ou v be wet <br><br />
haa, kada, kaa v be big <br><br />
hami n axe <br><br />
hata, kasa, kata v talk <br><br />
hemu, kenbu, kemu v store <br><br />
hendata n breast <br><br />
heshire, hehire, hehire v fear <br><br />
hohi, koshi, kohi v win, defeat <br><br />
hoke, kohe, koke v run <br><br />
hoko n tide <br><br />
hoko, koho, koko v wake <br><br />
hone n opposite <br><br />
hoto n town, big village <br><br />
katohahi n language <br><br />
kokirefono n fisherboad <br><br />
kokirete n fishing season <br><br />
mā, magə, mā, magu, mawu v sit <br><br />
mamo, manbo, mamo v plant <br><br />
mane n mountain <br><br />
moki n root <br><br />
mushəwo, muhəgo, muhəwo v be important, be famous <br><br />
muwo n bean <br><br />
nā n country <br><br />
nahe, nashe, nahe v dislike <br><br />
nara n fire <br><br />
naro, naro, naro v burn <br><br />
nəsə̄ n hoe <br><br />
nona, nonda, nona v eat <br><br />
nonbe n sexual relation; prostitution <br><br />
noti n vagina <br><br />
omarire, omarire, omarire, v steal <br><br />
onahətesū n chief <br><br />
onashəta n spear and axe <br><br />
ondahə n metal; prestige <br><br />
oshamu n story <br><br />
pota post like <br><br />
pufono n fisherman <br><br />
riro n arrow (weapon) <br><br />
rosoka n horde <br><br />
roto n storm, hurricane <br><br />
shane n rice <br><br />
shato, haso, hato v cover <br><br />
shepo n excrement <br><br />
shetə n person <br><br />
shihə n roof <br><br />
shimu, henbu, himu v climb <br><br />
shiwo, tigo, tiwo v take a person, catch, shake <br><br />
shū n coast <br><br />
shū. hude, hū v give <br><br />
so adv NEG <br><br />
tenbuto n (IP) son <br><br />
tidoki n (IP) hair <br><br />
tihopi n (IP) brain <br><br />
tubeta n testicle <br><br />
ufu n small settlement, group of buildings <br><br />
Wohata n the Wohata Shoreline <br></div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-30T16:45:29Z<p>Caedes: /* Personal Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| somu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-30T16:42:33Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Instrumental !! Postpositional<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1SG<br />
| shishi || shishiko, shiko || shī, shishendī, shendī || shishira, shira || shishike, shike ||shini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2SG <br />
| mama || mamoko || māmā, māmandī || mamara || mamoke || mani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG m.<br />
| hoho|| hohoko || hote, hotē, hotendī || hoha || hoke|| honi<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3SG f.<br />
| soso|| sosoko || sote, sotē, sotendī || soha || soke|| soni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. excl.<br />
| shita || tisoko || tisā, tisandī || tisara|| tisake || tisani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1DU. incl.<br />
| həhə || həhəko, həko|| hə̄, handī || həhəra, həra|| həhəke || həni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2DU<br />
| mata|| matoko|| masā || masara|| masoke|| masani<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR excl.<br />
| shiri || tiriko || tirī, tirendī|| tirira|| tirike|| tirini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1TR incl.<br />
| həri|| kəriko || kərī, kərendī || kərira|| kərike || kərini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2TR<br />
| mari || mariko|| marī || marira|| marike || marini<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. excl.<br />
| shimu || tenbuko || tenbū, tenbondī|| tenbura|| tenbuke|| tenbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1PL. incl.<br />
| humu || konbuko || konbū, konbondī|| konbura|| konbuke|| konbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2PL<br />
| mamu || manbuko || manbū, manbondī|| manbura|| manbuke|| manbuni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL m<br />
| homu|| rowspan="2" | buko || rowspan="2" |bū, bondī|| rowspan="2" |bura|| rowspan="2" |buke|| rowspan="2" |buni<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3PL f<br />
| homu <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-30T14:51:34Z<p>Caedes: /* Possessive Prefixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹, kon-¹ ³ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wokatasuto/LexiconWokatasuto/Lexicon2012-05-29T22:05:15Z<p>Caedes: /* Abbreviations */</p>
<hr />
<div>This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the examples given in the [[Wokatasuto|main article]].<br />
<br />
===Abbreviations===<br />
<br />
n noun <br><br />
pp personal pronoun<br><br />
ip interrogative pronoun<br><br />
dp demonstrative pronon<br><br />
conj conjunction<br><br />
v verb<br><br />
adv adverb<br><br />
(IP) inherrently possessed (inherently possessed nouns appear with the attached prefix for the 1st person singular in this lexicon)<br />
<br />
===Illustration of the verb stems===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Wokatasuto can have up to five stems. Those are given here in consecutive order, for example:<br />
<br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
<br />
This means that '''dəkə''' is stem 1, '''əhə-''' is stem 2a, '''əkə-''' is stem 3a, '''əhu-''' is stem 2b and '''əku-''' is stem 3b.<br />
<br />
===Lexicon===<br />
<br />
<br />
aku adv only <br><br />
baa n door <br><br />
bē n honey <br><br />
biri, wiri, wiri v be durty <br><br />
bomi n penis <br><br />
bu conj and <br><br />
buo n plant <br><br />
buri n ice <br><br />
danə n clay <br><br />
dape, afe, ape v drink <br><br />
daro, aro, aro v walk <br><br />
dē, agi, ē v be small <br><br />
dehi, əshi, əhi v be wise <br><br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
dema n tears <br><br />
di, ə, ə v be, exist <br><br />
dini, andi, əni v be young <br><br />
dita, əsa, əta v be slow <br><br />
diwo, əgo, əwo v hunt <br><br />
do, o, o v work <br><br />
doha, osha, oha v like, enjoy <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v lose, be defeated <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v be dumb <br><br />
doma, onba, oma v take <br><br />
dopa n mushroom, fungus <br><br />
dota, osa, ota v doubt <br><br />
feke n flour <br><br />
fipi conj and (with a shade of contrast) <br><br />
fo adv but <br><br />
foki n bow (weapon) <br><br />
foko n drum <br><br />
gə̄ n oven, kiln <br><br />
geko, iho, iko v jump <br><br />
gī, ige, ike v sing <br><br />
haa, kada, kaa v be big <br><br />
hami n axe <br><br />
hata, kasa, kata v talk <br><br />
hemu, kenbu, kemu v store <br><br />
hendata n breast <br><br />
heshire, hehire, hehire v fear <br><br />
hohi, koshi, kohi v win, defeat <br><br />
hoke, kohe, koke v run <br><br />
hoko n tide <br><br />
hoko, koho, koko v wake <br><br />
hone n opposite <br><br />
hoto n town, big village <br><br />
katohahi n language <br><br />
mā, magə, mā, magu, mawu v sit <br><br />
mamo, manbo, mamo v plant <br><br />
mane n mountain <br><br />
moki n root <br><br />
mushəwo, muhəgo, muhəwo v be important, be famous <br><br />
muwo n bean <br><br />
nā n country <br><br />
nahe, nashe, nahe v dislike <br><br />
nara n fire <br><br />
naro, naro, naro v burn <br><br />
nəsə̄ n hoe <br><br />
nona, nonda, nona v eat <br><br />
nonbe n sexual relation; prostitution <br><br />
noti n vagina <br><br />
omarire, omarire, omarire, v steal <br><br />
onahətesū n chief <br><br />
onashəta n spear and axe <br><br />
ondahə n metal; prestige <br><br />
oshamu n story <br><br />
pota post like <br><br />
riro n arrow (weapon) <br><br />
rosoka n horde <br><br />
roto n storm, hurricane <br><br />
shane n rice <br><br />
shato, haso, hato v cover <br><br />
shepo n excrement <br><br />
shetə n person <br><br />
shihə n roof <br><br />
shimu, henbu, himu v climb <br><br />
shiwo, tigo, tiwo v take a person, catch, shake <br><br />
shū n coast <br><br />
shū. hude, hū v give <br><br />
so adv NEG <br><br />
tenbuto n (IP) son <br><br />
tidoki n (IP) hair <br><br />
tubeta n testicle <br><br />
ufu n small settlement, group of buildings <br><br />
Wohata n the Wohata Shoreline <br></div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wokatasuto/LexiconWokatasuto/Lexicon2012-05-29T22:02:58Z<p>Caedes: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the examples given in the [[Wokatasuto|main article]].<br />
<br />
===Abbreviations===<br />
<br />
n noun <br><br />
pp personal pronoun<br><br />
ip interrogative pronoun<br><br />
dp demonstrative pronon<br><br />
conj conjunction<br><br />
v verb<br><br />
adv adverb<br><br />
(IP) inherrently possessed <br />
<br />
===Illustration of the verb stems===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Wokatasuto can have up to five stems. Those are given here in consecutive order, for example:<br />
<br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
<br />
This means that '''dəkə''' is stem 1, '''əhə-''' is stem 2a, '''əkə-''' is stem 3a, '''əhu-''' is stem 2b and '''əku-''' is stem 3b.<br />
<br />
===Lexicon===<br />
<br />
<br />
aku adv only <br><br />
baa n door <br><br />
bē n honey <br><br />
biri, wiri, wiri v be durty <br><br />
bomi n penis <br><br />
bu conj and <br><br />
buo n plant <br><br />
buri n ice <br><br />
danə n clay <br><br />
dape, afe, ape v drink <br><br />
daro, aro, aro v walk <br><br />
dē, agi, ē v be small <br><br />
dehi, əshi, əhi v be wise <br><br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
dema n tears <br><br />
di, ə, ə v be, exist <br><br />
dini, andi, əni v be young <br><br />
dita, əsa, əta v be slow <br><br />
diwo, əgo, əwo v hunt <br><br />
do, o, o v work <br><br />
doha, osha, oha v like, enjoy <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v lose, be defeated <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v be dumb <br><br />
doma, onba, oma v take <br><br />
dopa n mushroom, fungus <br><br />
dota, osa, ota v doubt <br><br />
feke n flour <br><br />
fipi conj and (with a shade of contrast) <br><br />
fo adv but <br><br />
foki n bow (weapon) <br><br />
foko n drum <br><br />
gə̄ n oven, kiln <br><br />
geko, iho, iko v jump <br><br />
gī, ige, ike v sing <br><br />
haa, kada, kaa v be big <br><br />
hami n axe <br><br />
hata, kasa, kata v talk <br><br />
hemu, kenbu, kemu v store <br><br />
hendata n breast <br><br />
heshire, hehire, hehire v fear <br><br />
hohi, koshi, kohi v win, defeat <br><br />
hoke, kohe, koke v run <br><br />
hoko n tide <br><br />
hoko, koho, koko v wake <br><br />
hone n opposite <br><br />
hoto n town, big village <br><br />
katohahi n language <br><br />
mā, magə, mā, magu, mawu v sit <br><br />
mamo, manbo, mamo v plant <br><br />
mane n mountain <br><br />
moki n root <br><br />
mushəwo, muhəgo, muhəwo v be important, be famous <br><br />
muwo n bean <br><br />
nā n country <br><br />
nahe, nashe, nahe v dislike <br><br />
nara n fire <br><br />
naro, naro, naro v burn <br><br />
nəsə̄ n hoe <br><br />
nona, nonda, nona v eat <br><br />
nonbe n sexual relation; prostitution <br><br />
noti n vagina <br><br />
omarire, omarire, omarire, v steal <br><br />
onahətesū n chief <br><br />
onashəta n spear and axe <br><br />
ondahə n metal; prestige <br><br />
oshamu n story <br><br />
pota post like <br><br />
riro n arrow (weapon) <br><br />
rosoka n horde <br><br />
roto n storm, hurricane <br><br />
shane n rice <br><br />
shato, haso, hato v cover <br><br />
shepo n excrement <br><br />
shetə n person <br><br />
shihə n roof <br><br />
shimu, henbu, himu v climb <br><br />
shiwo, tigo, tiwo v take a person, catch, shake <br><br />
shū n coast <br><br />
shū. hude, hū v give <br><br />
so adv NEG <br><br />
tenbuto n (IP) son <br><br />
tidoki n (IP) hair <br><br />
tubeta n testicle <br><br />
ufu n small settlement, group of buildings <br><br />
Wohata n the Wohata Shoreline <br></div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T21:54:21Z<p>Caedes: /* Possessive Prefixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which mutates if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T21:49:27Z<p>Caedes: /* Possessive Prefixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are inherently possessed nouns that always appear with an attached possessive prefix, which either triggers mutation of the anlaut of the noun or mutates itself if it is attached to a noun that triggers nasalization.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-, ten-¹ || ta-, to-², tan-¹ || tiri-, tiren-¹ || timu-, timon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-³, kan-¹ || kəri-, kəren-¹|| kumu-, kumon-¹ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-², man-¹ || mata-, mato-², matan-¹ || mari-, maren-¹ || mu-, mon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko-, kon-¹ || kota-, koto-¹, kotan-¹ || kohi-, kohen-¹ || komu-, komon-¹<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to-, ton-¹ || tota-, toto-², toton-¹ || tohi-, tohen-¹ || tomu-, tomon-¹<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before inherently possessed nouns that trigger nasalization<br><br />
² Before velars. <br><br />
³ Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T21:13:03Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-|| ta-, to-¹ || tiri- || timu- <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-² || kəri- || kumu- <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-¹ || mata-, mato-¹ || mari- || mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko- || kota-, koto-¹ || kohi- || komu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to- || tota-, toto-¹ || tohi- || tomu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before velars. <br><br />
² Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ufu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T21:12:16Z<p>Caedes: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
===Possessive Prefixes===<br />
True possession is marked with prefixes. Like the personal pronouns, they distinguish between exclusive and inclusive forms in the 1st person as well as between singular, dual, trial and plural in most persons. In the third person, the masculine forms are used for male people, collective entities such as tribes and villages, large animals (dog-sized or larger), trees and shrubs, fire, water, the sun and objects usually associated with men rather than with women in general, while the feminine forms are used for everything else.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual!! Trial !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st excl.<br />
| rowspan="2" | ti-|| ta-, to-¹ || tiri- || timu- <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1st incl.<br />
| |kə-, ku-² || kəri- || kumu- <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2nd <br />
| ma-, mo-¹ || mata-, mato-¹ || mari- || mu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd m.<br />
| ko- || kota-, koto-¹ || kohi- || komu-<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3rd f.<br />
| to- || tota-, toto-¹ || tohi- || tomu-<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
¹ Before velars. <br><br />
² Before labials.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T20:15:05Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where the usage of the proclitics is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T20:14:08Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where their usage is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-shishi ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=shishi ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG.EMPH NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T20:09:29Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where their usage is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko ko-sheni, fo hohoko ko-ti-ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko ko=sheni | fo hoho-ko ko=ti=ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG=NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T20:07:53Z<p>Caedes: /* Independent vs. proclitic pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Independent vs. proclitic pronouns===<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where their usage is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko bo-sheni, fo hohoko bo-ti-ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko bo=sheni | fo hoho-ko bo=ti=ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG=NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T20:07:10Z<p>Caedes: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined only for case. Number is usually marked on pronouns instead.<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
=Independent vs. proclitic pronouns=<br />
<br />
In terms of determiners and especially pronouns, Wokatasuto distinguishes between emphatic forms, which appear as independent words, and unstressed forms, which appear as proclitics. If a determiner appears as a proclitic in a noun phrase, this means that either the phrasal head is emphasized or no emphasis is added at all. In turn, if a determiner appears in its emphasized form, this means that the speaker is focussing on the determiner itself. In the following example, emphasized elements are written in bold letters:<br />
<br />
*'''Fipi mumu? Bete hi-hoto? - Wete-hoto? Hi-ubu ko-aku di ...''' <br><small> fipi mumu ‖ bete hi=hoto ‖ wete=hoto-Ø ‖ hi=ufu ko=aku di! <br>and DEM.EMPH ‖ who.GEN.EMPH DEM=town ‖ who.GEN=town ‖ DEM-little.village 3SG=only be </small> <br>''And '''this'''? '''Whose''' town is this? Whose '''town'''? There is only this '''little village''' ...''<br />
<br />
The proclitic forms can appear together with their respective independent counterparts only in the third person, where their usage is always mandatory:<br />
<br />
*'''Shishiko bo-sheni, fo hohoko bo-ti-ni-sheni.''' <br> <small> shishi-ko bo=sheni | fo hoho-ko bo=ti=ni=sheni <br> 1SG.EMPH-ERG 3SG=see | but 3SG.m.EMPH-ERG 3SG.ERG=1SG=NEG=see</small> <br> ''I see him, but he doesn't see me.''<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T18:12:16Z<p>Caedes: /* Allophony */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usually it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T18:11:17Z<p>Caedes: /* Allophony */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is a trill [r] only in careful speech. Usurally it is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-05-29T18:08:30Z<p>Caedes: /* Consonants */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! trills<br />
| || r || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wokatasuto/LexiconWokatasuto/Lexicon2012-04-21T16:53:41Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the examples given in the [[Wokatasuto|main article]].<br />
<br />
===Abbreviations===<br />
<br />
n noun <br><br />
pp personal pronoun<br><br />
ip interrogative pronoun<br><br />
dp demonstrative pronon<br><br />
conj conjunction<br><br />
v verb<br><br />
adv adverb<br><br />
(IP) inherrently possessed <br />
<br />
===Illustration of the verb stems===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Wokatasuto can have up to five stems. Those are given here in consecutive order, for example:<br />
<br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
<br />
This means that '''dəkə''' is stem 1, '''əhə-''' is stem 2a, '''əkə-''' is stem 3a, '''əhu-''' is stem 2b and '''əku-''' is stem 3b.<br />
<br />
===Lexicon===<br />
<br />
<br />
ashamu n story <br><br />
baa n door <br><br />
bē n honey <br><br />
bomi n penis <br><br />
bu conj and <br><br />
buo n plant <br><br />
buri n ice <br><br />
danə n clay <br><br />
dape, afe, ape v drink <br><br />
daro, aro, aro v walk <br><br />
dē, agi, ē v be small <br><br />
dehi, əshi, əhi v be wise <br><br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
dema n tears <br><br />
di, ə, ə v be, exist <br><br />
dini, andi, əni v be young <br><br />
dita, əsa, əta v be slow <br><br />
diwo, əgo, əwo v hunt <br><br />
do, o, o v work <br><br />
doha, osha, oha v like, enjoy <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v lose, be defeated <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v be dumb <br><br />
doma, onba, oma v take <br><br />
dopa n mushroom, fungus <br><br />
dota, osa, ota v doubt <br><br />
feke n flour <br><br />
foki n bow (weapon) <br><br />
foko n drum <br><br />
gə̄ n oven, kiln <br><br />
geko, iho, iko v jump <br><br />
gī, ige, ike v sing <br><br />
hami n axe <br><br />
hemu, kenbu, kemu v store <br><br />
hendata n breast <br><br />
hohi, koshi, kohi v win, defeat <br><br />
hoke, kohe, koke v run <br><br />
hoko n tide <br><br />
hoko, koho, koko v wake <br><br />
hone n opposite <br><br />
hoto n town, big village <br><br />
katohahi n language <br><br />
mā, magə, mā, magu, mawu v sit <br><br />
mamo, manbo, mamo v plant <br><br />
mane n mountain <br><br />
moki n root <br><br />
mushəwo, muhəgo, muhəwo v be important, be famous <br><br />
muwo n bean <br><br />
nəsə̄ n hoe <br><br />
nona, nonda, nona v eat <br><br />
nonbe n sexual relation; prostitution <br><br />
noti n vagina <br><br />
onahətesū n chief <br><br />
onashəta n spear and axe <br><br />
ondahə n metal; prestige <br><br />
riro n arrow (weapon) <br><br />
roto n storm, hurricane <br><br />
shane n rice <br><br />
shato, haso, hato v cover <br><br />
shepo n excrement <br><br />
shetə n person <br><br />
shihə n roof <br><br />
shimu, henbu, himu v climb <br><br />
shiwo, tigo, tiwo v take a person, catch, shake <br><br />
shū n coast <br><br />
tubeta n testicle <br><br />
Wohata n the Wohata Shoreline <br><br />
nā n country <br><br />
ufu n small settlement, group of buildings <br><br />
aku adv only <br><br />
so adv NEG <br><br />
fipi conj and (with a shade of contrast) <br><br />
shū. hude, hū v give <br><br />
muto n (IP) son <br></div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wokatasuto/LexiconWokatasuto/Lexicon2012-04-21T16:53:02Z<p>Caedes: New page: This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the exqample given in the main article. ===Abbreviations=== n noun <br> pp personal pronoun<br> ip ...</p>
<hr />
<div>This lexicon is thought to provide the basic words needed to understand the exqample given in the [[Wokatasuto|main article]].<br />
<br />
===Abbreviations===<br />
<br />
n noun <br><br />
pp personal pronoun<br><br />
ip interrogative pronoun<br><br />
dp demonstrative pronon<br><br />
conj conjunction<br><br />
v verb<br><br />
adv adverb<br><br />
(IP) inherrently possessed <br />
<br />
===Illustration of the verb stems===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Wokatasuto can have up to five stems. Those are given here in consecutive order, for example:<br />
<br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
<br />
This means that '''dəkə''' is stem 1, '''əhə-''' is stem 2a, '''əkə-''' is stem 3a, '''əhu-''' is stem 2b and '''əku-''' is stem 3b.<br />
<br />
===Lexicon===<br />
<br />
<br />
ashamu n story <br><br />
baa n door <br><br />
bē n honey <br><br />
bomi n penis <br><br />
bu conj and <br><br />
buo n plant <br><br />
buri n ice <br><br />
danə n clay <br><br />
dape, afe, ape v drink <br><br />
daro, aro, aro v walk <br><br />
dē, agi, ē v be small <br><br />
dehi, əshi, əhi v be wise <br><br />
dəkə, əhə, əkə, əhu, əku v be healthy <br><br />
dema n tears <br><br />
di, ə, ə v be, exist <br><br />
dini, andi, əni v be young <br><br />
dita, əsa, əta v be slow <br><br />
diwo, əgo, əwo v hunt <br><br />
do, o, o v work <br><br />
doha, osha, oha v like, enjoy <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v lose, be defeated <br><br />
doka, oha, oka v be dumb <br><br />
doma, onba, oma v take <br><br />
dopa n mushroom, fungus <br><br />
dota, osa, ota v doubt <br><br />
feke n flour <br><br />
foki n bow (weapon) <br><br />
foko n drum <br><br />
gə̄ n oven, kiln <br><br />
geko, iho, iko v jump <br><br />
gī, ige, ike v sing <br><br />
hami n axe <br><br />
hemu, kenbu, kemu v store <br><br />
hendata n breast <br><br />
hohi, koshi, kohi v win, defeat <br><br />
hoke, kohe, koke v run <br><br />
hoko n tide <br><br />
hoko, koho, koko v wake <br><br />
hone n opposite <br><br />
hoto n town, big village <br><br />
katohahi n language <br><br />
mā, magə, mā, magu, mawu v sit <br><br />
mamo, manbo, mamo v plant <br><br />
mane n mountain <br><br />
moki n root <br><br />
mushəwo, muhəgo, muhəwo v be important, be famous <br><br />
muwo n bean <br><br />
nəsə̄ n hoe <br><br />
nona, nonda, nona v eat <br><br />
nonbe n sexual relation; prostitution <br><br />
noti n vagina <br><br />
onahətesū n chief <br><br />
onashəta n spear and axe <br><br />
ondahə n metal; prestige <br><br />
riro n arrow (weapon) <br><br />
roto n storm, hurricane <br><br />
shane n rice <br><br />
shato, haso, hato v cover <br><br />
shepo n excrement <br><br />
shetə n person <br><br />
shihə n roof <br><br />
shimu, henbu, himu v climb <br><br />
shiwo, tigo, tiwo v take a person, catch, shake <br><br />
shū n coast <br><br />
tubeta n testicle <br><br />
Wohata n the Wohata Shoreline <br><br />
nā n country <br><br />
ufu n small settlement, group of buildings <br><br />
aku adv only <br><br />
so adv NEG <br><br />
fipi conj and (with a shade of contrast) <br><br />
shū. hude, hū v give <br><br />
muto n (IP) son <br></div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2012-04-21T16:32:53Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
The lexicon can be found [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|here]]<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the [[Wokatasuto/lexicon|lexicon]]:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-26T17:43:02Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the lexicon:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dumic languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-22T22:06:26Z<p>Caedes: /* Nasalization */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || '''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the lexicon:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-22T21:57:49Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Dumic languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of Dumic tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa, hence they were related to the speakers of [[Potɑnsʉti]], [[Trinesian]] and [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Timtu|Katatuti]]. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech; this also counts for short /i/ after /ʃ/. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Nasalization==<br />
<br />
The oral vowels '''a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ uì ià uà''' become nasalized '''an en en on on an oèn eàn oàn''' before certain affixes that trigger nazalization, which are marked then with <small>NAS</small>:<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Oral''' || ''Nasal'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''a ā ə ə̄''' || '''an'''<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''e ē i ī''' || '''en'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''o ō u ū''' || '''on'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''uì''' || '''oèn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ià''' || '''eàn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''uà''' || '''oàn'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''bopu''' [pópʰu] "house" + '''dī''' <small>NAS</small> (genitive): '''bopondī''' [pópʰɔ̃ːdʒ͡iː] "of the house"<br />
<br />
==Labialization==<br />
<br />
Some morphemes, including all ending in '''ə ə̄''', change it to '''u''' before labial consonants. Sometimes the whole stem can mutate, which is marked then in the lexicon:<br />
<br />
'''terɘ-''' <small>APPL.on</small> + '''mā''' "sits, is sitting": '''terumā''' "is used to sit on" <br><br />
'''terumā''' + '''wa''' <small>PERF</small>: '''terumaguwa''' "was used to sit on"<br />
<br />
==Backing==<br />
<br />
'''a''' can mutate to '''o''' before '''k g h''', which is marked with <small>BACK</small>:<br />
<br />
'''nonda-''' "is eaten" + '''ki''' <small>BACK</small> (subordinator): '''nondoki''' "which is eaten" <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns in Wokatasuto are declined for case; number is marked only on pronouns. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! suffix<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive <br />
|| '''-Ø'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative <br />
|| '''-ko'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Genitive <br />
|| -'''dī''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Dative<br />
|| '''-dira''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|| '''-dike''' <small>NAS</small><br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Postpositional<br />
|| '''-ni'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive marks the subject of intransitives and the patient of transitives, while the ergative marks the agent of transitive verbs. The genitive is used to describe association, but not directly possession, which is marked by attaching the possessive prefixes. The dative marks the recipient of ditransitives, beneficiary towards someone and the direction of a motion. The instrumental case usually marks means or location. The postpositional case stands with most postpostions.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-22T16:16:55Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Timtu languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has three oral diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua''', and the respective nasalized counterparts /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ '''oèn eàn oàn'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯/ẽ̯/ã̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/ and /ẽ̯ ã̯/ only in one of the nasalized diphtongs /õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained there as [ɪ] only in very careful speech. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br />
*The diphtongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯ õẽ̯ ẽã̯ õã̯/ are realized as [ui̯] [ia̯] [ua̯] [ɔ̃ɪ̯̃] [ɛ̃ɑ̯̃] [ɔ̃ɑ̯̃].<br />
<br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-20T20:15:03Z<p>Caedes: /* Allophony */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Timtu languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has the three diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained only in very careful speech. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''ənihonbuki''' || [ɨ́ɲihɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''andiwa''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡wa]<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-20T20:06:24Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Timtu languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has the three diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents, nasals and /r/ are palatalized before /e(ː) i(ː)/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i] is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables and retained only in very careful speech. Furthermore, /n/ is realized as palatal [ɲ] before /e(ː) i(ː)/.<br />
*/r/ is realized as a flap [ɾ].<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as open [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.<br />
*The nasal vowels /ã ẽ õ/ are realized as long [ɑ̃ː] [ɛ̃ː] [ɔ̃ː] in any position. <br><br><br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''mēbākadota''' || [mʲéː.baː.kʰa.dɔ.tʰa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''andihonbuki''' || [ɑ̃́ːdʒ͡hɔ̃ːbukʰʲi]<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-19T22:53:26Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Timtu languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ʃ/ is written as '''sh'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''a e i o u ə''' vs. '''ā ē ī ō ū ə̄'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': /ã ẽ õ/''' an en on''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has the three diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/, which are romanized as '''uì ià uà''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences /u.i i.a u.a/ '''ui ia ua'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is '''(C)V(i̯/a̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. /i̯ a̯/ only appear as parts of the diphthongs /ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. /s/ never occurs before /e i/.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress: <br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*Unvoiced plosives are usually slightly aspirated.<br />
*The voiced plosives /b d g/ are realized as unvoiced [p] [t] [k] as onset of a stressed syllable.<br />
*Obstruents are palatalized before /e eː i iː/. /te(ː) ti(ː) de(ː) di(ː)/ are realized as palato-alveolar [tʃ͡ʰe(ː)] [tʃ͡ʰi(ː)] [dʒ͡e(ː)] [dʒ͡i(ː)] (the latter two unvoiced if they are the onset of a stressed syllable) and /he(ː) he(ː)/ as [çe(ː)] [çi(ː)]. In both cases, short [i} is usually dropped entirely in unstressed syllables.<br />
*/e(ː) o(ː)/ are realized as closed [ɛ(ː)] [ɔ(ː)] in unstressed syllables.<br />
*Short /ə/ is a rather lax phoneme that is realized as [ɨ~ɘ] before coronal consonants and around [ɐ~ə~ɜ] everywhere else. Long /əː/ is [ɨː] before coronals and [ɐː] elsewhere.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WokatasutoWokatasuto2011-12-19T14:40:02Z<p>Caedes: New page: {{Language | color = green | language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi | phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç] | date = ca. 0 YP | place = Wohata Coast, <br />...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wokatasuto / tū-katohahi<br />
| phonetic = [wókʰatʰasutʰɔ] / [tʰuːkʰátʰɔhaç]<br />
| date = ca. 0 YP<br />
| place = Wohata Coast, <br />Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = c. 200,000<br />
| script = unknown<br />
| family = Timtu languages <br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Wokatasuto<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wokatasuto''' was the autonym of a group of tribes living along the Wohata coast in eastern Tuysáfa. The language itself had no actual name, but was usually referred to as '''tū-katohahi''' "our (excl.) language".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
==Phonemes==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! labial !! coronal !! velar !! glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! stops<br />
| p b || t d || k g ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! fricatives<br />
| f || s ʃ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || n || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! approximants<br />
| || || w || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ʃ/''' is written as '''<sh>'''.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Monophthongs !!Front!!Central!!Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! High<br />
||i iː|| ||u uː<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-High<br />
||e eː ẽ|| || o oː õ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid-Low<br />
|| || ə əː || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Low<br />
|| ||a aː ã|| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Long vowels are marked with macrons in the romanization: '''<a e i o u ə>''' vs. '''<ā ē ī ō ū ə̄>'''. Nasalized vowels are indicated by a following '''<n>''': '''/ã ẽ õ/ <an en on>''' . <br />
<br />
Besides these monophthongs, the language has the three diphthongs '''/ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/''', which are romanized as '''< uì ià uà >''' to differentiate them from the respective simple vowel sequences''' /u.i i.a u.a/ <ui ia ua>'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
Syllable Structure is''' (C)V(i̯/a̯)''', where C stands for every consonant and V for a short, long, or nasalized monophthong. '''/i̯ a̯/''' only appear as parts of the diphthongs '''/ui̯ ia̯ ua̯/'''. Nasalized vowels never appear before onsetless syllables. '''/s/''' never occurs before '''/e i/'''.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
The language exhibits a phonemic pitch accent on the first syllable of a word. However, proclitics never take stress: <br />
<br />
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}<br />
|- class="bg2"<br />
| '''Romanization''' || '''Phonetic Transcription'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''to-mane sheni''' || [tʰɔmáɲɛ ʃéɲi]<br />
|-- align="center"<br />
| '''mogewa''' || [mógʲɛwa]<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''hoho ko-higī''' || [hóhɔ kʰɔçígʲiː]<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User:CaedesUser:Caedes2011-12-19T12:19:55Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>Current project: [[Wokatasuto]] - a Timtu language<br />
<br />
[[Hośər]] - a Western language of the Çetázóic branch.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T22:38:49Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéylak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéylak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéylak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źeylag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéylak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źeylag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źeylag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéylak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ j/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź y>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). The old NC1 marker '''-wa''', which was lost and is now represented by the null suffix'''-Ø''', still has the theoretical value of a whole open syllable. Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizay''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''suukudan''' [ˌsɯː.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯːk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are four important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-y'' → '''ɣooćizay''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źeeši-g'' → '''źešig''' but ''źeeši'' → '''źeeš'''<br />
<br />
*Historical velars underwent palatalization before front vowels, which finally led to the new palato-alveolar row. This palatalization is no longer productive, but its results still appear in the language insofar as velars can become palato-alveolar in some situations, especially when inflecting a-stems, where the ergative singular ending '''-aa''' evolves from former ''-eː'' and hence triggers palatalization:<br />
**''šeeka-Ø'' → '''šeek''' but ''*šeekaa'' → '''šećaa'''<br />
<br />
*Former /''*ji, *je, *wo, *wu, *ɥø, *ɥy''/ were shortened to /''j, w, *ɥ''/ (the latter later >''j''), which became '''i u ü''' word-initially before consonants. However, if a prefix is attached to an affected word, these '''i, u ,ü''' change back to '''/j, w, j/''' :<br />
**''iza-na-y'' → '''izanay''' but ''suu-iza-na-y'' → '''suuyzanay'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker ''*-umök'' is shortened to '''-uk''' in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' <br> triggers palatalization|| '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Seven of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third and the eighth with the fifth. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses and liquids, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk yazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česunan|če-sunan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süüźiyabunes|süü-źiya-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ya!|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ya-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ya|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Verbal inflection==<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated in the categories modality, tense, evidentiality, person and number. <br />
<br />
===Modality and tense===<br />
<br />
As in its neighboring sister languages, the Çetázóic future marker ''sul-'' underwent a semantic shift and became as '''suu-''' a marker for irreal events. However, it still shares its verbal slot before the verbal stem (or the incorporated noun, respectively) with the past marker '''süü-'''.<br />
Due to their similarity, though, the evidential suffix '''-źe''', actually indicating already experienced actions, is usually affixed together with '''süü-''' if no other evidential marker is used. Younger speaker often omit '''süü-''' at all.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Present !! Past <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Real<br />
| '''Ø-''' || '''süü-...(-źe)''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Irreal<br />
| '''suu-''' || '''suu-...(-źe)''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Evidentials===<br />
<br />
Źéylak has maintained a small group of four evidentials, which are not obligatory in most cases. Only '''-bu-''' stands always with verbs of sensory perception, but is often omitted by younger speakers then. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! morpheme !! Meaning <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! SENS<br />
| '''-bu-''' || Sensory perception<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! HS<br />
| '''-ːši-''' || Hearsay<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! UNC<br />
| '''-ba-''' || Uncertain statements<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! EXP<br />
| '''-źe-''' || Experienced actions<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Participant marking===<br />
<br />
Participant marking is obligatory. In terms of the ergative suffixes, singular and plural endings were homophonic in some cases already in Çetázó and finally merged, now indicating only person, but not number. However, the final ''-n'' of the absolutive endings was reinterpreted as plural marker and is attached on the noun class markers as well now. <br />
The variant '''-ːn''' of '''-na-n''' only appears after '''-a'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Ergative !! colspan="2" | Absolutive <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Singular !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> <br />
| '''-ne-''' || '''-na''' || '''-na-n, -ːn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
| '''-še-''' || '''-sa''' || '''-sa-n'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> <br />
| '''-ga-''' || '''-NC''' || '''-NC-n'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
<br />
A verb is usually negated by the particle '''i''' put directly before the verb, and by attaching the negative marker '''-y''' if the preceded morpheme ends in a vowel; otherwise the main stress falls onto the last syllable.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saźiš|saźiš|tomorrow}}<br />
{{gl|i|i|NEG}}<br />
{{gl|yicabanay.|yiica-ba-na-y|come-UNC-1SG.ABS-NEG}}<br />
{{glend|I guess I won't come tomorrow.}}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T22:34:22Z<p>Caedes: /* Morphophonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéylak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéylak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéylak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źeylag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéylak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źeylag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źeylag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéylak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ j/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź y>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). The old NC1 marker '''-wa''', which was lost and is now represented by the null suffix'''-Ø''', still has the theoretical value of a whole open syllable. Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizay''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''suukudan''' [ˌsɯː.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯːk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are four important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-y'' → '''ɣooćizay''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źeeši-g'' → '''źešig''' but ''źeeši'' → '''źeeš'''<br />
<br />
*Historical velars underwent palatalization before front vowels, which finally led to the new palato-alveolar row. This palatalization is no longer productive, but its results still appear in the language insofar as velars can become palato-alveolar in some situations, especially when inflecting a-stems, where the ergative singular ending '''-aa''' evolves from former ''-eː'' and hence triggers palatalization:<br />
**''šeeka-Ø'' → '''šeek''' but ''*šeekaa'' → '''šećaa'''<br />
<br />
*Former /''*ji, *je, *wo, *wu, *ɥø, *ɥy''/ were shortened to /''j, w, *ɥ''/ (the latter later >''j''), which became '''i u ü''' word-initially before consonants. However, if a prefix is attached to an affected word, these '''i, u ,ü''' change back to '''/j, w, j/''' :<br />
**''iza-na-y'' → '''izanay''' but ''suu-iza-na-y'' → '''suuyzanay'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' <br> trigger palatalization|| '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Seven of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third and the eighth with the fifth. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses and liquids, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk yazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česunan|če-sunan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süüźiyabunes|süü-źiya-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ya!|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ya-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ya|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Verbal inflection==<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated in the categories modality, tense, evidentiality, person and number. <br />
<br />
===Modality and tense===<br />
<br />
As in its neighboring sister languages, the Çetázóic future marker ''sul-'' underwent a semantic shift and became as '''suu-''' a marker for irreal events. However, it still shares its verbal slot before the verbal stem (or the incorporated noun, respectively) with the past marker '''süü-'''.<br />
Due to their similarity, though, the evidential suffix '''-źe''', actually indicating already experienced actions, is usually affixed together with '''süü-''' if no other evidential marker is used. Younger speaker often omit '''süü-''' at all.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Present !! Past <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Real<br />
| '''Ø-''' || '''süü-...(-źe)''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Irreal<br />
| '''suu-''' || '''suu-...(-źe)''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Evidentials===<br />
<br />
Źéylak has maintained a small group of four evidentials, which are not obligatory in most cases. Only '''-bu-''' stands always with verbs of sensory perception, but is often omitted by younger speakers then. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! morpheme !! Meaning <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! SENS<br />
| '''-bu-''' || Sensory perception<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! HS<br />
| '''-ːši-''' || Hearsay<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! UNC<br />
| '''-ba-''' || Uncertain statements<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! EXP<br />
| '''-źe-''' || Experienced actions<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Participant marking===<br />
<br />
Participant marking is obligatory. In terms of the ergative suffixes, singular and plural endings were homophonic in some cases already in Çetázó and finally merged, now indicating only person, but not number. However, the final ''-n'' of the absolutive endings was reinterpreted as plural marker and is attached on the noun class markers as well now. <br />
The variant '''-ːn''' of '''-na-n''' only appears after '''-a'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Ergative !! colspan="2" | Absolutive <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Singular !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> <br />
| '''-ne-''' || '''-na''' || '''-na-n, -ːn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
| '''-še-''' || '''-sa''' || '''-sa-n'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> <br />
| '''-ga-''' || '''-NC''' || '''-NC-n'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
<br />
A verb is usually negated by the particle '''i''' put directly before the verb, and by attaching the negative marker '''-y''' if the preceded morpheme ends in a vowel; otherwise the main stress falls onto the last syllable.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saźiš|saźiš|tomorrow}}<br />
{{gl|i yicabanay.|yiica-ba-na-y|come-UNC-1SG.ABS-NEG}}<br />
{{glend|I guess I won't come tomorrow.}}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T22:33:07Z<p>Caedes: verbal inflection, some other morphophonological alternations, orthography slightly changed with /j/ <y></p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéylak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéylak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéylak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źeylag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéylak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źeylag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źeylag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéylak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ j/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź y>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). The old NC1 marker '''-wa''', which was lost and is now represented by the null suffix'''-Ø''', still has the theoretical value of a whole open syllable. Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizay''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''suukudan''' [ˌsɯː.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯːk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are four important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-y'' → '''ɣooćizay''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źeeši-g'' → '''źešig''' but ''źeeši'' → '''źeeš'''<br />
<br />
*Historical velars underwent palatalization before front vowels, which finally led to the new palato-alveolar row. This palatalization is no longer productive, but its results still appear in the language insofar as velars can become palato-alveolar in some situations, especially when inflecting a-stems, where the ergative singular ending '''-aa''' evolves from former ''-eː'' and hence triggers palatalization:<br />
**''šeeka-Ø'' → '''šeek''' but ''*šeekaa'' → '''šećaa'''<br />
<br />
*Former /''*ji, *je, *wo, *wu, *ɥø, *ɥy''/ were shortened to /''j, w, *ɥ''/ (the latter later >''j''), which became '''i u ü''' word-initially before consonants. However, if a prefix is attached to an affected word, these '''i, u ,ü''' change back to '''/j, w, j/''' :<br />
**''iza-na-y'' → '''izanay''' but ''suu-iza-na-y'' → '''suuyzanaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' <br> trigger palatalization|| '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Seven of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third and the eighth with the fifth. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses and liquids, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk yazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česunan|če-sunan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süüźiyabunes|süü-źiya-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ya!|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ya-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ya|ya-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Verbal inflection==<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated in the categories modality, tense, evidentiality, person and number. <br />
<br />
===Modality and tense===<br />
<br />
As in its neighboring sister languages, the Çetázóic future marker ''sul-'' underwent a semantic shift and became as '''suu-''' a marker for irreal events. However, it still shares its verbal slot before the verbal stem (or the incorporated noun, respectively) with the past marker '''süü-'''.<br />
Due to their similarity, though, the evidential suffix '''-źe''', actually indicating already experienced actions, is usually affixed together with '''süü-''' if no other evidential marker is used. Younger speaker often omit '''süü-''' at all.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Present !! Past <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Real<br />
| '''Ø-''' || '''süü-...(-źe)''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Irreal<br />
| '''suu-''' || '''suu-...(-źe)''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Evidentials===<br />
<br />
Źéylak has maintained a small group of four evidentials, which are not obligatory in most cases. Only '''-bu-''' stands always with verbs of sensory perception, but is often omitted by younger speakers then. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! morpheme !! Meaning <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! SENS<br />
| '''-bu-''' || Sensory perception<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! HS<br />
| '''-ːši-''' || Hearsay<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! UNC<br />
| '''-ba-''' || Uncertain statements<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! EXP<br />
| '''-źe-''' || Experienced actions<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Participant marking===<br />
<br />
Participant marking is obligatory. In terms of the ergative suffixes, singular and plural endings were homophonic in some cases already in Çetázó and finally merged, now indicating only person, but not number. However, the final ''-n'' of the absolutive endings was reinterpreted as plural marker and is attached on the noun class markers as well now. <br />
The variant '''-ːn''' of '''-na-n''' only appears after '''-a'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Ergative !! colspan="2" | Absolutive <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Singular !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> <br />
| '''-ne-''' || '''-na''' || '''-na-n, -ːn'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
| '''-še-''' || '''-sa''' || '''-sa-n'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> <br />
| '''-ga-''' || '''-NC''' || '''-NC-n'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
<br />
A verb is usually negated by the particle '''i''' put directly before the verb, and by attaching the negative marker '''-y''' if the preceded morpheme ends in a vowel; otherwise the main stress falls onto the last syllable.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saźiš|saźiš|tomorrow}}<br />
{{gl|i yicabanay.|yiica-ba-na-y|come-UNC-1SG.ABS-NEG}}<br />
{{glend|I guess I won't come tomorrow.}}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T15:35:17Z<p>Caedes: /* Phonetic detail */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). The old NC1 marker '''-wa''', which was lost and is now represented by the null suffix'''-Ø''', still has the theoretical value of a whole open syllable. Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''suukudan''' [ˌsɯː.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯːk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Eight of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-j''' || Tangible fluids like water, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC8<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk jazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česunan|če-sunan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süüźijabunes|süü-źija-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ja!|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ja-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ja|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Verbal inflection==<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated in the categories modality, tense, evidentiality, person and number. <br />
<br />
===Modality and tense===<br />
<br />
As in its neighboring sister languages, the Çetázóic future marker ''sul-'' underwent a semantic shift and became as '''suu-''' a marker for irreal events. However, it still shares its verbal slot before the verbal stem (or the incorporated noun, respectively) with the past marker '''süü-'''.<br />
Due to their similarity, though, the evidential suffix '''-źe''', actually indicating already experienced actions, is usually affixed together with '''süü-''' if no other evidential marker is used. Younger speaker often omit '''süü-''' at all.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Present !! Past <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Real<br />
| '''Ø-''' || '''süü-...(-źe)''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Irreal<br />
| '''suu-''' || '''suu-...(-źe)''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Evidentials==<br />
<br />
Źéjlak has maintained a small group of four evidentials, which are not obligatory in most cases. Only '''-bu-''' stands always with verbs of sensory perception, but is often omitted by younger speakers then. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! !! Meaning <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! SENS<br />
| '''-bu-''' || Sensory perception<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! HS<br />
| '''-ːši-''' || Hearsay<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! UNC<br />
| '''-ba-''' || Uncertain statements<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! EXP<br />
| '''-źe-''' || Experienced actions<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T15:33:46Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). The old NC1 marker '''-wa''', which was lost and is now represented by the null suffix'''-Ø''', still has the theoretical value of a whole open syllable. Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''suukudan''' [ˌsɯː.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Eight of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-j''' || Tangible fluids like water, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC8<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk jazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česunan|če-sunan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süüźijabunes|süü-źija-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ja!|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ja-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ja|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Verbal inflection==<br />
<br />
Verbs are conjugated in the categories modality, tense, evidentiality, person and number. <br />
<br />
===Modality and tense===<br />
<br />
As in its neighboring sister languages, the Çetázóic future marker ''sul-'' underwent a semantic shift and became as '''suu-''' a marker for irreal events. However, it still shares its verbal slot before the verbal stem (or the incorporated noun, respectively) with the past marker '''süü-'''.<br />
Due to their similarity, though, the evidential suffix '''-źe''', actually indicating already experienced actions, is usually affixed together with '''süü-''' if no other evidential marker is used. Younger speaker often omit '''süü-''' at all.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Present !! Past <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Real<br />
| '''Ø-''' || '''süü-...(-źe)''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Irreal<br />
| '''suu-''' || '''suu-...(-źe)''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Evidentials==<br />
<br />
Źéjlak has maintained a small group of four evidentials, which are not obligatory in most cases. Only '''-bu-''' stands always with verbs of sensory perception, but is often omitted by younger speakers then. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! !! Meaning <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! SENS<br />
| '''-bu-''' || Sensory perception<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! HS<br />
| '''-ːši-''' || Hearsay<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! UNC<br />
| '''-ba-''' || Uncertain statements<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! EXP<br />
| '''-źe-''' || Experienced actions<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-25T12:10:30Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Źéjlak'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are usually shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Eight of the former nine classes survived into Źéjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-j''' || Tangible fluids like water, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC8<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk jazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česinan|če-sinan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
<br />
===Personal Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person (for the ana- and cataphoric pronouns of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, see below) and are inflected in number and case like nouns. <br />
The pronouns of the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular as well of the 1<sup>st</sup> person plural consist of the stems '''na-''',''' ta-''' and '''sa-''', respectively, which are declined like stems of the first declension except for the absolutive, where the stem-final '''-a '''has been preserved. The dual forms are made up by attaching the dual markers to the stems, with irregular vowel alternation in the ergative, while the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural is derived from''' ta-''' with suffixed plural endings. <br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> !! 1<sup>st</sup> !! 2<sup>nd</sup> <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''na''' || '''ta''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' ||''' sa''' || '''tak'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''neź''' || '''teź''' || '''saa''' || '''taź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''nuu''' || '''tuu''' || '''naa''' || '''taa''' || '''suu''' || '''tag''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''nuuk''' || '''tuuk''' || '''nahuk''' || '''tahuk''' || '''suuk''' || '''taguk''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''nuum''' || '''tuum''' || '''nahum''' || '''tahum''' || '''suum''' || '''tagum''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''nuuź''' || '''tuuź''' || '''nahuź''' || '''tahuź''' || '''suuź''' || '''taguź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''nuuz''' || '''tuuz''' || '''nahuz''' || '''tahuz''' || '''suuz''' || '''taguz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The absolutive and ergative forms of the pronouns normally appear only for emphasis, since agent and patient are already marked on the verb:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ta|ta|2SG.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|süźijabunes|sü-źija-bu-ne-sa|PAST-hear-SENS-1.ERG-2PL.ABS}}<br />
{{gl|tsi|tsi|and_not}}<br />
{{gl|ja!|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|I heard you and no him!}}<br />
<br />
===Phoric pronouns===<br />
<br />
The distinction between two types of 3rd person pronouns has survived into Źéjlak:<br />
#The ''anaphoric'' pronoun '''ja-''' is used for already mentioned things and persons.<br />
#The ''cataphoric'' pronoun '''ćü-''' refers to something that will be mentioned later.<br />
They are declined like noun stems ending in '''-a''' and '''-ü'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Saa|saa|1PL.ERG}}<br />
{{gl|ćü|ćü-Ø|CATA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazane,|xaza-ne-Ø|mock-1.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl| tsa|tsa|and}}<br />
{{gl|zaz|zaz|even}}<br />
{{gl|iin|iin|wife.ERG.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ja|ja-Ø|ANA-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{gl|xazaga.|xaza-ga-Ø|mock-3.ERG-NC1.ABS.SG}}<br />
{{glend|We are mocking this guy, and even his wife is mocking him.}}<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative pronouns===<br />
<br />
The old paradigm of demonstrative pronouns based on four levels of deixis has been maintained without any major semantic change. However, younger speakers often use '''sa-''' instead of '''če-'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''že-'''<br />
| near to the speaker<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''da-'''<br />
| near to the adressed<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''če-'''<br />
| distant but visible<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! '''sa-'''<br />
| distant but invisible, abstract<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These stems are declined like adjectives, agreeing with the head noun in case, number and noun class.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-24T22:29:28Z<p>Caedes: /* Fourth declension (-n) */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are often shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Noun classes==<br />
<br />
As in the other Western languages, nouns in Źéjlak always belong to a particular noun class, which are not marked on the nouns themselves but on adjectives, numerals, pronouns of the third person and verbs agreeing with their particular head noun. Eight of the former nine classes survived into Źöjlak, strictly speaking the former fourth noun class merged with the third. The first noun class is marked by the null morpheme '''-Ø'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Gloss !! Number !! Used for<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC1<br />
| '''-Ø'''|| Humans and other beings capable of speech, <br>including gods, demons, speaking animals in tales etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC2<br />
| '''-da''' || Solid edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC3<br />
| '''-za ''' || Solid inedible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC4<br />
| '''-ːći''' || Granular masses<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC5<br />
| '''-če''' || Mushy edible things<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC6<br />
| '''-śüü''' || Mushy inedible things <br> (declined as if it was an ü-stem, <br>but maintains '''-üü''' in all cases where it is stressed)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC7<br />
| '''-j''' || Tangible fluids like water, wind, flames etc.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! NC8<br />
| '''-ši''' || Intangible things<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
As in the other Lake Languages and different to the other family branches, adjectives build a distinct group of words able to decline in case and number.<br />
<br />
===General adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives precede their head nouns and agree with them in number, case and noun class. <br />
<br />
{{gl|čigad|čiga-da|yellow-NC2}}<br />
{{gl|klam|klam|berry}}<br />
{{glend|a / the yellow berry}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|źenezagum|źene-za-g-um|big-NC3-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{gl|tagahegum|tagahe-g-um|meadow-PL-LOC}}<br />
{{glend|in (the) big meadow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|mookazag|mooka-za-g|sharp-NC3-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|šekag|šeeka-g|stone-PL-OBL.PL}}<br />
{{gl|mön|mön|along}}<br />
{{glend|along sharp stones}}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
The language has kept the old base-8 numeral system. The numeral “1” is inflected as singular, the numeral “2” as dual and the others as plural. Ordinals are formed by attaching the suffix -wu on cardinals. Multiples of 8, 64 and 512 are expressed by combining ordinals with the cardinals of 8, 64 and 512, e.g. '''mözawŋaɣ''' ''32''. Numerals are added with -z(a), e.g. '''mözawŋaɣazaniiš''' ''39''<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<br />
| '''taga-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<br />
| '''ši-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<br />
| '''naatu- '''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 4<br />
| '''möza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 5<br />
| '''uza-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 6<br />
| '''möži-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 7<br />
| '''niiši-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 8<br />
| '''ŋaɣa-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 64<br />
| '''muula-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 512<br />
| '''źenuula'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There are also several quantifiers like '''źiba-''' ''some'' and '''laza-''' ''many'', which can be used with both singular and plural and agreeing then with their specific head noun, e.g. '''lazaduuk jazuuk''' ''by means of much meat''.<br />
<br />
==Possession==<br />
<br />
Usually the possessor (noun or pronoun) is marked in the oblique case and precedes the possessum, e.g. '''nuu tuz''' ''my house''. <br><br />
As in the near sister language Šetâmol, there is a group of nouns referred to as inalienable nouns, which can take several possessor suffixes instead. This group of nouns consists of two subgroups, body parts on the one hand and family members on the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 1<sup>st</sup> person <br />
| '''na-''' || '''la-''' || '''ka-'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person<br />
| '''če-''' || '''he-''' || '''čö-''' <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person<br />
| '''e-''' || '''he-''' || '''e-'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|česinan|če-sinan|2SG.POSS-father.OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ećenuu|e-ćenu-uu|3SG.POSS-head-OBL.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eháɣo|e-háɣo|3SG.POSS-eye.ABS.DU}}<br />
{{glend|the two eyes of my father’s head}}<br />
<br />
The prefixes lose their vowel if the noun the prefix is attached to has no syllable onset, e- is omitted then completely.</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-24T21:01:49Z<p>Caedes: /* Morphophonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are often shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj''' <br>However, vowels before former *x in word-final position have been kept: <br />
**''šiinoh'' → '''šiino'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-24T20:49:13Z<p>Caedes: /* Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,) */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are often shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uz''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Third declension (-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)===<br />
<br />
The third declension is based on former i-stems and u-stems. In contrast to the first and second declension, ergative and oblique in their singular forms are not distinguished. <br><br />
Almost every stem maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems with '''-Ø''' and '''-i '''in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-u''' have '''-uu''' then and stems in '''-ü''' have '''-üü'''. In the oblique dual, the ending '''-ii '''stand with stems in '''-i''' and '''-Ø'''. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a small number of stems based on former u-stems ending in -ˈCuðu that are now characterized by a stem-final '''-wuu''' that changes to '''-uu''' in the absolutive forms and to '''-u''' in the dual and plural forms of instrumental, locative, allative and ablative.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -uu''' || '''-Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -uu)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu''' || '''-ii, -uu, -üü, -wuu'''|| '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü, -wuu)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uk''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-um''' ||''' -( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uź''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-h-uz''' || '''-( Ø, -i, -u, -ü)-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Since it is not directly clear to tell which noun declension a noun with the null ending in the absolutive singular belongs to, the stem is usually the cited form in the lexicon together with the oblique dual if necessary.<br />
<br />
===Fourth declension (-n)===<br />
<br />
The fourth declension is based on the former n-stems, hence it is characterized by the null morpheme -n in all singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable|| '''-Ø ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-n''' <br> stress on the last syllable || '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-n ''' <br>stress on the ultimate syllable || lengthening of the stem-final vowel || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-n-uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-n-um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-n-uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-n-uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-24T20:14:21Z<p>Caedes: /* First declension (-a) */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are often shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuz''' || '''-o-h-uz''' || '''-a-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every subcategory maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|-<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:CaedesUser talk:Caedes2010-05-24T19:02:44Z<p>Caedes: Sketch of the complete remake of Hośər named Źéjlak</p>
<hr />
<div>===Notes for Diachronics Relay II Çetázó to Źéjlak, which is going to replace Hośər===<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Article}}<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Źéjlak<br />
| phonetic = [ˈʑejlʌk]<br />
| date = c. -500 YP<br />
| place = Eastern part of the mountain range to the north of the lukpanic coast<br />
| speakers = ???<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinating, fusional<br />
| morphalign = ERG-ABS<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Źéjlak''' [ˈʑejlʌk] or '''Źejlag moź''' [ʑejˈlʌg moʑ] is a member of the Western language family of Akana. In this family it belongs to the Lake Languages and thus is a descendant of Çetázó. The particular dialect described here was spoken around -500 YP in the mountainous region to the north of Pigbaye, bordering the Great Western Steppe in the north and the Wañelinlawag Empire in the east.<br />
<br />
The name '''Źéjlak''' is actually the name of the tribes speaking this dialect and literally means “Hill people”, the longer version '''Źejlag moź''' means “language of the hill people”. The latter was usually in use as a language name only by foreigners that made use of the language, native speakers rather used '''suu moź''' “our language” instead. For an adverbial use the instrumental form of '''moź''' was used, thus '''Źejlag / suu moźuuk'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
Źéjlak underwent some major changes referring to its consonantal system, especially the development of palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives from former palatalized velars.<br />
<br />
==Phoneme inventory==<br />
<br />
===consonants===<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palato-alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Labial-velar !! Glottal <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Plosives<br />
| p b || || t d || || || || k g || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Affricates<br />
| || || ts͡ || tʃ͡ || tɕ͡ || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Fricatives<br />
| || f v || s z || ʃ ʒ || ɕ ʑ || || x ɣ || || h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Nasals<br />
| m || || n || || || || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Laterals<br />
| || || l || || || || || ||<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Approximants<br />
| || || || || || j || || w ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/ ts͡ tʃ͡ ʃ ʒ tɕ ɕ ʑ/ are written as <c č š ž ć ś ź>. There is no phonemic gemination.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Front !! Back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Close <br />
| i y || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Mid <br />
| e ø || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| æː || ɑ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''/ɑ æː ø y/''' are written as '''<a aa ö ü>'''. Every vowel other than /a/ has its long counterpart that is written than as a doubled vowel. <br />
<br />
==Distribution and phonotactics==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure of the language is '''(C(C))V(C(C))'''.<br />
<br />
#Syllable onsets may consist of any consonantal phoneme , a plosive + lateral / approximant, a fricative + lateral / approximant or a lateral + approximant. Syllables without an onset only appear word-initially. <br />
#A syllable nucleus always consists of a single vowel, which can be long only in stressed syllables.<br />
#Word-internal syllable codas may consist of a single unvoiced plosive, lateral or approximant. Except the latter, they can be preceded by a single approximant. Word-final codas can end in any consonant other than '''/h/'''. Younger speakers usually tend to apply the latter rules to word-internal codas as well, see below.<br />
#'''*/aː/''' always appears as '''[æː]'''.<br />
#Short '''/e, i/''', '''/o, u/''' and '''/ø, y/''' never appear after '''/j/, /w/''', and '''/w/''', respectively.<br />
#'''*/ij/''' is always realized as '''/iː/''' before consonants and word-finally.<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
The language is characterized by a stress accent pattern with the main accent on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which is phonemic. A syllable with a long vowel as nucleus is always stressed, otherwise the last syllable or the penultimate does (which, in the case of the latter, is marked then with an apostrophe ('''<áéíóú>''') or a double apostrophe ('''<őű>'''). Monosyllabic words, unless nouns in a phrase, are usually accent-less. Secondary stress falls onto the anterior syllables in an alternate stressed-unstressed pattern.<br />
<br />
* '''tagahegum''' [tʌˌgaheˈgum]<br />
*'''šiino''' [ˈʃiːnɤ]<br />
<br />
==Phonetic detail==<br />
<br />
There are two major alternations in terms of vowel allophony, which are applied also beyond word boundaries:<br />
<br />
*'''Vowel unrounding''': The rounded vowels '''/o u ø y/''' and other rounded vowels being allophones of vocalic phonemes appear rounded only when adjacent to a labial consonant, otherwise they are unrounded '''[ɤ ɯ e i]'''. <br />
*'''Vowel backing''': actual '''[ɑ æː e i ø y]''' become '''[ʌ ʌː ɤ ɯ o u]''' before velars.<br />
<br />
Other allophonic realizations are the following:<br />
*'''/ɑ/''' is usually realized as '''/ɐ/''' in unstressed syllables and in stressed syllables as '''/ɑ/''', unless the rules of vowel backing are applied.<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed monosyllabic words are often shortened.<br />
<br />
Younger speakers usually tend to leave close vowels out in unstressed open syllables (with progressive voice assimilation), except for initial onset-less syllables. Beyond that, they normally omit intervocalic /h/ (creating onset-less syllables word-internally or, in less careful speech, merging the two vowels):<br />
<br />
*'''źibad''' [ʑi.ˈbɑd] → [ʑbɑd]<br />
*'''ɣooćizaj''' [ˌɣɤː.tɕi.ˈzɑj] → [ɣɤːtɕ.ˈsɑj]<br />
*'''sükudan''' [ˌsɯ.kɯ.ˈdɑn] → [sɯk.ˈtɑn]<br />
*'''nahuz''' [nɐ.ˈhɯz] → [nɐ.ˈɯz], [nɯːz], [nɯz]<br />
*'''süglatagad''' [sɯ.ˌglɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd] → [ˌsklɑ.tʌ.ˈgɑd]<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
There are two important morphophonological processes:<br />
<br />
*With just a few exceptions, short unstressed vowels are lost in final position: <br />
** ''möŋu-Ø'' → '''möŋ''' but ''möŋu-k'' → '''mőŋuk'''<br />
** ''ɣooći-za'' → '''ɣoćiz''' but ''ɣooći-za-j'' → '''ɣooćizaj'''<br />
<br />
*Long vowels in unstressed syllables become short:<br />
** ''źii-na'' → '''źiin''' but ''źii-na-j'' → '''źinaj'''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal inflection==<br />
<br />
Nouns in the Źejlak language inflect for 2 productive categories, namely Number and Case. Different to its neighboring sister languages, it has maintained the difference between the ergative and the oblique case of Çetázó, while it developed a new ergative plural suffix '''-ź''' (evolved from former '''*-gʲi < '''Çet'''-gʷi'''). The former five declination classes merged into another group of four classes, depending on the ergative and oblique singular forms and some specific stem alternations. In all those the instrumental marker *-umök is shortened to -uk in this dialect. <br />
<br />
===Case / number endings===<br />
<br />
Case and number are realized via suffixing the following core endings, which often merge with stem-final vowels, creating the mentioned declension classes:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø <br> -n''' and stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-Ø '''<br />
Stem-final vowel can be lengthened or altered. Unless lengthened, stress falls onto the penultimate syllable. <br />
|| '''-k''' <br />
Stress usually falls onto the penultimate syllable.<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| lengthening of the stem-final vowel (with '''a e o ö''' becoming '''aa ii uu üü''') <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| '''-ź''' || '''-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' <br> <br />
or <br><br />
lengthening of the stem-final vowel <br><br />
or <br><br />
'''-n''' with stress on the last syllable<br />
|| lengthening of the stem-final vowel ('''a''' becoming '''aa''') || '''-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-(n)uk''' || '''-h-uk''' || '''-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-(n)um''' || '''-h-um''' ||''' -g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uź''' || '''-h-uź''' || '''-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-(n)uz''' || '''-h-uz''' || '''-g-uz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===First declension (-a)=== <br />
The first declension is based on the A-stems of Çetázó. It is characterized by a stem-final '''-a''' which disappears in the absolutive singular but is present in all plural forms and becomes '''-o''' in the dual forms.<br />
<br />
Stems in '''-ija''' and '''-uwa''' show '''-ii '''and '''-uu''' in the absolutive singular. <br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, -ii, -uu''' || '''-o''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-a-k''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-aa''' || '''-o-ź''' || '''-a-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-oo '''|| '''-a-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-o-h-uk''' || '''-a-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-o-h-um''' ||''' -a-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-o-h-uź''' || '''-a-g-uź'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===Second declension (-Ø, -e, -ö,)===<br />
<br />
The second declension is based on the former e-stems. <br><br />
Every subcategory maintains its specific vowel in the absolutive singular and all dual and plural forms. In the ergative singular, stems ending in '''-Ø''' and '''-e''' in the absolutive singular share '''-ii''' as ending, while stems in '''-ö''' have '''-üü''' then. Stems in '''-Ø''' take '''-ee''' as ending for the oblique dual.<br><br />
Stems ending in '''-Ø''' always end in an approximant. <br><br />
Included in this declension group is a very small number of nouns with stems ending in '''-Vhe < -Vdɮe''' like''' tagahe-''' “grassland”, which lose the final consonant in the absolutive singular, causing compensatory lengthening ('''tagaa'''), turn it into '''-ź''' in the ergative singular ('''tagaźii''') and keep it elsewhere as '''-Vhe''' ('''tagahek''').<br />
<br />
{| {{softtable|c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø, any long vowel''' || '''-Ø, -e, -ö''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-k ''' <br> stress on the penultimate syllable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ergative<br />
| '''-ii, -üü''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-ź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Oblique<br />
| '''-uu ''' || '''-ee, -öö'''|| '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| '''-uuk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uk''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uk'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Locative<br />
| '''-uum''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-um''' ||''' -(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-um'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Allative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! Ablative<br />
| '''-uuź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-h-uź''' || '''-(Ø, -e, -ö)-g-uź'''<br />
|-<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ho%C5%9B%C9%99rHośər2009-12-29T22:02:36Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{TBC|Caedes}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Hośər <br />
| phonetic = [ˈχoʃəɾ̥]<br />
| date = c. -600 YP<br />
| place = to be determined <br />
| speakers = to be determined <br />
| script = to be determined <br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = Ergative<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hośər''', '''Hośər mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ mɪl̥], hill language) or also '''Hośər maśǎś mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ ˈmaʃɐʃ mɪl̥], hill people language) is a language in the [[Western languages|Western language family]] spoken around -600 YP. Its ancestor is [[Çetázó]], thus it belongs to the Lake languages.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
===Phoneme inventory===<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! bilabial !! labiodental !! alveolar !! postalveolar !! velar <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated stops<br />
| p || || t || || k <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated stops<br />
| pʰ || || tʰ || || kʰ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦ || ʧ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦʰ || ʧʰ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unvoiced fricatives<br />
| || f || s || ʃ || x <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! voiced fricatives<br />
| || v || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || || n || || ŋ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! flaps<br />
| || || r || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! laterals<br />
| || || l || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/p t k ʦ ʧ ʃ x pʰ tʰ kʰ ʦʰ ʧʰ ɾ/ are written '''b d g ds dś ś h p t k ts tś r'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! front !! central !! back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close <br />
| i || || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close-mid <br />
| e || || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! mid <br />
| || ə || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open-mid <br />
| ɛ || || ʌˤ ɔ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! near-open<br />
| || ɐ ɐˤ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| a || || ɑˤ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/ɐ ɐˤ ɑˤ ʌˤ/ are written '''ǎ ę ą ǫ'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syllable structure==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure is '''(C(C(C)))V((C)C)'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable onsets are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ f s ʃ x v m n ŋ r l ps pʃ pɾ pl tr tl ks kʃ kr kl ʦl ʦl sp spʰ st stʰ sk skʰ sx sn sŋ sl ʃp ʃpʰ ʃt ʃtʰ ʃk ʃkʰ ʃx ʃn ʃŋ ʃl fs fʃ fr fl sl ʃl xs xʃ xr xl ms mʃ mr ml nl ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋr ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋɾ nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/'''. <br><br />
Syllables without any onset only occur initially.<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable codas are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ s ʃ x m n ŋ r l sp st sk sʦ sʧ ʃp ʃt ʃk ʃʦ ʃʧ xp xt xk xʦ xʧ mp mt mk mʦ mʧ np nt nk nʦ nʧ ŋp ŋt ŋk ŋʦ ŋʧ rp rt rk rʦ rʧ lp lt lk lʦ lʧ /'''. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
Hośər exhibits a strong dynamic stress with a primary stress placed on the last syllable containing one of '''a ɛ e i ɔ o u ę ǫ'''. However, there are some cases where the primary stress is placed on an '''ą''' in a final syllable, which are particularly marked then in the lexicon and in this grammar when occuring. <br><br />
Secondary stress only appears in words with at least two pre-tonic syllables and is placed then on the last closed syllable that is not immediately adjacent to the primary stress. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*'''a e i o u''' appear as [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in unstressed and closed syllables and as [a e i o u] in open stressed syllables.<br />
*/r/ is realized as alveolar flap [ɾ].<br />
*Usually-velar '''g k ŋ''' is realized as uvular [q qʰ ɴ] when adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and after [ɔ o ʊ u].<br />
*'''d t''' become pharyngealized before pharyngealized vowels.<br />
*'''l''' is velarized [ɫ] next to pharyngealized sounds.<br />
*'''m n ŋ r l''' are unvoiced word-finally and before originally unvoiced consonants.<br />
*'''m n ŋ''' become [m nm ŋm] before /p pʰ/, [mn n ŋn] before /t tʰ/, [mŋ ŋ ŋ] before /k kʰ/ and [mɴ ɴ ɴ] before [q qʰ].<br />
*'''p t k''' lose their aspiration in final position, if not directly followed by an inital vowel of the following word.<br />
*'''h''' is realized as [x] after [ɛ e ɪ i], as [ħ] after pharyngealized vowels and otherwise as [χ] .<br />
*In colloquial speech, '''o u''' and their allophones tend to get unrounded if not adjacent to a labial consonant. In the prestige sociolect though, as a reflex to this unrounding, '''ę ą ǫ''' can become rounded [ɞˤ ɒˤ ɔˤ] or even [œˤ ɒˤ oˤ].<br />
*'''ə''' can tend to [ɘ] before alveolars.<br />
*Vowels become slightly nasalized before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Initial consonant mutations==<br />
Hośər shows two subtypes of initial consonants mutations, the first directly goes back to the so called ''lenition'' in Çetázó, while the second is a later development in Early Hośər, going back to invervocalic lenition of [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ]. However, both subtypes are limited to their specific morphological functions and act as full morphemes. Although it is always clear what subtype is needed in the particular situation, the first subtype shall be called ''lenition'', since it is a direct descendant of the ''lenition'' in Çetázó, and the second one ''fricativization'<br />
<br />
===Lenition=== <br />
This consonant mutation directly goes back to the ''lenition'' already found in Çetázó, as previously told. In Hośər, it has been grammaticalized to a morpheme indicating that the noun this lenition is attached to is a possessum of the preceding noun in the oblique case. <br><br />
Çetázó showed lenition of the initial consonant of a stem when a possessive prefix was attached to an inherently possessed noun, e.g. '''ɬaŋa''' ''soul'' vs. '''nalaŋa''' ''my soul''. However, in Early Hośər, this prefixation was expanded to all nouns, while later on, all possessive prefixes merged with the one for the 3rd person singular, which was omitted then finally (more conservative dialects have kept it, though), since the possessum was marked already by lenition. <br />
<br> <br><br />
The following table lists all consonants affected by lenition. Sounds marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals and thus exhibit somewhat irregular behavior; nouns with inital former alveolar lateral are marked in the lexicon. Only consonants directly before a vowel are affected.<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unlenited <br />
| '''b p''' || '''t d''' || '''t*''' || '''d*''' || '''ds ts''' || '''dś tś''' || '''ś*''' || '''g k'''<br />
|- <br />
! lenited <br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''l*''' || '''s''' || '''ś, l*''' || '''l*''' || '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Dśer dśeś kon.'''<br><small>dśe-r dśeś kon-Ø <br>this-NC2 such head-ABS </small> <br>That's a head.<br />
<br />
*'''Nu hon dąhar.''' <br><small>nu hon-Ø dąha-r <br>1SG.OBL POSS.head-ABS hurt-NC2 </small> <br>My head hurts.<br />
<br />
===Fricativization===<br />
This consonant mutation is, as the name may suggest, based on former fricativization probably occured in Early Hośər. Like lenition, it has morpheme status as well and is attached on verbs in the past tense. <br> Historically, it has developed from Çetázó's past marker '''suj-''', which lost its /j/ later, allowing following voiced plosives to fricativize. Later on, the former evidentiality marker '''-gʷe''' was attached as well and then became the lone past marker affix, while the fricativization of the initial consonant of the verb has been kept. <br><br />
The change from '''ś''' to '''dś''' is older actually, but added usually to fricativization since its morpheme meaning is the same. It was caused by the /j/ in '''suj-''', which lengthened following palatals. However, only [j:] having become later [ɟʝ] and finally [ʧ] has remained. <br><br />
<br />
Consonants marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals again before pharyngealized vowels. As nearly all past stems are slightly irregular, those cases are marked then in the lexicon. <br><br />
<br />
The following table list all consonants affected by fricativization:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unfricativized<br />
| '''b''' || '''d''' || '''d*''' || '''ds''' || '''ś''' || '''dś*''' || '''g'''<br />
|- <br />
! fricativized<br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''s''' || '''dś''' || '''ś*''' || '''h''' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Anǎ gorąhas.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø gorąha-s <br> ball-ABS jump-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumps.''<br />
*'''Anǎ horąhąhos.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø horąha-ąho-s <br> ball-ABS PAST.jump-PAST-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumped.''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflexes of former alveolar laterals==<br />
<br />
As already seen while discussing the ''lenition'' and ''fricativization'' in Hośer, Çetázó's alveolar laterals [tɬ dɮ ɬ] as well as [ɮ], which appeared later in Early Hośer, have left their marks on Hośer's morphophonology insofar as they usually merged with the alveolar sibilants, but with dental plosives before pharyngealized vowels. This finally led to irregular consonant alternations in some cases, those alternations are as follows:<br />
*'''ś, dś''' > '''d''': <br><br />
'''Na bśants nu glu pədąn.''' <br><br />
<small> na bśa-n=ts nu glu pəd-ąn<br><br />
1SG.ABS break-1SG.ABS=and 1SG.OBL leg break-NC4</small><br><br />
''I break and my leg breaks.''<br />
<br />
*'''ś, tś''' > '''t''': <br><br />
'''Nu kartśǎnests tsaś dśerə kartąhas.''' <br><br />
<small> nu kartśǎ-ne-s=ts tsaś dśe-Ø-ə kartǎ-ąha-s <br><br />
1SG.OBL hate-1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS=and also this-NC1-OBL hate-3.OBL-2SG.ABS</small><br><br />
''I hate you and he hates you as well.'''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic /r/==<br />
<br />
An epenthetic '''r''' is added between two consecutive vowels, also across word boundaries:<br />
*'''Nu radśəne.''' <br><small> nu adś-ne-Ø <br>1SG.OBL fear-1SG.OBL-NC1 </small> <br>''I fear them.''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic /t/==<br />
<br />
The clusters /*ns *nʃ *nr *sr *ʃr/ that appear especially due to vowel reduction become /nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/.<br />
<br />
==Appearance and loss of post-pharyngeal h==<br />
<br />
The pharyngealized vowels in Hośər developed from oral vowels followed by a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ}, which disappeared before consonants, but became an unvoiced pharyngeal fricative [ħ] before vowels. This alternation is still productive in Hośər insofar as firstly the ''epenthetic r'' is not attached on pharyngealized vowels but a '''h''', and secondly a post-pharyngeal '''h''' disappears before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''śivą''' ''some'' + '''-ə''' <small>OBL</small> --> '''śivąhə'''<br />
*'''dąha-''' ''to hurt'' + '''-ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-C2</small> --> '''dąner''' ''I hurt it'' (but + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''dąhar''' ''it is hurted'')<br />
<br />
==Loss of pre-consontantal f and v==<br />
<br />
'''F''' and '''v''' disappear directly before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''huve-''' ''to drink'' + '''-ne-ltś''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC5</small> --> '''huneltś''' ''I drink it'<br />
<br />
==Vowel reduction==<br />
<br />
Due to the strong dynamic accent, vowels in unstressed syllables are often reduced or even omitted in some cases:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!full vowel <br />
| '''a, ɛ, e, i, o, u''' || '''a, ɔ''' || '''ę ą ǫ'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!reduced <br />
| '''ə''' || '''ǎ''' || '''ą'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!complete loss<br />
| colspan="2" | '''-''' || (no complete loss)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''uśśa-''' ''to kill'' + '''ne-s''' <small>1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS</small> --> '''uśśǎnes''' ''I kill you''<br />
*'''tśeśśa-''' ''to skin'' + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''tśeśśǎner''' ''I skin it''<br />
*'''kindśa-''' ''to differ'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''kəndśas''' ''it differs''<br />
*'''hɔśdśi-''' ''to wash'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''hǎśdśis''' ''it is washed'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''hɔśdśəner''' ''I wash it''<br />
*'''kihi-''' ''to slaughter'' + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''kəhir''' ''it is slaughtered'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''kihner''' ''I slaughter it''<br />
<br />
<br />
==ɛ-e-change==<br />
<br />
An '''ɛ''' of a word-final closed syllable with one consonant as syllable coda can become an '''e''' when suffixes originally beginning with a vowel are attached. That goes back to EH ''*ɛ'' as an allophone of /e/ in closed syllables, which became an independent phoneme later (probably caused by the ''second vowel reduction'' mentioned among the sound changes below). Thus only syllables are affected that were closed already in Çetázó. <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal morphology==<br />
<br />
===Number and case===<br />
<br />
Five of the originally seven cases of Çetázó have remained. The old ergative merged with the oblique due to sound changes (strictly speaking, the final '''-i''' (Early Hośər ''*-ɪ:'') of the ergative and the '''-u''' (EH ''*-ʊ:'') of the oblique both merged into '''-ə'''), while the old locative merged with the instrumental (probably simply because both case endings contained '''-m-''', which was interpreted as a lone case marker later on). Other important changes besides these are as follows: <br />
*It is assumed that in EH final '''-i''' and '''-u''' (as case markers of the ergative and oblique, respectively) became lengthened vowels as a result of analogy to the already long vowels appearing on the vocalic stems. However, it seems that this only happened to the singular forms, since also the vocalic declensions in Çetázó showed short vowels in the ergative plural and oblique plural.<br />
*Hośər developed a distinct oblique plural suffix '''-ś'''. The reason is still not completely clear, it is supposed though that in EH the plural marker '''-gʷ-''' lost the feature [+labialized] before the ergative marker ''*-ɪ:'' in analogy to the plural marker ''-k'' appearing in the absolutive. Later, ''*-gi:'' probably shifted to ''*-ɟɪ:'' and finally became '''-ś'''. However, there is also a new regular oblique plural marker '''-ąh-ə''', which is used only in colloquial speech, though.<br />
*The final '''-n''' of the N-stems was interpreted as belonging to the particular stem.<br />
*The dual was completely lost. <br><br />
<br />
Thus the case and number markers are as follows: <br><br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø''' || '''-(ə)k'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''-ə''' || '''-ś, -ąh-ə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''-(ə)m''' || '''ą-m'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''-(ə)dś''' || '''-ą-dś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''-(ə)s''' || '''-ą-s'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no ''real'' distinction between different declensions anymore (at least in terms of different case endings and the specific vowel preceding the case marker, as it is the case in sister languages as e.g. Shtåså). Nouns could be separated though in stems with a former alveolar lateral in the last syllable ( e.g. '''kuś''' ''wolf''), those ending in other consonants (e.g. '''feś''' ''seed''), those ending in a vowel (e.g. '''dśɛmlə''' ''breast''), those changing the last vowel '''ɛ''' to '''e''' (e.g. '''śɛn''' ''woman'') and those ending in a pharyngealized vowel (e.g. '''hǫ''' ''pig''), since their particular stem can change (especially stems ending in former alveolar laterals). However, these changes are already described in the morphophonology section above, nevertheless one word belonging to every quasi-declension is given in the following table, just to see the particular alternations:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! colspan="2" | feś ''seed'' !! colspan="2" | kuś ''wolf'' !! colspan="2" | dśɛmlə ''breast'' !! colspan="2" | śɛn ''woman'' !! colspan="2" | hǫ ''pig''<br />
|-<br />
! !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| feś || feśk ||kuś || kuśk ||dśɛmlə || dśɛmlək || śɛn || śɛnk || hǫ || hǫk<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| feśə || feśəś, feśąhə || kuśə || kuśəś, kudąhə || dśɛmlərə || dśɛmləś, dśɛmląhə || śenə || śendś || hǫhə || hǫś, hǫhąhə<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| feśəm || feśąm || kuśəm || kudąm || dśɛmləm || dśɛmląm || śenəm || śenąm || hǫm || hǫhąm<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| feśdś || feśądś || kuśdś || kudądś || dśɛmlədś || dśɛmlądś || śendś || śenądś || hǫdś || hǫhądś<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| feśəs || feśąs || kuśəs || kudąs || dśɛmləs || dśɛmląs || śends || senąs ||hǫs || hǫhąs<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
<br />
Hośər lost the distinction between alienable and inalienable forms of possession very early and expanded the use of the possessive prefixes to show possession in general. Thus Çetázó '''dleka ''' ''tribe'' vs. '''só dleka''' ''our tribe'' corresponds to EH '''* ˈd͡ɮekɑ / ˌiɣɑˈlekɑ'''. Later, the possessive marker of the 3rd person singular became the lone marker for all persons, while the particular personal pronoun in the oblique case was put directly in front of the noun (Middle Hośər '''*ˈt͡ʃekʰə''' vs. '''*su əˈlekʰə'''). Finally in Hośər, the possessive prefix was omitted at all, leaving the pronouns or nouns in the oblique as well as the applied initial consonant mutations (called ''lenition'') as lone possessive markers: <br><br />
<br />
'''dśek''' ''tribe'' vs. '''su lek''' ''our tribe'' <br><br />
'''tąhadś''' ''grassland'' vs. '''su lekə rąhadś''' ''our tribe's grassland'' <br><br />
<br />
A pronoun of the 3rd person in the oblique can be omitted before a noun when it would describe a possessor: <br><br />
'''nan''' ''father, his/her/its/their father''<br />
<br />
The full set of this consonant alternation called here ''lenition'' is shown in the morphophonology section.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Noun classes===<br />
<br />
Six of the original nine class markers have remained in Hośər:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|-<br />
! noun class !! suffix !! contains<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|I||-Ø||humans, beeings capable of speech (i.e. e.g. personalized animals or trees in tales)<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|II||-r||solid edible objects<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|III||-s||solid inedible objects<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|IV||-ąn||solid, stick-like or long objects<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|V||-ltś/-śtś|| fluids, collective groupings<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|VI||-ś||intangible things<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The variant '''-śtś''' only appears together with the the verbal suffix '''-ąha-'''. <br><br />
However, the belonging of a noun to a specific noun class is not inherently considered, but depends on the context:<br />
<br />
*'''Dśǫnirə liśə seśąhąheśən.''' <br><small> dśǫni-Ø-ə liś-ə seśi-ąhą-ąheś=ən <br>funny-NC1-OBL snake-OBL PAST.say-PAST-3.OBL>NC6=then </small> <br>''Then the funny snake said it.''<br />
<br />
*'''Dǫrus dśer liś śuśtśir!''' <br><small> dǫru-s dśe-r-Ø liś-Ø śuśti-śi-r! <br>good-ADV this-NC2-ABS.SG snake-ABS.SG taste-SENS-NC2 </small> <br>''This snake tastes good!''<br />
<br />
<br />
Class markers appear on adjectives (except ordinal numerals and quantifiers as '''śivą''' ''some'' ), anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns as well as on verbs as absolutive markers.<br />
<br />
=Example texts=<br />
<br />
==The horse and the sheep==<br />
<br />
'' '''Śəśirts meŋk''' '' <br><br />
''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar. Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas, kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar, larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar. Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.'' <br><br />
<br />
[ˈχoʃə̃m̥ ʃəˈʃiɾə ˈʃivɑˤq mɪ̃ŋk ˌʃɛɫtˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃenə tʰˤɑˤˈħɑɾə ˈmẽŋə sʊl̥ ˌvesɑˤħɑˤħˈɑs | ˈkolə ʃɪɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌχlatʰˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ | ˈlaɾə nɐʃˈtʰʊɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰiχɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃaɾə ˈχaʃə̃m̥ tʰɐ m̥sɑɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌqʰʌˤħɑˤˈħʊɾ̥]<br />
<br />
===Interlinear gloss===<br />
<br />
'''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar''' <br><small>hoś-əm śəśir-ə śivą-k meŋ-k śɛlda-ąhą-ąha-r <br>hill-INSTR horse-OBL some-ABS.PL sheep-ABS.PL see-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''A horse on a hill saw some sheep'' <br />
<br />
'''Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas,''' <br><small>śɛn-ə tąhar-ə meŋ-ə sul-Ø vesa-ąhą-ąha-s <br>woman-OBL first-OBL sheep-OBL wool-ABS.SG PAST.cut-PAST-3.OBL-NC3</small> <br>''A woman was cutting away the wool of the first sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar,''' <br><small>kol-ə śir-Ø meŋ-Ø hlata-ąhą-ąha-r <br>child-OBL second-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG milk-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a child was milking the second sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar.''' <br><small> la-ə nǎśtur-Ø meŋ-Ø kihi-ąhą-ąha-s <br>man-OBL third-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG slaughter-PAST-3-OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a man was slaughtering the third sheep.'' <br />
<br />
'''Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.''' <br><small>śa-ə haś-əm tǎ msar-Ø meŋ-Ø kǫhu-ąho-r <br>ANA-OBL fire-INSTR on fourth-ABS.SG cook-PAST-NC2 </small> <br>''On their fire, the fourth sheep was being cooked.''<br />
<br />
=Sound Changes=<br />
The following set of sound changes from Çetázó to Hośər has been reconstructed:<br />
<br />
#Appearance of fixed stress:<br />
#*Verbs got a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable; that is, intransitives became stressed on the last syllable of the stem and transitives on the first syllable after the stem, as it already was the case in Çetázó.<br />
#*In terms of nouns, the situation is a bit more complicated. Çetázó's A-, E- I- and U-stems have become a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of the stem, while on N-stems the fixed stress usually fell onto the stem's ultimate syllable. However, the assumed reason is analogy to the ergative and oblique forms of the vocalic stems, which (as previously told) had before developed a fixed stress on the stem's penultimate and thus show post-tonal case endings in the primary cases ergative and oblique, which was finally taken over by N-stems was well. <br />
#*Ordinal numerals are unique insofar as they kept the original mobile stress of Çetázó (cf. '''tą''' ''one'' vs. '''tąhar''' ''first'') <br />
#*The position of the secondary stress though depended on the position of the primary stress. Usually it fell onto the last closed syllable before the stressed syllable; if no closed syllable is available, it fell onto the first open syllable. However, secondary stress only appeared in words containing at least two pre-tonal syllables.<br />
#The rounded back vowels [y y: ø ø:] became unrounded front vowels [i i: e e:] spontaneously.<br />
#[æ æ:] shifted to [ɑ ɑ:] before velars and labialized velars and [ɛ ɛ:] otherwise.<br />
#Unstressed [e e: i i: o o: u u:] became [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ: ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] as well as in stressed closed syllables, while [ɑ ɑ:] became [a a:] in stressed open syllables. <br />
#[j] disappeared before consonants, where it led to compensatory shifting of [ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] to [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ:] ([e e: i i:] in then open syllables, respectively) and [l] to [ʎ], as well as gemination of palatals. <br />
#Intervocalic [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] was lenited to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ].<br />
# [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] led to shifting preceding velars to palatals.<br />
#[nj dj] merged with [ɲ ɟ].<br />
#[mp nt ŋk] geminated to [m: n: ŋ:].<br />
#[e: o:] rised to [i: u:] spontaneously.<br />
#Labiovelars merged with velars, [w] disappears, respectively. Following [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] often became rounded [ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:] ,especially in stressed syllables.<br />
#[j ɲ] merged to [ʝ] in front of [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i:], while remaining [ɲ] merged with [n]. Simultaneously,/ɬ/ became [l], if not next to [a a: ɑ ɑ: ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:]. <br />
#The long approximants [l: j:] became [dɮ ɟʝ].<br />
#Intervocalic [ð] became a flap [ɾ].<br />
#Unstressed /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/ were reduced to [ə] in open syllables, while lang vowels were shortened.<br />
#Palatals merged with postalveolars, with [j] becoming [ʒ].<br />
#Some dissimilations, often occuring to homophonic consonants divided by a [ə].<br />
#Velar [x γ] shifted to uvular (and probably slightly pharyngeal) [χ ʁ] for still uncertain reason. [ʁ] is assumed to have become an open back unrounded vowel with compensatory pharyngealization, so [ɑˤ] (or [ɑˤʁ], with remaining [ʁ] before vowels), which itself caused pharyngealization of preceding vowels (which it have merged with later), namely [ɑʁ aʁ əʁ] > [ɑˤɑˤ aˤɑˤ əˤɑˤ] > [ɑˤ(ʁ)], [ɛʁ eʁ ɪʁ iʁ] > [ɛˤɑˤ eˤɑˤ ɪˤɑˤ iˤɑˤ] > [ɐˤ(ʁ)] and [ɔʁ oʁ ʊʁ uʁ] > [ɔˤɑˤ oˤɑˤ ʊˤɑˤ uˤɑˤ] > [ɔˤ(ʁ)], the latter became unrounded [ʌˤ(ʁ)] later on. This in turn led firstly to backing dental [t d θ ð n] to alveolar position in general, and secondly to pharyngealization of preceding (former) dental plosives as well as backing adjacent velar [k g ŋ] to uvular [q ɢ ɴ] and [l] to [ɫ], while lateral plosives, affricates and frikatives became pharyngealized alveolar plosives before pharyngealized vowels. [ʁ] itself merged with [χ] (see #23), while [χ] became [x] again after [ɛ e ɪ i].<br />
#[k g ŋ] shifts to [q ɢ ɴ] next to [ɔ o ʊ u]. <br />
#Remaining alveolar laterals became postalveolar.<br />
#Unvoiced plosives and affricates became aspirated in front of vowels, while voiced plosives and affricates became unvoiced. Devoicing without additional aspiration also affected voiced alveolar, postalveolar and uvular frikatives.<br />
#Devoicing of [m n ŋ v z ɾ l] in final position and before voiceless consonants. Geminates were shortened in initial and final position.<br />
#Second vowel reduction, causing loss of oral [ə] in open syllables and reducing [ɛ ɪ ʊ] to [ə] and [ɑ ɔ] to [ɐ] in unstressed open syllables and closed syllables with a fricative, nasal or [l] as coda. It ist assumed that final [ə] got lost first. If two adjacent syllables both contained [ə], only the first one lost its vowel. However, loss of [ə] in unstressed initial open syllables only happend under the following situations:<br />
#*between a plosive and one of [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between an affricate and [l].<br />
#*between [s ʃ] and a plosive, unvoiced fricative, nasal, flap or lateral<br />
#*between an unvoiced fricative and [s ʃ ɾ l], but not between [ʃ] and [s] ([s] and [ʃ], respectively).<br />
#*between a nasal and [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between [n] and a fricative. <br><br />
Loss of final [ə] only occured if it was a nucleus of an open syllable beginning with one consonant as onset or after a nasal, fricative, flap or lateral + plosive or affricate. Labial consonants only appear as initial part of a cluster. [a e i o u] became [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in then closed syllables, while [ɛ ɔ] gain phoneme status in old closed syllables.<br />
#[ns nʃ nɾ sr ʃr] became [nʦ nʧ ntɾ str ʃtr]. <br />
#Nasals changed their place of articulation according to the following plosive.<br />
#Secondary stress was lost directly before a syllable with primary stress.<br />
#Labial fricatives disappeared before consonants and word-finally, while [β] became labiodental otherwise.<br />
#If preceded by an unstressed syllable containing [ɑˤ], loss of [ə ɐ] in unstressed final closed syllables in a word stressed on the antepenultimate syllable, preceding [x χ] got lost then.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Western languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ho%C5%9B%C9%99rHośər2009-12-29T02:13:09Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{TBC|Caedes}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Hośər <br />
| phonetic = [ˈχoʃəɾ̥]<br />
| date = c. -600 YP<br />
| place = to be determined <br />
| speakers = to be determined <br />
| script = to be determined <br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = Ergative<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hośər''', '''Hośər mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ mɪl̥], hill language) or also '''Hośər maśǎś mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ ˈmaʃɐʃ mɪl̥], hill people language) is a language in the [[Western languages|Western language family]] spoken around -600 YP. Its ancestor is [[Çetázó]], thus it belongs to the Lake languages.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
===Phoneme inventory===<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! bilabial !! labiodental !! alveolar !! postalveolar !! velar <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated stops<br />
| p || || t || || k <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated stops<br />
| pʰ || || tʰ || || kʰ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦ || ʧ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦʰ || ʧʰ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unvoiced fricatives<br />
| || f || s || ʃ || x <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! voiced fricatives<br />
| || v || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || || n || || ŋ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! flaps<br />
| || || r || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! laterals<br />
| || || l || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/p t k ʦ ʧ ʃ x pʰ tʰ kʰ ʦʰ ʧʰ ɾ/ are written '''b d g ds dś ś h p t k ts tś r'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! front !! central !! back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close <br />
| i || || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close-mid <br />
| e || || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! mid <br />
| || ə || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open-mid <br />
| ɛ || || ʌˤ ɔ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! near-open<br />
| || ɐ ɐˤ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| a || || ɑˤ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/ɐ ɐˤ ɑˤ ʌˤ/ are written '''ǎ ę ą ǫ'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syllable structure==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure is '''(C(C(C)))V((C)C)'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable onsets are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ f s ʃ x v m n ŋ r l ps pʃ pɾ pl tr tl ks kʃ kr kl ʦl ʦl sp spʰ st stʰ sk skʰ sx sn sŋ sl ʃp ʃpʰ ʃt ʃtʰ ʃk ʃkʰ ʃx ʃn ʃŋ ʃl fs fʃ fr fl sl ʃl xs xʃ xr xl ms mʃ mr ml nl ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋr ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋɾ nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/'''. <br><br />
Syllables without any onset only occur initially.<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable codas are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ s ʃ x m n ŋ r l sp st sk sʦ sʧ ʃp ʃt ʃk ʃʦ ʃʧ xp xt xk xʦ xʧ mp mt mk mʦ mʧ np nt nk nʦ nʧ ŋp ŋt ŋk ŋʦ ŋʧ rp rt rk rʦ rʧ lp lt lk lʦ lʧ /'''. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
Hośər exhibits a strong dynamic stress with a primary stress placed on the last syllable containing one of '''a ɛ e i ɔ o u ę ǫ'''. However, there are some cases where the primary stress is placed on an '''ą''' in a final syllable, which are particularly marked then in the lexicon and in this grammar when occuring. <br><br />
Secondary stress only appears in words with at least two pre-tonic syllables and is placed then on the last closed syllable that is not immediately adjacent to the primary stress. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*'''a e i o u''' appear as [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in unstressed and closed syllables and as [a e i o u] in open stressed syllables.<br />
*/r/ is realized as alveolar flap [ɾ].<br />
*Usually-velar '''g k ŋ''' is realized as uvular [q qʰ ɴ] when adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and after [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u].<br />
*'''d t''' become pharyngealized before pharyngealized vowels.<br />
*'''l''' is velarized [ɫ] next to pharyngealized sounds.<br />
*'''m n ŋ r l''' are unvoiced word-finally and before originally unvoiced consonants.<br />
*'''m n ŋ''' become [m nm ŋm] before /p pʰ/, [mn n ŋn] before /t tʰ/, [mŋ ŋ ŋ] before /k kʰ/ and [mɴ ɴ ɴ] before [q qʰ].<br />
*'''p t k''' lose their aspiration in final position, if not directly followed by an inital vowel of the following word.<br />
*'''h''' is realized as [x] after [ɛ e ɪ i], as [ħ] after pharyngealized vowels and otherwise as [χ] .<br />
*In colloquial speech, '''o u''' and their allophones tend to get unrounded if not adjacent to a labial consonant. In the prestige sociolect though, as a reflex to this unrounding, '''ę ą ǫ''' can become rounded [ɞˤ ɒˤ ɔˤ] or even [œˤ ɒˤ oˤ].<br />
*'''ə''' can tend to [ɘ] before alveolars.<br />
*Vowels become slightly nasalized before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Initial consonant mutations==<br />
Hośər shows two subtypes of initial consonants mutations, the first directly goes back to the so called ''lenition'' in Çetázó, while the second is a later development in Early Hośər, going back to invervocalic lenition of [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ]. However, both subtypes are limited to their specific morphological functions and act as full morphemes. Although it is always clear what subtype is needed in the particular situation, the first subtype shall be called ''lenition'', since it is a direct descendant of the ''lenition'' in Çetázó, and the second one ''fricativization'<br />
<br />
===Lenition=== <br />
This consonant mutation directly goes back to the ''lenition'' already found in Çetázó, as previously told. In Hośər, it has been grammaticalized to a morpheme indicating that the noun this lenition is attached to is a possessum of the preceding noun in the oblique case. <br><br />
Çetázó showed lenition of the initial consonant of a stem when a possessive prefix was attached to an inherently possessed noun, e.g. '''ɬaŋa''' ''soul'' vs. '''nalaŋa''' ''my soul''. However, in Early Hośər, this prefixation was expanded to all nouns, while later on, all possessive prefixes merged with the one for the 3rd person singular, which was omitted then finally (more conservative dialects have kept it, though), since the possessum was marked already by lenition. <br />
<br> <br><br />
The following table lists all consonants affected by lenition. Sounds marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals and thus exhibit somewhat irregular behavior; nouns with inital former alveolar lateral are marked in the lexicon. Only consonants directly before a vowel are affected.<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unlenited <br />
| '''b p''' || '''t d''' || '''t*''' || '''d*''' || '''ds ts''' || '''dś tś''' || '''ś*''' || '''g k'''<br />
|- <br />
! lenited <br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''l*''' || '''s''' || '''ś, l*''' || '''l*''' || '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Dśer dśeś kon.'''<br><small>dśe-r dśeś kon-Ø <br>this-NC2 such head-ABS </small> <br>That's a head.<br />
<br />
*'''Nu hon dąhar.''' <br><small>nu hon-Ø dąha-r <br>1SG.OBL POSS.head-ABS hurt-NC2 </small> <br>My head hurts.<br />
<br />
===Fricativization===<br />
This consonant mutation is, as the name may suggest, based on former fricativization probably occured in Early Hośər. Like lenition, it has morpheme status as well and is attached on verbs in the past tense. <br> Historically, it has developed from Çetázó's past marker '''suj-''', which lost its /j/ later, allowing following voiced plosives to fricativize. Later on, the former evidentiality marker '''-gʷe''' was attached as well and then became the lone past marker affix, while the fricativization of the initial consonant of the verb has been kept. <br><br />
The change from '''ś''' to '''dś''' is older actually, but added usually to fricativization since its morpheme meaning is the same. It was caused by the /j/ in '''suj-''', which lengthened following palatals. However, only [j:] having become later [ɟʝ] and finally [ʧ] has remained. <br><br />
<br />
Consonants marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals again before pharyngealized vowels. As nearly all past stems are slightly irregular, those cases are marked then in the lexicon. <br><br />
<br />
The following table list all consonants affected by fricativization:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unfricativized<br />
| '''b''' || '''d''' || '''d*''' || '''ds''' || '''ś''' || '''dś*''' || '''g'''<br />
|- <br />
! fricativized<br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''s''' || '''dś''' || '''ś*''' || '''h''' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Anǎ gorąhas.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø gorąha-s <br> ball-ABS jump-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumps.''<br />
*'''Anǎ horąhąhos.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø horąha-ąho-s <br> ball-ABS PAST.jump-PAST-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumped.''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflexes of former alveolar laterals==<br />
<br />
As already seen while discussing the ''lenition'' and ''fricativization'' in Hośer, Çetázó's alveolar laterals [tɬ dɮ ɬ] as well as [ɮ], which appeared later in Early Hośer, have left their marks on Hośer's morphophonology insofar as they usually merged with the alveolar sibilants, but with dental plosives before pharyngealized vowels. This finally led to irregular consonant alternations in some cases, those alternations are as follows:<br />
*'''ś, dś''' > '''d''': <br><br />
'''Na bśants nu glu pədąn.''' <br><br />
<small> na bśa-n=ts nu glu pəd-ąn<br><br />
1SG.ABS break-1SG.ABS=and 1SG.OBL leg break-NC4</small><br><br />
''I break and my leg breaks.''<br />
<br />
*'''ś, tś''' > '''t''': <br><br />
'''Nu kartśǎnests tsaś dśerə kartąhas.''' <br><br />
<small> nu kartśǎ-ne-s=ts tsaś dśe-Ø-ə kartǎ-ąha-s <br><br />
1SG.OBL hate-1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS=and also this-NC1-OBL hate-3.OBL-2SG.ABS</small><br><br />
''I hate you and he hates you as well.'''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic /r/==<br />
<br />
An epenthetic '''r''' is added between two consecutive vowels, also across word boundaries:<br />
*'''Nu radśəne.''' <br><small> nu adś-ne-Ø <br>1SG.OBL fear-1SG.OBL-NC1 </small> <br>''I fear them.''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic /t/==<br />
<br />
The clusters /*ns *nʃ *nr *sr *ʃr/ that appear especially due to vowel reduction become /nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/.<br />
<br />
==Appearance and loss of post-pharyngeal h==<br />
<br />
The pharyngealized vowels in Hośər developed from oral vowels followed by a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ}, which disappeared before consonants, but became an unvoiced pharyngeal fricative [ħ] before vowels. This alternation is still productive in Hośər insofar as firstly the ''epenthetic r'' is not attached on pharyngealized vowels but a '''h''', and secondly a post-pharyngeal '''h''' disappears before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''śivą''' ''some'' + '''-ə''' <small>OBL</small> --> '''śivąhə'''<br />
*'''dąha-''' ''to hurt'' + '''-ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-C2</small> --> '''dąner''' ''I hurt it'' (but + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''dąhar''' ''it is hurted'')<br />
<br />
==Loss of pre-consontantal f and v==<br />
<br />
'''F''' and '''v''' disappear directly before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''huve-''' ''to drink'' + '''-ne-ltś''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC5</small> --> '''huneltś''' ''I drink it'<br />
<br />
==Vowel reduction==<br />
<br />
Due to the strong dynamic accent, vowels in unstressed syllables are often reduced or even omitted in some cases:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!full vowel <br />
| '''a, ɛ, e, i, o, u''' || '''a, ɔ''' || '''ę ą ǫ'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!reduced <br />
| '''ə''' || '''ǎ''' || '''ą'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!complete loss<br />
| colspan="2" | '''-''' || (no complete loss)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''uśśa-''' ''to kill'' + '''ne-s''' <small>1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS</small> --> '''uśśǎnes''' ''I kill you''<br />
*'''tśeśśa-''' ''to skin'' + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''tśeśśǎner''' ''I skin it''<br />
*'''kindśa-''' ''to differ'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''kəndśas''' ''it differs''<br />
*'''hɔśdśi-''' ''to wash'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''hǎśdśis''' ''it is washed'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''hɔśdśəner''' ''I wash it''<br />
*'''kihi-''' ''to slaughter'' + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''kəhir''' ''it is slaughtered'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''kihner''' ''I slaughter it''<br />
<br />
<br />
==ɛ-e-change==<br />
<br />
An '''ɛ''' of a word-final closed syllable with one consonant as syllable coda can become an '''e''' when suffixes originally beginning with a vowel are attached. That goes back to EH ''*ɛ'' as an allophone of /e/ in closed syllables, which became an independent phoneme later (probably caused by the ''second vowel reduction'' mentioned among the sound changes below). Thus only syllables are affected that were closed already in Çetázó. <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal morphology==<br />
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===Number and case===<br />
<br />
Five of the originally seven cases of Çetázó have remained. The old ergative merged with the oblique due to sound changes (strictly speaking, the final '''-i''' (Early Hośər ''*-ɪ:'') of the ergative and the '''-u''' (EH ''*-ʊ:'') of the oblique both merged into '''-ə'''), while the old locative merged with the instrumental (probably simply because both case endings contained '''-m-''', which was interpreted as a lone case marker later on). Other important changes besides these are as follows: <br />
*It is assumed that in EH final '''-i''' and '''-u''' (as case markers of the ergative and oblique, respectively) became lengthened vowels as a result of analogy to the already long vowels appearing on the vocalic stems. However, it seems that this only happened to the singular forms, since also the vocalic declensions in Çetázó showed short vowels in the ergative plural and oblique plural.<br />
*Hośər developed a distinct oblique plural suffix '''-ś'''. The reason is still not completely clear, it is supposed though that in EH the plural marker '''-gʷ-''' lost the feature [+labialized] before the ergative marker ''*-ɪ:'' in analogy to the plural marker ''-k'' appearing in the absolutive. Later, ''*-gi:'' probably shifted to ''*-ɟɪ:'' and finally became '''-ś'''. However, there is also a new regular oblique plural marker '''-ąh-ə''', which is used only in colloquial speech, though.<br />
*The final '''-n''' of the N-stems was interpreted as belonging to the particular stem.<br />
*The dual was completely lost. <br><br />
<br />
Thus the case and number markers are as follows: <br><br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø''' || '''-(ə)k'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''-ə''' || '''-ś, -ąh-ə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''-(ə)m''' || '''ą-m'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''-(ə)dś''' || '''-ą-dś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''-(ə)s''' || '''-ą-s'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no ''real'' distinction between different declensions anymore (at least in terms of different case endings and the specific vowel preceding the case marker, as it is the case in sister languages as e.g. Shtåså). Nouns could be separated though in stems with a former alveolar lateral in the last syllable ( e.g. '''kuś''' ''wolf''), those ending in other consonants (e.g. '''feś''' ''seed''), those ending in a vowel (e.g. '''dśɛmlə''' ''breast''), those changing the last vowel '''ɛ''' to '''e''' (e.g. '''śɛn''' ''woman'') and those ending in a pharyngealized vowel (e.g. '''hǫ''' ''pig''), since their particular stem can change (especially stems ending in former alveolar laterals). However, these changes are already described in the morphophonology section above, nevertheless one word belonging to every quasi-declension is given in the following table, just to see the particular alternations:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! colspan="2" | feś ''seed'' !! colspan="2" | kuś ''wolf'' !! colspan="2" | dśɛmlə ''breast'' !! colspan="2" | śɛn ''woman'' !! colspan="2" | hǫ ''pig''<br />
|-<br />
! !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| feś || feśk ||kuś || kuśk ||dśɛmlə || dśɛmlək || śɛn || śɛnk || hǫ || hǫk<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| feśə || feśəś, feśąhə || kuśə || kuśəś, kudąhə || dśɛmlərə || dśɛmləś, dśɛmląhə || śenə || śendś || hǫhə || hǫś, hǫhąhə<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| feśəm || feśąm || kuśəm || kudąm || dśɛmləm || dśɛmląm || śenəm || śenąm || hǫm || hǫhąm<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| feśdś || feśądś || kuśdś || kudądś || dśɛmlədś || dśɛmlądś || śendś || śenądś || hǫdś || hǫhądś<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| feśəs || feśąs || kuśəs || kudąs || dśɛmləs || dśɛmląs || śends || senąs ||hǫs || hǫhąs<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
<br />
Hośər lost the distinction between alienable and inalienable forms of possession very early and expanded the use of the possessive prefixes to show possession in general. Thus Çetázó '''dleka ''' ''tribe'' vs. '''só dleka''' ''our tribe'' corresponds to EH '''* ˈd͡ɮekɑ / ˌiɣɑˈlekɑ'''. Later, the possessive marker of the 3rd person singular became the lone marker for all persons, while the particular personal pronoun in the oblique case was put directly in front of the noun (Middle Hośər '''*ˈt͡ʃekʰə''' vs. '''*su əˈlekʰə'''). Finally in Hośər, the possessive prefix was omitted at all, leaving the pronouns or nouns in the oblique as well as the applied initial consonant mutations (called ''lenition'') as lone possessive markers: <br><br />
<br />
'''dśek''' ''tribe'' vs. '''su lek''' ''our tribe'' <br><br />
'''tąhadś''' ''grassland'' vs. '''su lekə rąhadś''' ''our tribe's grassland'' <br><br />
<br />
A pronoun of the 3rd person in the oblique can be omitted before a noun when it would describe a possessor: <br><br />
'''nan''' ''father, his/her/its/their father''<br />
<br />
The full set of this consonant alternation called here ''lenition'' is shown in the morphophonology section.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Example texts=<br />
<br />
==The horse and the sheep==<br />
<br />
'' '''Śəśirts meŋk''' '' <br><br />
''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar. Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas, kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar, larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar. Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.'' <br><br />
<br />
[ˈχoʃə̃m̥ ʃəˈʃiɾə ˈʃivɑˤq mɪ̃ŋk ˌʃɛɫtˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃenə tʰˤɑˤˈħɑɾə ˈmẽŋə sʊl̥ ˌvesɑˤħɑˤħˈɑs | ˈkolə ʃɪɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌχlatʰˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ | ˈlaɾə nɐʃˈtʰʊɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰiχɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃaɾə ˈχaʃə̃m̥ tʰɐ m̥sɑɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰʌˤħɑˤˈħʊɾ̥]<br />
<br />
===Interlinear gloss===<br />
<br />
'''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar''' <br><small>hoś-əm śəśir-ə śivą-k meŋ-k śɛlda-ąhą-ąha-r <br>hill-INSTR horse-OBL some-ABS.PL sheep-ABS.PL see-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''A horse on a hill saw some sheep'' <br />
<br />
'''Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas,''' <br><small>śɛn-ə tąhar-ə meŋ-ə sul-Ø vesa-ąhą-ąha-s <br>woman-OBL first-OBL sheep-OBL wool-ABS.SG PAST.cut-PAST-3.OBL-NC3</small> <br>''A woman was cutting away the wool of the first sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar,''' <br><small>kol-ə śir-Ø meŋ-Ø hlata-ąhą-ąha-r <br>child-OBL second-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG milk-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a child was milking the second sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar.''' <br><small> la-ə nǎśtur-Ø meŋ-Ø kihi-ąhą-ąha-s <br>man-OBL third-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG slaughter-PAST-3-OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a man was slaughtering the third sheep.'' <br />
<br />
'''Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.''' <br><small>śa-ə haś-əm tǎ msar-Ø meŋ-Ø kǫhu-ąho-r <br>ANA-OBL fire-INSTR on fourth-ABS.SG cook-PAST-NC2 </small> <br>''On their fire, the fourth sheep was being cooked.''<br />
<br />
=Sound Changes=<br />
The following set of sound changes from Çetázó to Hośər has been reconstructed:<br />
<br />
#Appearance of fixed stress:<br />
#*Verbs got a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable; that is, intransitives became stressed on the last syllable of the stem and transitives on the first syllable after the stem, as it already was the case in Çetázó.<br />
#*In terms of nouns, the situation is a bit more complicated. Çetázó's A-, E- I- and U-stems have become a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of the stem, while on N-stems the fixed stress usually fell onto the stem's ultimate syllable. However, the assumed reason is analogy to the ergative and oblique forms of the vocalic stems, which (as previously told) had before developed a fixed stress on the stem's penultimate and thus show post-tonal case endings in the primary cases ergative and oblique, which was finally taken over by N-stems was well. <br />
#*Ordinal numerals are unique insofar as they kept the original mobile stress of Çetázó (cf. '''tą''' ''one'' vs. '''tąhar''' ''first'') <br />
#*The position of the secondary stress though depended on the position of the primary stress. Usually it fell onto the last closed syllable before the stressed syllable; if no closed syllable is available, it fell onto the first open syllable. However, secondary stress only appeared in words containing at least two pre-tonal syllables.<br />
#The rounded back vowels [y y: ø ø:] became unrounded front vowels [i i: e e:] spontaneously.<br />
#[æ æ:] shifted to [ɑ ɑ:] before velars and labialized velars and [ɛ ɛ:] otherwise.<br />
#Unstressed [e e: i i: o o: u u:] became [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ: ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] as well as in stressed closed syllables, while [ɑ ɑ:] became [a a:] in stressed open syllables. <br />
#[j] disappeared before consonants, where it led to compensatory shifting of [ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] to [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ:] ([e e: i i:] in then open syllables, respectively) and [l] to [ʎ], as well as gemination of palatals. <br />
#Intervocalic [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] was lenited to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ].<br />
# [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] led to shifting preceding velars to palatals.<br />
#[nj dj] merged with [ɲ ɟ].<br />
#[mp nt ŋk] geminated to [m: n: ŋ:].<br />
#[e: o:] rised to [i: u:] spontaneously.<br />
#Labiovelars merged with velars, [w] disappears, respectively. Following [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] often became rounded [ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:] ,especially in stressed syllables.<br />
#[j ɲ] merged to [ʝ] in front of [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i:], while remaining [ɲ] merged with [n]. Simultaneously,/ɬ/ became [l], if not next to [a a: ɑ ɑ: ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:]. <br />
#The long approximants [l: j:] became [dɮ ɟʝ].<br />
#Intervocalic [ð] became a flap [ɾ].<br />
#Unstressed /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/ were reduced to [ə] in open syllables, while lang vowels were shortened.<br />
#Palatals merged with postalveolars, with [j] becoming [ʒ].<br />
#Some dissimilations, often occuring to homophonic consonants divided by a [ə].<br />
#Velar [x γ] shifted to uvular (and probably slightly pharyngeal) [χ ʁ] for still uncertain reason. [ʁ] is assumed to have become an open back unrounded vowel with compensatory pharyngealization, so [ɑˤ] (or [ɑˤʁ], with remaining [ʁ] before vowels), which itself caused pharyngealization of preceding vowels (which it have merged with later), namely [ɑʁ aʁ əʁ] > [ɑˤɑˤ aˤɑˤ əˤɑˤ] > [ɑˤ(ʁ)], [ɛʁ eʁ ɪʁ iʁ] > [ɛˤɑˤ eˤɑˤ ɪˤɑˤ iˤɑˤ] > [ɐˤ(ʁ)] and [ɔʁ oʁ ʊʁ uʁ] > [ɔˤɑˤ oˤɑˤ ʊˤɑˤ uˤɑˤ] > [ɔˤ(ʁ)], the latter became unrounded [ʌˤ(ʁ)] later on. This in turn led firstly to backing dental [t d θ ð n] to alveolar position in general, and secondly to pharyngealization of preceding (former) dental plosives as well as backing adjacent velar [k g ŋ] to uvular [q ɢ ɴ] and [l] to [ɫ], while lateral plosives, affricates and frikatives became pharyngealized alveolar plosives before pharyngealized vowels. [ʁ] itself merged with [χ] (see #23), while [χ] became [x] again after [ɛ e ɪ i].<br />
#[k g ŋ] shifts to [q ɢ ɴ] next to [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u]. <br />
#Remaining alveolar laterals became postalveolar.<br />
#Unvoiced plosives and affricates became aspirated in front of vowels, while voiced plosives and affricates became unvoiced. Devoicing without additional aspiration also affected voiced alveolar, postalveolar and uvular frikatives.<br />
#Devoicing of [m n ŋ v z ɾ l] in final position and before voiceless consonants. Geminates were shortened in initial and final position.<br />
#Second vowel reduction, causing loss of oral [ə] in open syllables and reducing [ɛ ɪ ʊ] to [ə] and [ɑ ɔ] to [ɐ] in unstressed open syllables and closed syllables with a fricative, nasal or [l] as coda. It ist assumed that final [ə] got lost first. If two adjacent syllables both contained [ə], only the first one lost its vowel. However, loss of [ə] in unstressed initial open syllables only happend under the following situations:<br />
#*between a plosive and one of [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between an affricate and [l].<br />
#*between [s ʃ] and a plosive, unvoiced fricative, nasal, flap or lateral<br />
#*between an unvoiced fricative and [s ʃ ɾ l], but not between [ʃ] and [s] ([s] and [ʃ], respectively).<br />
#*between a nasal and [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between [n] and a fricative. <br> Labial consonants only appear as initial part of a cluster. [a e i o u] became [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in then closed syllables, while [ɛ ɔ] gain phoneme status in old closed syllables.<br />
#[ns nʃ nɾ sr ʃr] became [nʦ nʧ ntɾ str ʃtr]. <br />
#Nasals changed their place of articulation according to the following plosive.<br />
#Secondary stress was lost directly before a syllable with primary stress.<br />
#Labial fricatives disappeared before consonants and word-finally, while [β] became labiodental otherwise.<br />
#If preceded by an unstressed syllable containing [ɑˤ], loss of [ə ɐ] in unstressed final closed syllables in a word stressed on the antepenultimate syllable, preceding [x χ] got lost then.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Western languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ho%C5%9B%C9%99rHośər2009-12-27T23:02:12Z<p>Caedes: /* Interlinear gloss */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{TBC|Caedes}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Hośər <br />
| phonetic = [ˈχoʃəɾ̥]<br />
| date = c. -600 YP<br />
| place = to be determined <br />
| speakers = to be determined <br />
| script = to be determined <br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = Ergative<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hośər''', '''Hośər mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ mɪl̥], hill language) or also '''Hośər maśǎś mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ ˈmaʃɐʃ mɪl̥], hill people language) is a language in the [[Western languages|Western language family]] spoken around -600 YP. Its ancestor is [[Çetázó]], thus it belongs to the Lake languages.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
===Phoneme inventory===<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! bilabial !! labiodental !! alveolar !! postalveolar !! velar <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated stops<br />
| p || || t || || k <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated stops<br />
| pʰ || || tʰ || || kʰ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦ || ʧ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦʰ || ʧʰ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unvoiced fricatives<br />
| || f || s || ʃ || x <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! voiced fricatives<br />
| || v || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || || n || || ŋ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! flaps<br />
| || || r || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! laterals<br />
| || || l || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/p t k ʦ ʧ ʃ x pʰ tʰ kʰ ʦʰ ʧʰ ɾ/ are written '''b d g ds dś ś h p t k ts tś r'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! front !! central !! back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close <br />
| i || || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close-mid <br />
| e || || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! mid <br />
| || ə || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open-mid <br />
| ɛ || || ʌˤ ɔ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! near-open<br />
| || ɐ ɐˤ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| a || || ɑˤ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/ɐ ɐˤ ɑˤ ʌˤ/ are written '''ǎ ę ą ǫ'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syllable structure==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure is '''(C(C(C)))V((C)C)'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable onsets are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ f s ʃ x v m n ŋ r l ps pʃ pɾ pl tr tl ks kʃ kr kl ʦl ʦl sp spʰ st stʰ sk skʰ sx sn sŋ sl ʃp ʃpʰ ʃt ʃtʰ ʃk ʃkʰ ʃx ʃn ʃŋ ʃl fs fʃ fr fl sl ʃl xs xʃ xr xl ms mʃ mr ml nl ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋr ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋɾ nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/'''. <br><br />
Syllables without any onset only occur initially.<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable codas are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ s ʃ x m n ŋ r l sp st sk sʦ sʧ ʃp ʃt ʃk ʃʦ ʃʧ xp xt xk xʦ xʧ mp mt mk mʦ mʧ np nt nk nʦ nʧ ŋp ŋt ŋk ŋʦ ŋʧ rp rt rk rʦ rʧ lp lt lk lʦ lʧ /'''. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
Hośər exhibits a strong dynamic stress with a primary stress placed on the last syllable containing one of '''a ɛ e i ɔ o u ę ǫ'''. However, there are some cases where the primary stress is placed on an '''ą''' in a final syllable, which are particularly marked then in the lexicon and in this grammar when occuring. <br><br />
Secondary stress only appears in words with at least two pre-tonic syllables and is placed then on the last closed syllable that is not immediately adjacent to the primary stress. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*'''a e i o u''' appear as [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in unstressed and closed syllables and as [a e i o u] in open stressed syllables.<br />
*/r/ is realized as alveolar flap [ɾ].<br />
*Usually-velar '''g k ŋ''' is realized as uvular [q qʰ ɴ] when adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and after [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u].<br />
*'''d t''' become pharyngealized before pharyngealized vowels.<br />
*'''l''' is velarized [ɫ] next to pharyngealized sounds.<br />
*'''m n ŋ r l''' are unvoiced word-finally and before originally unvoiced consonants.<br />
*'''m n ŋ''' become [m nm ŋm] before /p pʰ/, [mn n ŋn] before /t tʰ/, [mŋ ŋ ŋ] before /k kʰ/ and [mɴ ɴ ɴ] before [q qʰ].<br />
*'''p t k''' lose their aspiration in final position, if not directly followed by an inital vowel of the following word.<br />
*'''h''' is realized as [x] after [ɛ e ɪ i], as [ħ] after pharyngealized vowels and otherwise as [χ] .<br />
*In colloquial speech, '''o u''' and their allophones tend to get unrounded if not adjacent to a labial consonant. In the prestige sociolect though, as a reflex to this unrounding, '''ę ą ǫ''' can become rounded [ɞˤ ɒˤ ɔˤ] or even [œˤ ɒˤ oˤ].<br />
*'''ə''' can tend to [ɘ] before alveolars.<br />
*Vowels become slightly nasalized before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Initial consonant mutations==<br />
Hośər shows two subtypes of initial consonants mutations, the first directly goes back to the so called ''lenition'' in Çetázó, while the second is a later development in Early Hośər, going back to invervocalic lenition of [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ]. However, both subtypes are limited to their specific morphological functions and act as full morphemes. Although it is always clear what subtype is needed in the particular situation, the first subtype shall be called ''lenition'', since it is a direct descendant of the ''lenition'' in Çetázó, and the second one ''fricativization'<br />
<br />
===Lenition=== <br />
This consonant mutation directly goes back to the ''lenition'' already found in Çetázó, as previously told. In Hośər, it has been grammaticalized to a morpheme indicating that the noun this lenition is attached to is a possessum of the preceding noun in the oblique case. <br><br />
Çetázó showed lenition of the initial consonant of a stem when a possessive prefix was attached to an inherently possessed noun, e.g. '''ɬaŋa''' ''soul'' vs. '''nalaŋa''' ''my soul''. However, in Early Hośər, this prefixation was expanded to all nouns, while later on, all possessive prefixes merged with the one for the 3rd person singular, which was omitted then finally (more conservative dialects have kept it, though), since the possessum was marked already by lenition. <br />
<br> <br><br />
The following table lists all consonants affected by lenition. Sounds marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals and thus exhibit somewhat irregular behavior; nouns with inital former alveolar lateral are marked in the lexicon. Only consonants directly before a vowel are affected.<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unlenited <br />
| '''b p''' || '''t d''' || '''t*''' || '''d*''' || '''ds ts''' || '''dś tś''' || '''ś*''' || '''g k'''<br />
|- <br />
! lenited <br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''l*''' || '''s''' || '''ś, l*''' || '''l*''' || '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Dśer dśeś kon.'''<br><small>dśe-r dśeś kon-Ø <br>this-NC2 such head-ABS </small> <br>That's a head.<br />
<br />
*'''Nu hon dąhar.''' <br><small>nu hon-Ø dąha-r <br>1SG.OBL POSS.head-ABS hurt-NC2 </small> <br>My head hurts.<br />
<br />
===Fricativization===<br />
This consonant mutation is, as the name may suggest, based on former fricativization probably occured in Early Hośər. Like lenition, it has morpheme status as well and is attached on verbs in the past tense. <br> Historically, it has developed from Çetázó's past marker '''suj-''', which lost its /j/ later, allowing following voiced plosives to fricativize. Later on, the former evidentiality marker '''-gʷe''' was attached as well and then became the lone past marker affix, while the fricativization of the initial consonant of the verb has been kept. <br><br />
The change from '''ś''' to '''dś''' is older actually, but added usually to fricativization since its morpheme meaning is the same. It was caused by the /j/ in '''suj-''', which lengthened following palatals. However, only [j:] having become later [ɟʝ] and finally [ʧ] has remained. <br><br />
<br />
Consonants marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals again before pharyngealized vowels. As nearly all past stems are slightly irregular, those cases are marked then in the lexicon. <br><br />
<br />
The following table list all consonants affected by fricativization:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unfricativized<br />
| '''b''' || '''d''' || '''d*''' || '''ds''' || '''ś''' || '''dś*''' || '''g'''<br />
|- <br />
! fricativized<br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''s''' || '''dś''' || '''ś*''' || '''h''' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Anǎ gorąhas.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø gorąha-s <br> ball-ABS jump-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumps.''<br />
*'''Anǎ horąhąhos.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø horąha-ąho-s <br> ball-ABS PAST.jump-PAST-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumped.''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflexes of former alveolar laterals==<br />
<br />
As already seen while discussing the ''lenition'' and ''fricativization'' in Hośer, Çetázó's alveolar laterals [tɬ dɮ ɬ] as well as [ɮ], which appeared later in Early Hośer, have left their marks on Hośer's morphophonology insofar as they usually merged with the alveolar sibilants, but with dental plosives before pharyngealized vowels. This finally led to irregular consonant alternations in some cases, those alternations are as follows:<br />
*'''ś, dś''' > '''d''': <br><br />
'''Na bśants nu glu pədąn.''' <br><br />
<small> na bśa-n=ts nu glu pəd-ąn<br><br />
1SG.ABS break-1SG.ABS=and 1SG.OBL leg break-NC4</small><br><br />
''I break and my leg breaks.''<br />
<br />
*'''ś, tś''' > '''t''': <br><br />
'''Nu kartśǎnests tsaś dśerə kartąhas.''' <br><br />
<small> nu kartśǎ-ne-s=ts tsaś dśe-Ø-ə kartǎ-ąha-s <br><br />
1SG.OBL hate-1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS=and also this-NC1-OBL hate-3.OBL-2SG.ABS</small><br><br />
''I hate you and he hates you as well.'''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic r==<br />
<br />
An epenthetic '''r''' is added between two consecutive vowels, also across word boundaries:<br />
*'''Nu radśəne.''' <br><small> nu adś-ne-Ø <br>1SG.OBL fear-1SG.OBL-NC1 </small> <br>''I fear them.''<br />
<br />
==Appearance and loss of post-pharyngeal h==<br />
<br />
The pharyngealized vowels in Hośər developed from oral vowels followed by a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ}, which disappeared before consonants, but became an unvoiced pharyngeal fricative [ħ] before vowels. This alternation is still productive in Hośər insofar as firstly the ''epenthetic r'' is not attached on pharyngealized vowels but a '''h''', and secondly a post-pharyngeal '''h''' disappears before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''śivą''' ''some'' + '''-ə''' <small>OBL</small> --> '''śivąhə'''<br />
*'''dąha-''' ''to hurt'' + '''-ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-C2</small> --> '''dąner''' ''I hurt it'' (but + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''dąhar''' ''it is hurted'')<br />
<br />
==Loss of pre-consontantal f and v==<br />
<br />
'''F''' and '''v''' disappear directly before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''huve-''' ''to drink'' + '''-ne-ltś''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC5</small> --> '''huneltś''' ''I drink it''<br />
<br />
==Vowel reduction==<br />
<br />
Due to the strong dynamic accent, vowels in unstressed syllables are often reduced or even omitted in some cases:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!full vowel <br />
| '''a, ɛ, e, i, o, u''' || '''a, ɔ''' || '''ę ą ǫ'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!reduced <br />
| '''ə''' || '''ǎ''' || '''ą'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!complete loss<br />
| colspan="2" | '''-''' || (no complete loss)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''uśśa-''' ''to kill'' + '''ne-s''' <small>1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS</small> --> '''uśśǎnes''' ''I kill you''<br />
*'''tśeśśa-''' ''to skin'' + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''tśeśśǎner''' ''I skin it''<br />
*'''kindśa-''' ''to differ'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''kəndśas''' ''it differs''<br />
*'''hɔśdśi-''' ''to wash'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''hǎśdśis''' ''it is washed'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''hɔśdśəner''' ''I wash it''<br />
*'''kihi-''' ''to slaughter'' + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''kəhir''' ''it is slaughtered'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''kihner''' ''I slaughter it''<br />
<br />
<br />
==ɛ-e-change==<br />
<br />
An '''ɛ''' of a word-final closed syllable with one consonant as syllable coda can become an '''e''' when suffixes beginning with a vowel are attached. That goes back to EH ''*ɛ'' as an allophone of /e/ in closed syllables, which became an independent phoneme later (probably caused by the ''second vowel reduction'' mentioned among the sound changes below). Thus only syllables are affected that were closed already in Çetázó. <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal morphology==<br />
<br />
===Number and case===<br />
<br />
Five of the originally seven cases of Çetázó have remained. The old ergative merged with the oblique due to sound changes (strictly speaking, the final '''-i''' (Early Hośər ''*-ɪ:'') of the ergative and the '''-u''' (EH ''*-ʊ:'') of the oblique both merged into '''-ə'''), while the old locative merged with the instrumental (probably simply because both case endings contained '''-m-''', which was interpreted as a lone case marker later on). Other important changes besides these are as follows: <br />
*It is assumed that in EH final '''-i''' and '''-u''' (as case markers of the ergative and oblique, respectively) became lengthened vowels as a result of analogy to the already long vowels appearing on the vocalic stems. However, it seems that this only happened to the singular forms, since also the vocalic declensions in Çetázó showed short vowels in the ergative plural and oblique plural.<br />
*Hośər developed a distinct oblique plural suffix '''-ś'''. The reason is still not completely clear, it is supposed though that in EH the plural marker '''-gʷ-''' lost the feature [+labialized] before the ergative marker ''*-ɪ:'' in analogy to the plural marker ''-k'' appearing in the absolutive. Later, ''*-gi:'' probably shifted to ''*-ɟɪ:'' and finally became '''-ś'''. However, there is also a new regular oblique plural marker '''-ąh-ə''', which is used only in colloquial speech, though.<br />
*The final '''-n''' of the N-stems was interpreted as belonging to the particular stem.<br />
*The dual was completely lost. <br><br />
<br />
Thus the case and number markers are as follows: <br><br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø''' || '''-k'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''-ə''' || '''-ś, -ąh-ə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''-(ə)m''' || '''ą-m'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''-(ə)dś''' || '''-ą-dś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''-(ə)s''' || '''-ą-s'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no ''real'' distinction between different declensions anymore (at least in terms of different case endings and the specific vowel preceding the case marker, as it is the case in sister languages as e.g. Shtåså). Nouns could be separated though in stems with a former alveolar lateral in the last syllable ( e.g. '''kuś''' ''wolf''), those ending in other consonants (e.g. '''feś''' ''seed''), those ending in a vowel (e.g. '''dśɛmlə''' ''breast'') and those ending in a pharyngealized vowel (e.g. '''hǫ''' ''pig''), since their particular stem can change (especially stems ending in former alveolar laterals). However, these changes are already described in the morphophonology section above, nevertheless one word belonging to every quasi-declension is given in the following table, just to see the particular alternations:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! colspan="2" | feś ''seed'' !! colspan="2" | kuś ''wolf'' !! colspan="2" | dśɛmlə ''breast'' !! colspan="2" | hǫ ''pig''<br />
|-<br />
! !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''feś ''' || '''feśk''' ||'''kuś ''' || '''kuśk''' ||'''dśɛmlə ''' || '''dśɛmlək''' || '''hǫ''' || '''hǫk'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''feśə''' || '''feśəś, feśąhə''' || '''kuśə''' || '''kuśəś, kutąhə''' || '''dśɛmlərə''' || '''dśɛmləś, dśɛmląhə''' || '''hǫhə''' || '''hǫś, hǫhąhə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''feśəm''' || '''feśąm''' || '''kuśəm''' || '''kutąm''' || '''dśɛmləm''' || '''dśɛmląm''' || '''hǫm''' || '''hǫhąm'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''feśdś''' || '''feśądś''' || '''kuśdś''' || '''kutądś''' || '''dśɛmlədś''' || '''dśɛmlądś''' || '''hǫdś''' || '''hǫhądś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''feśəs''' || '''feśąs''' || '''kuśəs''' || '''kutąs''' || '''dśɛmləs''' || '''dśɛmląs''' || '''hǫs''' || '''hǫhąs'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
=Example texts=<br />
<br />
==The horse and the sheep==<br />
<br />
'' '''Śəśirts meŋk''' '' <br><br />
''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar. Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas, kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar, larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar. Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.'' <br><br />
<br />
[ˈχoʃə̃m̥ ʃəˈʃiɾə ˈʃivɑˤq mɪ̃ŋk ˌʃɛɫtˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃenə tʰˤɑˤˈħɑɾə ˈmẽŋə sʊl̥ ˌvesɑˤħɑˤħˈɑs | ˈkolə ʃɪɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌχlatʰˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ | ˈlaɾə nɐʃˈtʰʊɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰiχɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃaɾə ˈχaʃə̃m̥ tʰɐ m̥sɑɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰʌˤħɑˤˈħʊɾ̥]<br />
<br />
===Interlinear gloss===<br />
<br />
'''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar''' <br><small>hoś-əm śəśir-ə śivą-k meŋ-k śɛlda-ąhą-ąha-r <br>hill-INSTR horse-OBL some-ABS.PL sheep-ABS.PL see-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''A horse on a hill saw some sheep'' <br />
<br />
'''Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas,''' <br><small>śɛn-ə tąhar-ə meŋ-ə sul-Ø vesa-ąhą-ąha-s <br>woman-OBL first-OBL sheep-OBL wool-ABS.SG PAST.cut-PAST-3.OBL-NC3</small> <br>''A woman was cutting away the wool of the first sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar,''' <br><small>kol-ə śir-Ø meŋ-Ø hlata-ąhą-ąha-r <br>child-OBL second-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG milk-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a child was milking the second sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar.''' <br><small> la-ə nǎśtur-Ø meŋ-Ø kihi-ąhą-ąha-s <br>man-OBL third-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG slaughter-PAST-3-OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a man was slaughtering the third sheep.'' <br />
<br />
'''Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.''' <br><small>śa-ə haś-əm tǎ msar-Ø meŋ-Ø kǫhu-ąho-r <br>ANA-OBL fire-INSTR on fourth-ABS.SG cook-PAST-NC2 </small> <br>''On their fire, the fourth sheep was being cooked.''<br />
<br />
=Sound Changes=<br />
The following set of sound changes from Çetázó to Hośər has been reconstructed:<br />
<br />
#Appearance of fixed stress:<br />
#*Verbs got a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable; that is, intransitives became stressed on the last syllable of the stem and transitives on the first syllable after the stem, as it already was the case in Çetázó.<br />
#*In terms of nouns, the situation is a bit more complicated. Çetázó's A-, E- I- and U-stems have become a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of the stem, while on N-stems the fixed stress usually fell onto the stem's ultimate syllable. However, the assumed reason is analogy to the ergative and oblique forms of the vocalic stems, which (as previously told) had before developed a fixed stress on the stem's penultimate and thus show post-tonal case endings in the primary cases ergative and oblique, which was finally taken over by N-stems was well. <br />
#*Ordinal numerals are unique insofar as they kept the original mobile stress of Çetázó (cf. '''tą''' ''one'' vs. '''tąhar''' ''first'') <br />
#*The position of the secondary stress though depended on the position of the primary stress. Usually it fell onto the last closed syllable before the stressed syllable; if no closed syllable is available, it fell onto the first open syllable. However, secondary stress only appeared in words containing at least two pre-tonal syllables.<br />
#The rounded back vowels [y y: ø ø:] became unrounded front vowels [i i: e e:] spontaneously.<br />
#[æ æ:] shifted to [ɑ ɑ:] before velars and labialized velars and [ɛ ɛ:] otherwise.<br />
#Unstressed [e e: i i: o o: u u:] became [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ: ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] as well as in stressed closed syllables, while [ɑ ɑ:] became [a a:] in stressed open syllables. <br />
#[j] disappeared before consonants, where it led to compensatory shifting of [ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] to [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ:] ([e e: i i:] in then open syllables, respectively) and [l] to [ʎ], as well as gemination of palatals. <br />
#Intervocalic [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] was lenited to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ].<br />
# [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] led to shifting preceding velars to palatals.<br />
#[nj dj] merged with [ɲ ɟ].<br />
#[mp nt ŋk] geminated to [m: n: ŋ:].<br />
#[e: o:] rised to [i: u:] spontaneously.<br />
#Labiovelars merged with velars, [w] disappears, respectively. Following [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] often became rounded [ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:] ,especially in stressed syllables.<br />
#[j ɲ] merged to [ʝ] in front of [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i:], while remaining [ɲ] merged with [n]. Simultaneously,/ɬ/ became [l], if not next to [a a: ɑ ɑ: ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:]. <br />
#The long approximants [l: j:] became [dɮ ɟʝ].<br />
#Intervocalic [ð] became a flap [ɾ].<br />
#Unstressed /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/ were reduced to [ə] in open syllables, while lang vowels were shortened.<br />
#Palatals merged with postalveolars, with [j] becoming [ʒ].<br />
#Some dissimilations, often occuring to homophonic consonants divided by a [ə].<br />
#Velar [x γ] shifted to uvular (and probably slightly pharyngeal) [χ ʁ] for still uncertain reason. [ʁ] is assumed to have become an open back unrounded vowel with compensatory pharyngealization, so [ɑˤ] (or [ɑˤʁ], with remaining [ʁ] before vowels), which itself caused pharyngealization of preceding vowels (which it have merged with later), namely [ɑʁ aʁ əʁ] > [ɑˤɑˤ aˤɑˤ əˤɑˤ] > [ɑˤ(ʁ)], [ɛʁ eʁ ɪʁ iʁ] > [ɛˤɑˤ eˤɑˤ ɪˤɑˤ iˤɑˤ] > [ɐˤ(ʁ)] and [ɔʁ oʁ ʊʁ uʁ] > [ɔˤɑˤ oˤɑˤ ʊˤɑˤ uˤɑˤ] > [ɔˤ(ʁ)], the latter became unrounded [ʌˤ(ʁ)] later on. This in turn led firstly to backing dental [t d θ ð n] to alveolar position in general, and secondly to pharyngealization of preceding (former) dental plosives as well as backing adjacent velar [k g ŋ] to uvular [q ɢ ɴ] and [l] to [ɫ], while lateral plosives, affricates and frikatives became pharyngealized alveolar plosives before pharyngealized vowels. [ʁ] itself merged with [χ] (see #23), while [χ] became [x] again after [ɛ e ɪ i].<br />
#[k g ŋ] shifts to [q ɢ ɴ] next to [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u]. <br />
#Remaining alveolar laterals became postalveolar.<br />
#Unvoiced plosives and affricates became aspirated in front of vowels, while voiced plosives and affricates became unvoiced. Devoicing without additional aspiration also affected voiced alveolar, postalveolar and uvular frikatives.<br />
#Devoicing of [m n ŋ v z ɾ l] in final position and before voiceless consonants. Geminates were shortened in initial and final position.<br />
#Second vowel reduction, causing loss of oral [ə] in open syllables and reducing [ɛ ɪ ʊ] to [ə] and [ɑ ɔ] to [ɐ] in unstressed open syllables and closed syllables with a fricative, nasal or [l] as coda. It ist assumed that final [ə] got lost first. If two adjacent syllables both contained [ə], only the first one lost its vowel. However, loss of [ə] in unstressed initial open syllables only happend under the following situations:<br />
#*between a plosive and one of [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between an affricate and [l].<br />
#*between [s ʃ] and a plosive, unvoiced fricative, nasal, flap or lateral<br />
#*between an unvoiced fricative and [s ʃ ɾ l], but not between [ʃ] and [s] ([s] and [ʃ], respectively).<br />
#*between a nasal and [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between [n] and a fricative. <br> Labial consonants only appear as initial part of a cluster. [a e i o u] became [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in then closed syllables, while [ɛ ɔ] gain phoneme status in old closed syllables.<br />
#[ns nʃ nɾ sr ʃr] became [nʦ nʧ ntɾ str ʃtr]. <br />
#Nasals changed their place of articulation according to the following plosive.<br />
#Secondary stress was lost directly before a syllable with primary stress.<br />
#Labial fricatives disappeared before consonants and word-finally, while [β] became labiodental otherwise.<br />
#If preceded by an unstressed syllable containing [ɑˤ], loss of [ə ɐ] in unstressed final closed syllables in a word stressed on the antepenultimate syllable, preceding [x χ] got lost then.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Western languages]]</div>Caedeshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ho%C5%9B%C9%99rHośər2009-12-27T23:00:28Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{TBC|Caedes}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = brown<br />
| language = Hośər <br />
| phonetic = [ˈχoʃəɾ̥]<br />
| date = c. -600 YP<br />
| place = to be determined <br />
| speakers = to be determined <br />
| script = to be determined <br />
| family = Western languages <br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Lake languages <br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; '''Hośər'''<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = Ergative<br />
| author = [[User:Caedes|caedes]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hośər''', '''Hośər mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ mɪl̥], hill language) or also '''Hośər maśǎś mel''' ([ˈχoʃəɾ̥ ˈmaʃɐʃ mɪl̥], hill people language) is a language in the [[Western languages|Western language family]] spoken around -600 YP. Its ancestor is [[Çetázó]], thus it belongs to the Lake languages.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
<br />
===Phoneme inventory===<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! bilabial !! labiodental !! alveolar !! postalveolar !! velar <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated stops<br />
| p || || t || || k <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated stops<br />
| pʰ || || tʰ || || kʰ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unaspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦ || ʧ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! aspirated affricates<br />
| || || ʦʰ || ʧʰ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unvoiced fricatives<br />
| || f || s || ʃ || x <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! voiced fricatives<br />
| || v || || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! nasals<br />
| m || || n || || ŋ <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! flaps<br />
| || || r || || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! laterals<br />
| || || l || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/p t k ʦ ʧ ʃ x pʰ tʰ kʰ ʦʰ ʧʰ ɾ/ are written '''b d g ds dś ś h p t k ts tś r'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! front !! central !! back<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close <br />
| i || || u<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! close-mid <br />
| e || || o<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! mid <br />
| || ə || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open-mid <br />
| ɛ || || ʌˤ ɔ<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! near-open<br />
| || ɐ ɐˤ || <br />
|- align="center"<br />
! open<br />
| a || || ɑˤ<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
*/ɐ ɐˤ ɑˤ ʌˤ/ are written '''ǎ ę ą ǫ'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Syllable structure==<br />
<br />
The syllable structure is '''(C(C(C)))V((C)C)'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable onsets are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ f s ʃ x v m n ŋ r l ps pʃ pɾ pl tr tl ks kʃ kr kl ʦl ʦl sp spʰ st stʰ sk skʰ sx sn sŋ sl ʃp ʃpʰ ʃt ʃtʰ ʃk ʃkʰ ʃx ʃn ʃŋ ʃl fs fʃ fr fl sl ʃl xs xʃ xr xl ms mʃ mr ml nl ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋr ŋs ŋʃ ŋl ŋɾ nʦ nʧ ntr str ʃtr/'''. <br><br />
Syllables without any onset only occur initially.<br />
<br />
Allowed syllable codas are '''/p t k ʦ ʧ s ʃ x m n ŋ r l sp st sk sʦ sʧ ʃp ʃt ʃk ʃʦ ʃʧ xp xt xk xʦ xʧ mp mt mk mʦ mʧ np nt nk nʦ nʧ ŋp ŋt ŋk ŋʦ ŋʧ rp rt rk rʦ rʧ lp lt lk lʦ lʧ /'''. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
Hośər exhibits a strong dynamic stress with a primary stress placed on the last syllable containing one of '''a ɛ e i ɔ o u ę ǫ'''. However, there are some cases where the primary stress is placed on an '''ą''' in a final syllable, which are particularly marked then in the lexicon and in this grammar when occuring. <br><br />
Secondary stress only appears in words with at least two pre-tonic syllables and is placed then on the last closed syllable that is not immediately adjacent to the primary stress. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Allophony==<br />
<br />
*'''a e i o u''' appear as [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in unstressed and closed syllables and as [a e i o u] in open stressed syllables.<br />
*/r/ is realized as alveolar flap [ɾ].<br />
*Usually-velar '''g k ŋ''' is realized as uvular [q qʰ ɴ] when adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and after [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u].<br />
*'''d t''' become pharyngealized before pharyngealized vowels.<br />
*'''l''' is velarized [ɫ] next to pharyngealized sounds.<br />
*'''m n ŋ r l''' are unvoiced word-finally and before originally unvoiced consonants.<br />
*'''m n ŋ''' become [m nm ŋm] before /p pʰ/, [mn n ŋn] before /t tʰ/, [mŋ ŋ ŋ] before /k kʰ/ and [mɴ ɴ ɴ] before [q qʰ].<br />
*'''p t k''' lose their aspiration in final position, if not directly followed by an inital vowel of the following word.<br />
*'''h''' is realized as [x] after [ɛ e ɪ i], as [ħ] after pharyngealized vowels and otherwise as [χ] .<br />
*In colloquial speech, '''o u''' and their allophones tend to get unrounded if not adjacent to a labial consonant. In the prestige sociolect though, as a reflex to this unrounding, '''ę ą ǫ''' can become rounded [ɞˤ ɒˤ ɔˤ] or even [œˤ ɒˤ oˤ].<br />
*'''ə''' can tend to [ɘ] before alveolars.<br />
*Vowels become slightly nasalized before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
=Morphophonology=<br />
<br />
==Initial consonant mutations==<br />
Hośər shows two subtypes of initial consonants mutations, the first directly goes back to the so called ''lenition'' in Çetázó, while the second is a later development in Early Hośər, going back to invervocalic lenition of [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ]. However, both subtypes are limited to their specific morphological functions and act as full morphemes. Although it is always clear what subtype is needed in the particular situation, the first subtype shall be called ''lenition'', since it is a direct descendant of the ''lenition'' in Çetázó, and the second one ''fricativization'<br />
<br />
===Lenition=== <br />
This consonant mutation directly goes back to the ''lenition'' already found in Çetázó, as previously told. In Hośər, it has been grammaticalized to a morpheme indicating that the noun this lenition is attached to is a possessum of the preceding noun in the oblique case. <br><br />
Çetázó showed lenition of the initial consonant of a stem when a possessive prefix was attached to an inherently possessed noun, e.g. '''ɬaŋa''' ''soul'' vs. '''nalaŋa''' ''my soul''. However, in Early Hośər, this prefixation was expanded to all nouns, while later on, all possessive prefixes merged with the one for the 3rd person singular, which was omitted then finally (more conservative dialects have kept it, though), since the possessum was marked already by lenition. <br />
<br> <br><br />
The following table lists all consonants affected by lenition. Sounds marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals and thus exhibit somewhat irregular behavior; nouns with inital former alveolar lateral are marked in the lexicon. Only consonants directly before a vowel are affected.<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unlenited <br />
| '''b p''' || '''t d''' || '''t*''' || '''d*''' || '''ds ts''' || '''dś tś''' || '''ś*''' || '''g k'''<br />
|- <br />
! lenited <br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''l*''' || '''s''' || '''ś, l*''' || '''l*''' || '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Dśer dśeś kon.'''<br><small>dśe-r dśeś kon-Ø <br>this-NC2 such head-ABS </small> <br>That's a head.<br />
<br />
*'''Nu hon dąhar.''' <br><small>nu hon-Ø dąha-r <br>1SG.OBL POSS.head-ABS hurt-NC2 </small> <br>My head hurts.<br />
<br />
===Fricativization===<br />
This consonant mutation is, as the name may suggest, based on former fricativization probably occured in Early Hośər. Like lenition, it has morpheme status as well and is attached on verbs in the past tense. <br> Historically, it has developed from Çetázó's past marker '''suj-''', which lost its /j/ later, allowing following voiced plosives to fricativize. Later on, the former evidentiality marker '''-gʷe''' was attached as well and then became the lone past marker affix, while the fricativization of the initial consonant of the verb has been kept. <br><br />
The change from '''ś''' to '''dś''' is older actually, but added usually to fricativization since its morpheme meaning is the same. It was caused by the /j/ in '''suj-''', which lengthened following palatals. However, only [j:] having become later [ɟʝ] and finally [ʧ] has remained. <br><br />
<br />
Consonants marked with an asterisk are remains of former alveolar laterals again before pharyngealized vowels. As nearly all past stems are slightly irregular, those cases are marked then in the lexicon. <br><br />
<br />
The following table list all consonants affected by fricativization:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! unfricativized<br />
| '''b''' || '''d''' || '''d*''' || '''ds''' || '''ś''' || '''dś*''' || '''g'''<br />
|- <br />
! fricativized<br />
| '''v''' || '''r''' || '''d*''' || '''s''' || '''dś''' || '''ś*''' || '''h''' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
*'''Anǎ gorąhas.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø gorąha-s <br> ball-ABS jump-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumps.''<br />
*'''Anǎ horąhąhos.'''<br> <small>anǎ-Ø horąha-ąho-s <br> ball-ABS PAST.jump-PAST-NC3</small> <br> ''The ball jumped.''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflexes of former alveolar laterals==<br />
<br />
As already seen while discussing the ''lenition'' and ''fricativization'' in Hośer, Çetázó's alveolar laterals [tɬ dɮ ɬ] as well as [ɮ], which appeared later in Early Hośer, have left their marks on Hośer's morphophonology insofar as they usually merged with the alveolar sibilants, but with dental plosives before pharyngealized vowels. This finally led to irregular consonant alternations in some cases, those alternations are as follows:<br />
*'''ś, dś''' > '''d''': <br><br />
'''Na bśants nu glu pədąn.''' <br><br />
<small> na bśa-n=ts nu glu pəd-ąn<br><br />
1SG.ABS break-1SG.ABS=and 1SG.OBL leg break-NC4</small><br><br />
''I break and my leg breaks.''<br />
<br />
*'''ś, tś''' > '''t''': <br><br />
'''Nu kartśǎnests tsaś dśerə kartąhas.''' <br><br />
<small> nu kartśǎ-ne-s=ts tsaś dśe-Ø-ə kartǎ-ąha-s <br><br />
1SG.OBL hate-1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS=and also this-NC1-OBL hate-3.OBL-2SG.ABS</small><br><br />
''I hate you and he hates you as well.'''<br />
<br />
==Epenthetic r==<br />
<br />
An epenthetic '''r''' is added between two consecutive vowels, also across word boundaries:<br />
*'''Nu radśəne.''' <br><small> nu adś-ne-Ø <br>1SG.OBL fear-1SG.OBL-NC1 </small> <br>''I fear them.''<br />
<br />
==Appearance and loss of post-pharyngeal h==<br />
<br />
The pharyngealized vowels in Hośər developed from oral vowels followed by a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ}, which disappeared before consonants, but became an unvoiced pharyngeal fricative [ħ] before vowels. This alternation is still productive in Hośər insofar as firstly the ''epenthetic r'' is not attached on pharyngealized vowels but a '''h''', and secondly a post-pharyngeal '''h''' disappears before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''śivą''' ''some'' + '''-ə''' <small>OBL</small> --> '''śivąhə'''<br />
*'''dąha-''' ''to hurt'' + '''-ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-C2</small> --> '''dąner''' ''I hurt it'' (but + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''dąhar''' ''it is hurted'')<br />
<br />
==Loss of pre-consontantal f and v==<br />
<br />
'''F''' and '''v''' disappear directly before consonants:<br />
<br />
*'''huve-''' ''to drink'' + '''-ne-ltś''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC5</small> --> '''huneltś''' ''I drink it''<br />
<br />
==Vowel reduction==<br />
<br />
Due to the strong dynamic accent, vowels in unstressed syllables are often reduced or even omitted in some cases:<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!full vowel <br />
| '''a, ɛ, e, i, o, u''' || '''a, ɔ''' || '''ę ą ǫ'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!reduced <br />
| '''ə''' || '''ǎ''' || '''ą'''<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!complete loss<br />
| colspan="2" | '''-''' || (no complete loss)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''uśśa-''' ''to kill'' + '''ne-s''' <small>1SG.OBL-2SG.ABS</small> --> '''uśśǎnes''' ''I kill you''<br />
*'''tśeśśa-''' ''to skin'' + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''tśeśśǎner''' ''I skin it''<br />
*'''kindśa-''' ''to differ'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''kəndśas''' ''it differs''<br />
*'''hɔśdśi-''' ''to wash'' + '''-s''' <small>NC3</small> --> '''hǎśdśis''' ''it is washed'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''hɔśdśəner''' ''I wash it''<br />
*'''kihi-''' ''to slaughter'' + '''-r''' <small>NC2</small> --> '''kəhir''' ''it is slaughtered'', + '''ne-r''' <small>1SG.OBL-NC2 </small>--> '''kihner''' ''I slaughter it''<br />
<br />
<br />
==ɛ-e-change==<br />
<br />
An '''ɛ''' of a word-final closed syllable with one consonant as syllable coda can become an '''e''' when suffixes beginning with a vowel are attached. That goes back to EH ''*ɛ'' as an allophone of /e/ in closed syllables, which became an independent phoneme later (probably caused by the ''second vowel reduction'' mentioned among the sound changes below). Thus only syllables are affected that were closed already in Çetázó. <br />
<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
<br />
==Nominal morphology==<br />
<br />
===Number and case===<br />
<br />
Five of the originally seven cases of Çetázó have remained. The old ergative merged with the oblique due to sound changes (strictly speaking, the final '''-i''' (Early Hośər ''*-ɪ:'') of the ergative and the '''-u''' (EH ''*-ʊ:'') of the oblique both merged into '''-ə'''), while the old locative merged with the instrumental (probably simply because both case endings contained '''-m-''', which was interpreted as a lone case marker later on). Other important changes besides these are as follows: <br />
*It is assumed that in EH final '''-i''' and '''-u''' (as case markers of the ergative and oblique, respectively) became lengthened vowels as a result of analogy to the already long vowels appearing on the vocalic stems. However, it seems that this only happened to the singular forms, since also the vocalic declensions in Çetázó showed short vowels in the ergative plural and oblique plural.<br />
*Hośər developed a distinct oblique plural suffix '''-ś'''. The reason is still not completely clear, it is supposed though that in EH the plural marker '''-gʷ-''' lost the feature [+labialized] before the ergative marker ''*-ɪ:'' in analogy to the plural marker ''-k'' appearing in the absolutive. Later, ''*-gi:'' probably shifted to ''*-ɟɪ:'' and finally became '''-ś'''. However, there is also a new regular oblique plural marker '''-ąh-ə''', which is used only in colloquial speech, though.<br />
*The final '''-n''' of the N-stems was interpreted as belonging to the particular stem.<br />
*The dual was completely lost. <br><br />
<br />
Thus the case and number markers are as follows: <br><br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''-Ø''' || '''-k'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''-ə''' || '''-ś, -ąh-ə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''-(ə)m''' || '''ą-m'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''-(ə)dś''' || '''-ą-dś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''-(ə)s''' || '''-ą-s'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no ''real'' distinction between different declensions anymore (at least in terms of different case endings and the specific vowel preceding the case marker, as it is the case in sister languages as e.g. Shtåså). Nouns could be separated though in stems with a former alveolar lateral in the last syllable ( e.g. '''kuś''' ''wolf''), those ending in other consonants (e.g. '''feś''' ''seed''), those ending in a vowel (e.g. '''dśɛmlə''' ''breast'') and those ending in a pharyngealized vowel (e.g. '''hǫ''' ''pig''), since their particular stem can change (especially stems ending in former alveolar laterals). However, these changes are already described in the morphophonology section above, nevertheless one word belonging to every quasi-declension is given in the following table, just to see the particular alternations:<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{browntable|lightbrownbg c}}<br />
|- align="center"<br />
! !! colspan="2" | feś ''seed'' !! colspan="2" | kuś ''wolf'' !! colspan="2" | dśɛmlə ''breast'' !! colspan="2" | hǫ ''pig''<br />
|-<br />
! !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural !! singular !! plural<br />
|- <br />
! absolutive<br />
| '''feś ''' || '''feśk''' ||'''kuś ''' || '''kuśk''' ||'''dśɛmlə ''' || '''dśɛmlək''' || '''hǫ''' || '''hǫk'''<br />
|-<br />
! oblique<br />
| '''feśə''' || '''feśəś, feśąhə''' || '''kuśə''' || '''kuśəś, kutąhə''' || '''dśɛmlərə''' || '''dśɛmləś, dśɛmląhə''' || '''hǫhə''' || '''hǫś, hǫhąhə'''<br />
|-<br />
! instrumental<br />
| '''feśəm''' || '''feśąm''' || '''kuśəm''' || '''kutąm''' || '''dśɛmləm''' || '''dśɛmląm''' || '''hǫm''' || '''hǫhąm'''<br />
|-<br />
! allative <br />
| '''feśdś''' || '''feśądś''' || '''kuśdś''' || '''kutądś''' || '''dśɛmlədś''' || '''dśɛmlądś''' || '''hǫdś''' || '''hǫhądś'''<br />
|-<br />
! ablative<br />
| '''feśəs''' || '''feśąs''' || '''kuśəs''' || '''kutąs''' || '''dśɛmləs''' || '''dśɛmląs''' || '''hǫs''' || '''hǫhąs'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
=Example texts=<br />
<br />
==The horse and the sheep==<br />
<br />
'' '''Śəśirts meŋk''' '' <br><br />
''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar. Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas, kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar, larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar. Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.'' <br><br />
<br />
[ˈχoʃə̃m̥ ʃəˈʃiɾə ˈʃivɑˤq mɪ̃ŋk ˌʃɛɫtˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃenə tʰˤɑˤˈħɑɾə ˈmẽŋə sʊl̥ ˌvesɑˤħɑˤħˈɑs | ˈkolə ʃɪɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌχlatʰˤɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ | ˈlaɾə nɐʃˈtʰʊɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰiχɑˤħɑˤˈħɑɾ̥ ‖ ˈʃaɾə ˈχaʃə̃m̥ tʰɐ m̥sɑɾ̥ mɪ̃ŋ̥ ˌkʰʌˤħɑˤˈħʊɾ̥]<br />
<br />
===Interlinear gloss===<br />
<br />
'''Hośəm śəśirə śivąk meŋk śɛldąhąhar''' <br><small>hoś-əm śəśir-ə śivą-k meŋ-k śɛlda-ąhą-ąha-r <br>hill-INSTR horse-OBL some-ABS.PL sheep-ABS.PL see-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''A horse on a hill saw some sheep'' <br />
<br />
'''Śenə tąharə meŋə sul vesąhąhas,''' <br><small>śɛn-ə tąhar-ə meŋ-ə sul-Ø vesa-ąhą-ąha-s <br>woman-OBL first-OBL sheep-OBL wool-ABS.SG PAST.cut-PAST-3.OBL-NC3</small> <br>''A woman was cutting away the wool of the first sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''kolə śir meŋ hlatąhąhar,''' <br><small>kol-ə śir-Ø meŋ-Ø hlata-ąhą-ąha-r <br>child-OBL second-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG milk-PAST-3.OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a child was milking the second sheep,''<br />
<br />
'''larə nǎśtur meŋ kihąhąhar.''' <br></small> la-ə nǎśtur-Ø meŋ-Ø kihi-ąhą-ąha-s <br>man-OBL third-ABS.SG sheep-ABS.SG slaughter-PAST-3-OBL-NC2 </small> <br>''a man was slaughtering the third sheep.'' <br />
<br />
'''Śarə haśəm tǎ msar meŋ kǫhąhor.''' <br><small>śa-ə haś-əm tǎ msar-Ø meŋ-Ø kǫhu-ąho-r <br>ANA-OBL fire-INSTR on fourth-ABS.SG cook-PAST-NC2 </small> <br>''On their fire, the fourth sheep was being cooked.'' <br />
<br />
<br />
=Sound Changes=<br />
The following set of sound changes from Çetázó to Hośər has been reconstructed:<br />
<br />
#Appearance of fixed stress:<br />
#*Verbs got a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable; that is, intransitives became stressed on the last syllable of the stem and transitives on the first syllable after the stem, as it already was the case in Çetázó.<br />
#*In terms of nouns, the situation is a bit more complicated. Çetázó's A-, E- I- and U-stems have become a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of the stem, while on N-stems the fixed stress usually fell onto the stem's ultimate syllable. However, the assumed reason is analogy to the ergative and oblique forms of the vocalic stems, which (as previously told) had before developed a fixed stress on the stem's penultimate and thus show post-tonal case endings in the primary cases ergative and oblique, which was finally taken over by N-stems was well. <br />
#*Ordinal numerals are unique insofar as they kept the original mobile stress of Çetázó (cf. '''tą''' ''one'' vs. '''tąhar''' ''first'') <br />
#*The position of the secondary stress though depended on the position of the primary stress. Usually it fell onto the last closed syllable before the stressed syllable; if no closed syllable is available, it fell onto the first open syllable. However, secondary stress only appeared in words containing at least two pre-tonal syllables.<br />
#The rounded back vowels [y y: ø ø:] became unrounded front vowels [i i: e e:] spontaneously.<br />
#[æ æ:] shifted to [ɑ ɑ:] before velars and labialized velars and [ɛ ɛ:] otherwise.<br />
#Unstressed [e e: i i: o o: u u:] became [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ: ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] as well as in stressed closed syllables, while [ɑ ɑ:] became [a a:] in stressed open syllables. <br />
#[j] disappeared before consonants, where it led to compensatory shifting of [ɔ ɔ: ʊ ʊ:] to [ɛ ɛ: ɪ ɪ:] ([e e: i i:] in then open syllables, respectively) and [l] to [ʎ], as well as gemination of palatals. <br />
#Intervocalic [b d dz dl ɟ g gw] was lenited to [β ð z ɮ ʝ γ γᵂ].<br />
# [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] led to shifting preceding velars to palatals.<br />
#[nj dj] merged with [ɲ ɟ].<br />
#[mp nt ŋk] geminated to [m: n: ŋ:].<br />
#[e: o:] rised to [i: u:] spontaneously.<br />
#Labiovelars merged with velars, [w] disappears, respectively. Following [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i: ] often became rounded [ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:] ,especially in stressed syllables.<br />
#[j ɲ] merged to [ʝ] in front of [ɛ ɛ: e e: ɪ ɪ: i i:], while remaining [ɲ] merged with [n]. Simultaneously,/ɬ/ became [l], if not next to [a a: ɑ ɑ: ɔ ɔ: o o: ʊ ʊ: u u:]. <br />
#The long approximants [l: j:] became [dɮ ɟʝ].<br />
#Intervocalic [ð] became a flap [ɾ].<br />
#Unstressed /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/ were reduced to [ə] in open syllables, while lang vowels were shortened.<br />
#Palatals merged with postalveolars, with [j] becoming [ʒ].<br />
#Some dissimilations, often occuring to homophonic consonants divided by a [ə].<br />
#Velar [x γ] shifted to uvular (and probably slightly pharyngeal) [χ ʁ] for still uncertain reason. [ʁ] is assumed to have become an open back unrounded vowel with compensatory pharyngealization, so [ɑˤ] (or [ɑˤʁ], with remaining [ʁ] before vowels), which itself caused pharyngealization of preceding vowels (which it have merged with later), namely [ɑʁ aʁ əʁ] > [ɑˤɑˤ aˤɑˤ əˤɑˤ] > [ɑˤ(ʁ)], [ɛʁ eʁ ɪʁ iʁ] > [ɛˤɑˤ eˤɑˤ ɪˤɑˤ iˤɑˤ] > [ɐˤ(ʁ)] and [ɔʁ oʁ ʊʁ uʁ] > [ɔˤɑˤ oˤɑˤ ʊˤɑˤ uˤɑˤ] > [ɔˤ(ʁ)], the latter became unrounded [ʌˤ(ʁ)] later on. This in turn led firstly to backing dental [t d θ ð n] to alveolar position in general, and secondly to pharyngealization of preceding (former) dental plosives as well as backing adjacent velar [k g ŋ] to uvular [q ɢ ɴ] and [l] to [ɫ], while lateral plosives, affricates and frikatives became pharyngealized alveolar plosives before pharyngealized vowels. [ʁ] itself merged with [χ] (see #23), while [χ] became [x] again after [ɛ e ɪ i].<br />
#[k g ŋ] shifts to [q ɢ ɴ] next to [ɑ ɔ o ʊ u]. <br />
#Remaining alveolar laterals became postalveolar.<br />
#Unvoiced plosives and affricates became aspirated in front of vowels, while voiced plosives and affricates became unvoiced. Devoicing without additional aspiration also affected voiced alveolar, postalveolar and uvular frikatives.<br />
#Devoicing of [m n ŋ v z ɾ l] in final position and before voiceless consonants. Geminates were shortened in initial and final position.<br />
#Second vowel reduction, causing loss of oral [ə] in open syllables and reducing [ɛ ɪ ʊ] to [ə] and [ɑ ɔ] to [ɐ] in unstressed open syllables and closed syllables with a fricative, nasal or [l] as coda. It ist assumed that final [ə] got lost first. If two adjacent syllables both contained [ə], only the first one lost its vowel. However, loss of [ə] in unstressed initial open syllables only happend under the following situations:<br />
#*between a plosive and one of [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between an affricate and [l].<br />
#*between [s ʃ] and a plosive, unvoiced fricative, nasal, flap or lateral<br />
#*between an unvoiced fricative and [s ʃ ɾ l], but not between [ʃ] and [s] ([s] and [ʃ], respectively).<br />
#*between a nasal and [s ʃ ɾ l].<br />
#*between [n] and a fricative. <br> Labial consonants only appear as initial part of a cluster. [a e i o u] became [ɑ ɪ ɪ ʊ ʊ] in then closed syllables, while [ɛ ɔ] gain phoneme status in old closed syllables.<br />
#[ns nʃ nɾ sr ʃr] became [nʦ nʧ ntɾ str ʃtr]. <br />
#Nasals changed their place of articulation according to the following plosive.<br />
#Secondary stress was lost directly before a syllable with primary stress.<br />
#Labial fricatives disappeared before consonants and word-finally, while [β] became labiodental otherwise.<br />
#If preceded by an unstressed syllable containing [ɑˤ], loss of [ə ɐ] in unstressed final closed syllables in a word stressed on the antepenultimate syllable, preceding [x χ] got lost then.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Western languages]]</div>Caedes