http://akana.conlang.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Alces&feedformat=atomAkanaWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T13:20:56ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.23.1http://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User:Alces/vector.cssUser:Alces/vector.css2015-08-14T09:58:36Z<p>Alces: </p>
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<div>body { font-family: "Gentium Plus", serif; font-size: 14pt; }<br />
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<div>p, ul, ol { text-align: justify; }</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/Historical_phonologyWendoth/Historical phonology2015-07-02T18:39:50Z<p>Alces: /* Consonants */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Correspondances between Proto-Wendoth and Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
The reflexes of each Pre-Wendoth consonant can be classified into two groups: the slender (palatalised) reflexes and the broad (velarised) reflexes. Slender reflexes appear in slender syllables and broad reflexes appear in broad syllables. A syllable is slender if one of the following conditions holds.<br />
* The nucleus of the syllable is '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
* The nucleus of the syllable is '''a''', the coda of the syllable is empty, the syllable is not the final one in the word, and the syllable immediately precedes a syllable whose nucleus is '''i''' or '''e'''. (It is not sufficient for the preceded syllable to be slender; in the word '''baɣari''', the syllables '''ri''' and '''ɣa''' are slender but the syllable '''ba''' is broad.)<br />
<br />
Also, if the nucleus of the syllable is '''a''' and the coda of the syllable is a nasal consonant ('''m''', '''n''' or '''ŋ''') then the syllable may be either slender or broad; no regular rule is known which distinguishes the two possible reflexes.<br />
<br />
The following table gives the reflexes of each Pre-Wendoth consonant in syllable-initial position, along with the environments in which they occur (via the footnotes). The environments are described with reference to the Pre-Wendoth forms of the words.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Slender reflexes<br />
! Broad reflexes<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| <sup>n̪</sup>d̪ʲ ('''nd''')<br />
| mˠ ('''m''')<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| n ('''n''')<br />
| ŋ ('''ng''')<br />
|-<br />
| ŋ<br />
| ŋʲ ('''nj'''), ∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ŋ ('''ng''')<sup>2</sup>, ∅<sup>1, 3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| t̪ʲ ('''t''')<br />
| pˠ ('''p''')<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| d̪ʲ ('''d''')<br />
| bˠ ('''b''')<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| t͡sʲ ('''ch''')<br />
| tˠ ('''ṭ''')<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| d͡zʲ ('''jh''')<br />
| dˠ ('''ḍ''')<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| kʲ ('''k''')<br />
| q ('''q''')<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| gʲ ('''g''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, q ('''q''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| θʲ ('''th''')<br />
| fˠ ('''f''')<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| ðʲ ('''dh''')<br />
| vˠ ('''v''')<br />
|- <br />
| s<br />
| sʲ ('''sh''')<br />
| sˠ ('''s''')<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| zʲ ('''zh''')<br />
| zˠ ('''z''')<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| xʲ ('''c''')<br />
| χ ('''x''')<br />
|-<br />
| ɣ<br />
| ɣʲ ('''j''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, χ ('''x''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| r ('''r''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, χ ('''x''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| lʲ~j ('''y''')<br />
| lˠ~w ('''w''')<br />
|-<br />
| ʔ<br />
| jˤ~iˤ ('''į''')<br />
| wˤ~uˤ ('''ų''')<br />
|-<br />
| ɦ<br />
| jʱ~iʱ ('''i''')<br />
| wʱ~uʱ ('''u''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# Immediately before a word-final vowel.<br />
# In word-initial position.<br />
# Immediately after a vowel which is preceded by '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ'''.<br />
<br />
In syllable-final position, the only consonants which occur are the nasals, '''m''', '''n''' and '''ŋ''', and the laryngeals, '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ'''.<br />
<br />
Syllable-final laryngeals do not differ in their reflexes depending on whether the syllable is broad or slender when the preceding vowel is '''e''', '''o''' or '''a'''. In this position, the outcome of '''ʔ''' is always '''ą''' /aˤ/ and the outcome of '''ɦ''' is always '''ã''' /aʱ/, and the preceding vowel is deleted. On the other hand, the syllable-final sequences '''iʔ''', '''iɦ''', '''uʔ''' and '''uɦ''' have the reflexes '''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' and '''u''', respectively, unless they are themselves preceded as a laryngeal, in which case '''iʔ''' and '''uʔ''' become '''ą''' /aˤ/ and '''iɦ''' and '''uɦ''' become '''ã''' /aʱ/. Therefore, for example, the syllable '''ʔiʔ''' becomes '''įą''' /jˤaˤ/ and the syllable '''ɦuɦ''' becomes '''uã''' /wʱaʱ/.<br />
<br />
As for syllable-final nasals, if these precede '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''', then they develop in the same way as they do in syllable-initial position (because the vocalisation of the following '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''' results in them entering a syllable-initial position). Before other consonants they are unconditionally elided. In word-final position, '''m''' becomes '''m''' /mˠ/ (whether the containing syllable is light or heavy) and '''ŋ''' is always elided, while '''n''' becomes '''n''' /n/ when slender and '''ng''' /ŋ/ when broad.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
The two high vowels of Pre-Wendoth, '''i''' and '''u''', merged at an early stage as /ɨ/ and the two mid vowels, '''e''' and '''o''', merged at an early stage as /ə/. The semivowels that were the reflexes of '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ''' merged with preceding /ɨ/ to reintroduce high vowels to the language: /ɨjˤ/, /ɨjʱ/, /ɨwˤ/ and /ɨwʱ/ became [iˤ], [iʱ], [uˤ] and [uʱ], respectively (these high vowels can be regarded as allophones of the semivowel phonemes /jˤ/, /jʱ/, /wˤ/ and /wʱ/, respectively, occuring after consonants [including these semivowel phonemes, even when they are realised as phonetic vowels]). The sequences '''įį''', '''iį''', '''įi''', '''ii''', '''ųų''', '''ųu''', '''uų''' and '''uu''' were regularly dissimilated to '''ųį''', '''uį''', '''ųi''', '''ui''', '''įų''', '''įu''', '''ių''' and '''iu''', respectively (the initial vowel was simply altered in quality), although these sequences were often restored by analogy when they occured across morpheme boundaries.<br />
<br />
Later on, a distinction emerged between nasalised and non-nasalised vowels. Nasalised vowels occured in all positions when a nasal consonant immediately followed in the Pre-Wendoth form of the word, non-nasalised vowels occured elsewhere; the loss of nasals before consonants and, later, the changes that occured to the broad reflex of Pre-Wendoth '''ŋ''' phonemicised the distinction. A chain shift then occured that affected the non-nasalised vowels only, triggered by the backing and rounding of non-nasalised '''a''' to '''o'''. The following table shows the effects of this shift.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth vowel<br />
! Nasalised reflex<br />
! Non-nasalised reflex<br />
|-<br />
| i, u<br />
| ɨ<br />
| ə<br />
|-<br />
| e, o<br />
| ə<br />
| a<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| a<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The nasalisation distinction was subsequently lost, and the /ɨ/ phoneme was eliminated via merger with '''u''' adjacent to Wendoth labial consonants (that is, broad Pre-Wendoth labial consonants) and '''i''' elsewhere. It can still be analysed as a separate phoneme, which is conventionally written '''ü''', because of the regular morphological alternations between '''u''' and '''i''' that are produced.<br />
<br />
Some vowel elision also take place in the development of Wendoth. As mentioned above, '''i''' and '''u''' merged with following syllable-initial laryngeals and all vowels merged with following syllable-final laryngeals, with various reflexes appearing as a result. Vowels immediately preceded by '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''', and word-final vowels, were also unconditionally elided.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth had regular stress on penultimate syllables, or on final syllables if the final syllable had a non-empty coda. The elision of word-final vowels resulted in stress regularly falling on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
== Sound changes from Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
(to do, but the above section on correspondances contains all the information needed)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/Historical_phonologyWendoth/Historical phonology2015-07-02T18:38:55Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Correspondances between Proto-Wendoth and Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
The reflexes of each Pre-Wendoth consonant can be classified into two groups: the slender (palatalised) reflexes and the broad (velarised) reflexes. Slender reflexes appear in slender syllables and broad reflexes appear in broad syllables. A syllable is slender if one of the following conditions holds.<br />
* The nucleus of the syllable is '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
* The nucleus of the syllable is '''a''', the coda of the syllable is empty, the syllable is not the final one in the word, and the syllable immediately precedes a syllable whose nucleus is '''i''' or '''e'''. (It is not sufficient for the preceded syllable to be slender; in the word '''baɣari''', the syllables '''ri''' and '''ɣa''' are slender but the syllable '''ba''' is broad.)<br />
<br />
Also, if the nucleus of the syllable is '''a''' and the coda of the syllable is a nasal consonant ('''m''', '''n''' or '''ŋ''') then the syllable may be either light or heavy; no regular rule is known which distinguishes the two possible reflexes.<br />
<br />
The following table gives the reflexes of each Pre-Wendoth consonant in syllable-initial position, along with the environments in which they occur (via the footnotes). The environments are described with reference to the Pre-Wendoth forms of the words.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Slender reflexes<br />
! Broad reflexes<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| <sup>n̪</sup>d̪ʲ ('''nd''')<br />
| mˠ ('''m''')<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| n ('''n''')<br />
| ŋ ('''ng''')<br />
|-<br />
| ŋ<br />
| ŋʲ ('''nj'''), ∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ŋ ('''ng''')<sup>2</sup>, ∅<sup>1, 3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| t̪ʲ ('''t''')<br />
| pˠ ('''p''')<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| d̪ʲ ('''d''')<br />
| bˠ ('''b''')<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| t͡sʲ ('''ch''')<br />
| tˠ ('''ṭ''')<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| d͡zʲ ('''jh''')<br />
| dˠ ('''ḍ''')<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| kʲ ('''k''')<br />
| q ('''q''')<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| gʲ ('''g''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, q ('''q''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| θʲ ('''th''')<br />
| fˠ ('''f''')<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| ðʲ ('''dh''')<br />
| vˠ ('''v''')<br />
|- <br />
| s<br />
| sʲ ('''sh''')<br />
| sˠ ('''s''')<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| zʲ ('''zh''')<br />
| zˠ ('''z''')<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| xʲ ('''c''')<br />
| χ ('''x''')<br />
|-<br />
| ɣ<br />
| ɣʲ ('''j''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, χ ('''x''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| r ('''r''')<br />
| ʁ ('''h'''), ∅<sup>2, 3</sup>, χ ('''x''')<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| lʲ~j ('''y''')<br />
| lˠ~w ('''w''')<br />
|-<br />
| ʔ<br />
| jˤ~iˤ ('''į''')<br />
| wˤ~uˤ ('''ų''')<br />
|-<br />
| ɦ<br />
| jʱ~iʱ ('''i''')<br />
| wʱ~uʱ ('''u''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# Immediately before a word-final vowel.<br />
# In word-initial position.<br />
# Immediately after a vowel which is preceded by '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ'''.<br />
<br />
In syllable-final position, the only consonants which occur are the nasals, '''m''', '''n''' and '''ŋ''', and the laryngeals, '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ'''.<br />
<br />
Syllable-final laryngeals do not differ in their reflexes depending on whether the syllable is broad or slender when the preceding vowel is '''e''', '''o''' or '''a'''. In this position, the outcome of '''ʔ''' is always '''ą''' /aˤ/ and the outcome of '''ɦ''' is always '''ã''' /aʱ/, and the preceding vowel is deleted. On the other hand, the syllable-final sequences '''iʔ''', '''iɦ''', '''uʔ''' and '''uɦ''' have the reflexes '''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' and '''u''', respectively, unless they are themselves preceded as a laryngeal, in which case '''iʔ''' and '''uʔ''' become '''ą''' /aˤ/ and '''iɦ''' and '''uɦ''' become '''ã''' /aʱ/. Therefore, for example, the syllable '''ʔiʔ''' becomes '''įą''' /jˤaˤ/ and the syllable '''ɦuɦ''' becomes '''uã''' /wʱaʱ/.<br />
<br />
As for syllable-final nasals, if these precede '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''', then they develop in the same way as they do in syllable-initial position (because the vocalisation of the following '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''' results in them entering a syllable-initial position). Before other consonants they are unconditionally elided. In word-final position, '''m''' becomes '''m''' /mˠ/ (whether the containing syllable is light or heavy) and '''ŋ''' is always elided, while '''n''' becomes '''n''' /n/ when slender and '''ng''' /ŋ/ when broad.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
The two high vowels of Pre-Wendoth, '''i''' and '''u''', merged at an early stage as /ɨ/ and the two mid vowels, '''e''' and '''o''', merged at an early stage as /ə/. The semivowels that were the reflexes of '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ''' merged with preceding /ɨ/ to reintroduce high vowels to the language: /ɨjˤ/, /ɨjʱ/, /ɨwˤ/ and /ɨwʱ/ became [iˤ], [iʱ], [uˤ] and [uʱ], respectively (these high vowels can be regarded as allophones of the semivowel phonemes /jˤ/, /jʱ/, /wˤ/ and /wʱ/, respectively, occuring after consonants [including these semivowel phonemes, even when they are realised as phonetic vowels]). The sequences '''įį''', '''iį''', '''įi''', '''ii''', '''ųų''', '''ųu''', '''uų''' and '''uu''' were regularly dissimilated to '''ųį''', '''uį''', '''ųi''', '''ui''', '''įų''', '''įu''', '''ių''' and '''iu''', respectively (the initial vowel was simply altered in quality), although these sequences were often restored by analogy when they occured across morpheme boundaries.<br />
<br />
Later on, a distinction emerged between nasalised and non-nasalised vowels. Nasalised vowels occured in all positions when a nasal consonant immediately followed in the Pre-Wendoth form of the word, non-nasalised vowels occured elsewhere; the loss of nasals before consonants and, later, the changes that occured to the broad reflex of Pre-Wendoth '''ŋ''' phonemicised the distinction. A chain shift then occured that affected the non-nasalised vowels only, triggered by the backing and rounding of non-nasalised '''a''' to '''o'''. The following table shows the effects of this shift.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth vowel<br />
! Nasalised reflex<br />
! Non-nasalised reflex<br />
|-<br />
| i, u<br />
| ɨ<br />
| ə<br />
|-<br />
| e, o<br />
| ə<br />
| a<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| a<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The nasalisation distinction was subsequently lost, and the /ɨ/ phoneme was eliminated via merger with '''u''' adjacent to Wendoth labial consonants (that is, broad Pre-Wendoth labial consonants) and '''i''' elsewhere. It can still be analysed as a separate phoneme, which is conventionally written '''ü''', because of the regular morphological alternations between '''u''' and '''i''' that are produced.<br />
<br />
Some vowel elision also take place in the development of Wendoth. As mentioned above, '''i''' and '''u''' merged with following syllable-initial laryngeals and all vowels merged with following syllable-final laryngeals, with various reflexes appearing as a result. Vowels immediately preceded by '''ʔ''' or '''ɦ''', and word-final vowels, were also unconditionally elided.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth had regular stress on penultimate syllables, or on final syllables if the final syllable had a non-empty coda. The elision of word-final vowels resulted in stress regularly falling on the final syllable.<br />
<br />
== Sound changes from Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
(to do, but the above section on correspondances contains all the information needed)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-06-04T21:38:27Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa.<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Historical phonology ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Historical_phonology]]<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /mˠ/ (> /m/)<br />
| '''nd''' /ⁿd̪ʲ/ (> /<sup>n</sup>d̪/)<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/ (> /ɲ/)<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /pˠ/ (> /p/)<br />
| '''t''' /t̪ʲ/ (> /t̪/)<br />
| '''ṭ''' /tˠ/ (> /ʈ/)<br />
| '''ch''' /tsʲ/ (> /tʃ/)<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/ (> /c/)<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /bˠ/ (> /b/)<br />
| '''d''' /d̪ʲ/ (> /d̪/) <br />
| '''ḍ''' /dˠ/ (> /ɖ/)<br />
| '''jh''' /dzʲ/ (> /dʒ/)<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/ (> /ɟ/)<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /fˠ/ (> /f/)<br />
| '''th''' /xʲ/ (> /θ/)<br />
| '''s''' /sˠ/ (> /ʂ/)<br />
| '''sh''' /sʲ/ (> /ʃ/)<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/ (> /ç/)<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /vˠ/ (> /v/)<br />
| '''dh''' /ðʲ/ (> /ð/)<br />
| '''z''' /zˠ/ (> /ʐ/)<br />
| '''zh''' /zʲ/ (> /ʒ/)<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/ (> /ʝ/)<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The labials, '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', originate from Pre-Wendoth velarised labials. Their reflexes in [[Hỳng]] are velar, which suggests that they retained velarisation at the time of the proto-language, but all the other Wendoth languages do not betray any trace of the labials' former velarisation, suggesting that it was lost in the Nuclear Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials. At an early stage, they retained palatalisation, and in fact this secondary articulation was the primary feature distinguishing '''t''' and '''d''' from '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' (which were velarised alveolars; '''s''' and '''z''' were probably also velarised in parallel, although their sibilance was already sufficient to distinguish them from '''th''' and '''dh'''). Later on, these velarised alveolars (which descended from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals) became retroflexes, and the secondary articulation became unnecessary to distinguish them. However, this change did not affect the dialect which became Hỳng, and traces of the older secondary articulations remain in some Nuclear Wendoth languages (for example, '''th''' and '''dh''' are reflected as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in some of them).<br />
<br />
Similarly, '''ch''', '''jh''', '''sh''' and '''zh''', which originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, were probably pronounced as palatalised alveolars at an early stage. In the North Wendoth languages, for example, they lost their palatalisation at some stage and became pronounced as /ts dz s z/. But in most of the other Wendoth languages, they became postalveolar. '''n''' and '''r''' also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, but as they had no similar consonants to contrast with it is unlikely that their palatalisation was retained for very long.<br />
<br />
The front velars, '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars, and are transcribed as such. They were fronted further in all of the Wendoth languages except for the [[Mboroth]] languages, in which they lost their palatalisation and became plain velars.<br />
<br />
The back velars, '''ng''', '''q''', '''x''' and '''h''', originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars. Although they shifted back to velars in some daughters such as Yewedu, there is considerable evidence that they went through a stage of being pronounced as uvulars in all Wendoth languages. '''ng''' appears to have been pronounced as a uvular /ɴ/ at an early stage, but it had already been elided in many environments and shifted to /ŋ/ elsewhere before the Wendoth languages broke up. The fortition of '''ng''' to pre-nasalised /ŋg/ is a fairly widespread change in the Wendoth languages (occuring in both North Wendoth and Hỳng, for example), which suggests that this may have already been a variant in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The consonant '''h''' is usually pronounced as an approximant, rather than a fricative. It is somewhat more frequent than the other consonants, and is often inserted as sandhi (see [[#Syllable structure|Syllable structure]] below).<br />
<br />
'''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. It appears that earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in most environments, but North Wendoth has [l] as the reflex of '''y''' and '''w''' in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels, which suggests that they retained their lateral pronunciations in this environment. This is also suggested by the otherwise curious fact that in Hỳng, '''y''' and '''w''' became [ʒ] and [β], respectively, before non-close vowels but not before close vowels (what happened was that [j] and [w] underwent this change while '''y''' and '''w''' were still pronounced as [lʲ] and [lˠ] before close vowels, and then much later [lʲ] and [lˠ] shifted to [j] and [w]).<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of Wendoth, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. However, before a pause they were pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced), and were likely not as long as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, and it is convenient to do so for morphophonological purposes (for example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndaų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added). However, these diphthongs do comprise single syllable nuclei, and they are about as frequent as the close vowels in isolation.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form (C)V(C); in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form (C)V. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces syllables of the form VC, resulting in clusters consisting of two consonants. Every single combination of two consonants is possible (although note that '''y''' and '''w''' are pronounced [lʲ] and [lˠ] before consonants); it is likely that these clusters underwent ''ad hoc'' assimilations (e.g. of voice, or PoA in the case of nasals preceding a plosive), but the influence of the untransformed form stopped these assimilations having an effect on the underlying representations. Accordingly, we write clusters without indicating any assimilation in this document.<br />
<br />
Clusters other than resulting from transformation were rare and consisted solely of liquid + obstruent clusters ('''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise') and nasal + homorganic plosive clusters ('''<sup>h</sup>omban<sup>e</sup>''' 'flower'). It is thought that all of these are recent loanwords from a substrate. It is not clear how transformation applied to words containing these clusters; it is likely that the Wendoth speakers were still undecided on the matter, and would sometimes simply fail to transform them in the usual environment (resulting in, e.g., '''xursų''' 'promise') or make an attempt at transforming them giving a three-consonant cluster (resulting instead in '''urxsų''' or '''uxrsų'''). In this document, I have assumed that they were not transformed.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /nd̪ʲ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sˠʁ/ and /zˠʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
The consonants '''nj''' and '''h''' have defective distributions; they do not appear word-finally (but they can appear syllable-finally). '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (but it can appear syllable-initially even after another consonant). But apart from these exceptions, every consonant can appear word- and syllable-initially and word- and syllable-finally. As for vowels, /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries outside of certain loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain', and /o/ never appears before nasals.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''h''' disappeared after close vowels, and hence it is rare in this position. However, this change was somewhat irregular, and hence it is preserved in some common words such as '''įhą''' 'arm, leg'. In this particular case, we can point to the fact that it would have merged with '''įą''' 'hand, foot' otherwise; but in general there is no such explanation. For example, '''vįhau''' 'prevent' preserves the '''h''', too.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a tense vowel (including '''ą''' and '''ã'''). When a syllable beginning with a vowel follows a tense vowel, an epenthetic [ʔ] (if the tense vowel is creaky) or [ɦ] (if the tense vowel is breathy) is inserted to break up the hiatus; the same epenthesis applies across word boundaries.<br />
<br />
A similar epenthesis breaks up hiatuses in which the first vowel is lax when these hiatuses occur across word boundaries. In this case, it is '''h''' which is inserted to break up the hiatus, due to the fact that all non-monosyllabic words ending in a lax vowel originally ended in '''h'''. This is therefore a sandhi process similar to the English linking /r/. Indeed, just as with the English linking /r/, it has been generalised to apply to monosyllabic words that never ended in '''h''', such as the 1p nom. sg. pronoun '''be''': for example, '''be įka''' 'I laughed' is pronounced '''bˠəˈʁḭkʲa'''.<br />
<br />
'''h'''-insertion does not occur, however, before words which begin with a vowel only because they are in their [[#Transformation|transformed forms]]. When a word ending with a lax vowel precedes a transformed form, the lax vowel is generally deleted, although not always. Hence '''be opthe''' 'I (male) came' is pronounced '''bopˠˈθə''' (and may accordingly be written as '''b'opthe''').<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is not contrastive; it is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' or '''u''') in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. This rule applies to the fully-inflected word, so the addition of suffixes often results in stress alternations; for example, '''kochum<sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue' is '''kochúm''' in the nominative case but '''okchumóų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added. Function words, such as pronouns, often carry no stress in connected speech.<br />
<br />
The North Wendoth languages became strongly stress-timed and underwent heavy vowel reduction. The dialects that became Hỳng also became stress-timed, although not to quite the same extent. Other Wendoth languages are generally syllable-timed. It is uncertain what the situation in the proto-language was. The /ə/ phoneme is not evidence that it was stress-timed, because it arises not from vowel reduction, but rather from the transferral of vocalic [+front] and [+back] features to preceding consonants that took place during the development of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
=== Example pronunciations ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ [bˠə]<br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)' /kʲotsʲṳmˠ/ [kʲoˈtsʲṳːmˠ]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner (nom.)' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge (nom.)' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmˠⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳmˠˈn̪d̪ṵʔ], or, in less careful speech, probably just [ṳmˠˈd̪ṵʔ] or [ṳn̪ˠˈd̪ṵʔ]<br />
<br />
== The Wendoth substrate ==<br />
<br />
We have already mentioned that some loanwords can be identified due to the presence of consonant or clusters or non-final open tense vowels within the underlying form. Some others can be identified based on the fact that their Pre-Wendoth proto-form would have to have an unusual number of syllables. For example, '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat' would go back to '''muhItihUri''', where '''I''' is either '''i''' or '''e''' and '''U''' is either '''u''' or '''o'''&mdash;but there are no known Pre-Wendoth roots with five syllables.<br />
<br />
Apart from '''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel' and '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise, make an oath', all of these loanwords are used only as nouns. These two verbs also probably were originally borrowed as nouns, and they can still be used as nouns to mean 'the act of kneeling' and 'promise, oath' respectively. Evidently, these social rituals had some special characteristics or some additional significance for the speakers of the substrate language, and the Wendoth speakers, being influenced by the substrate speakers and perhaps taking on some of their customs with regards to these rituals, felt a need to borrow these terms.<br />
<br />
We can draw some tentative conclusions about the substrate language from these loanwords. First, none of the loanwords ends in an underlying lax vowel other than '''e''', which suggests that these words either ended in a consonant in their most unmarked in the substrate ('''e''', being a schwa, would be the natural vowel to insert to fit Wendoth morphophonological rules) or ended in an unrounded mid vowel.<br />
<br />
The loanwords lack the vowels '''į''', '''ų''', '''e''' and '''ã''', which leaves five vowels, '''i''', '''u''', '''ą''', '''o''' and '''a''' that do appear in the loanwords. These may correspond to a five-vowel system of /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ and /a/ in the substrate (considering that '''ą''' was pronounced as a front vowel).<br />
<br />
The only consonants found in the loanwords are '''m''', '''n''', '''nd''' (probably reflecting a cluster rather than a phoneme in the substrate), '''p''', '''b''', '''t''', '''d''', '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', '''k''', '''g''', '''q''', '''s''', '''x''' and '''r'''. '''nj''', '''ng''', '''ch''', '''jh''', '''f''', '''v''', '''th''', '''dh''', '''z''', '''sh''', '''zh''', '''c''', '''j''', '''h''' and '''nj''' are absent. In addition, '''k''' and '''q''' are in complementary distribution, with '''k''' appearing before '''i''' and '''ą''' and '''q''' appearing elsewhere. Interestingly, no such rule seems to be in place with '''t'''/'''d''' and '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', which suggests that the substrate distinguished two series of alveolar stops. Perhaps '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' are the borrowed forms of retroflexes, or labialised alveolars, in the substrate.<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. But they interacted with each other in regular, predictable ways.<br />
<br />
The citation forms of morphemes in Wendoth often contain segments which are written in superscripts; c.f. '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood' and, for an extreme example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' 'elbow, knee'. The superscripts indicate that the segments contained within disappear in the most unmarked form (for example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' is '''i''' in the nominative case). Segments may also be underlined; this indicates that the segement does not disappear, but alternates depending on the surrounding morphemes.<br />
<br />
Every morpheme in Wendoth begins with an underlying consonant or a close vowel and ends in an underlying vowel, nasal ('''m''', '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng'''&mdash;not '''nd''' though) or '''h'''. The open tense vowels '''ã''' and '''ą''' appear only in morpheme-final position, outside of a couple of loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
=== Final lax vowel alternations ===<br />
<br />
Morphemes which end in an underlying lax vowel have the lax vowel elided when they occur as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Therefore, the final lax vowel in such morphemes is written in superscript in the citation form unless the morpheme never occurs as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Even in monosyllabic morphemes, an underlying final lax vowel may disappear if another morpheme precedes in the same word. For example, adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''' 'he sees (ind.)'. If a morpheme-final lax vowel is written without a superscript in the underlying form, this indicates that the morpheme is monosyllabic and never occurs after another morpheme within a single word.<br />
<br />
Morpheme-final '''e''' also disappears when a suffix is added that begins with a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''ei''', '''eų''' and '''eu''' do not appear in Wendoth. However, morpheme-final '''e''' is only written as a superscript in the citation form if it also disappears word-finally, so the underlying form of the first person singular pronoun is written '''be''', rather than '''b<sup>e</sup>''', even though adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' results in '''bį'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' is '''thind''' in the nominative but '''ithndat''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' is '''ngak''' in the nominative but '''engket''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added and '''engkų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is another alternation that affects morpheme-final lax vowels. If these lax vowels come to occur before a nasal, their quality changes, as follows:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''. For example, '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' becomes '''eshzam''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''. For example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndem''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials ('''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', but not '''w'''). It becomes '''i''' elsewhere. For example, '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' becomes '''engkum''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added, and the intransitivising prefix '''ne-''', when added to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', produces the verb '''ning<sup>e</sup>''' 'see something'.<br />
<br />
This process is called vowel mutation, and it is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
Final tense vowels (and diphthongs, which end in tense vowels) are much easier to deal with; they do not disappear word-finally, nor are they affected by mutation. For example, '''z<u>į</u>''' 'top' is '''zų''' in the nominative and '''zųų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added, and '''kechã''' 'father' is '''kechã''' in the nominative and '''kechãt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
=== Light and heavy phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The consonants of the Wendoth proto-language, together with the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', are called the weighted phonemes, because they can be organised into pairs, where in each pair one phoneme is said to be light and the other is said to be heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~h~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''ng''' after a consonant or a word boundary, '''h''' after non-close vowels and '''∅''' after close vowels and before a consonant or a word boundary.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ/r''' (the two consonants merged when heavy) is '''x''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the underlying forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable. The consonant is underlined to remind the reader that it may also appear as its heavy counterpart.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with morphemes that contain the light reflex of '''ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''ŋ''', '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* If a morpheme has the light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this light reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>nj</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>nj</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''nj'''. For example, '''woḍe<sup>nja</sup>''' 'rest' is '''woḍe''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''owḍenjaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''h'''. For example, '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure' is '''zhate''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''azhtehoq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added. <br />
** Historically, the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' also alternated when it occured at the beginning of a morpheme, being realised as '''ng''' word-initially and '''h''' when following a morpheme ending in a lax vowel, and disappearing when following a morpheme ending in a tense vowel. But this alternation has been levelled out by analogy in all morphemes, so that morpheme-initial '''<sup>ng</sup>''' has become indistinguishable from non-alternating '''ng''' (the heavy reflex of PW '''n'''). For example, '''ngįą''' 'be big' (< PW '''ŋuʔeʔ''') is '''ngįą''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''oungįą''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' (< PW '''ɣaɦu-''') is added, even though '''ɣaɦu-ŋuʔeʔ''' should have become '''*ouįą''' by regular sound change.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''g''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''g''' is written as '''<u>q</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>q</u>''' is realised as '''q'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''kų<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be to the west' is '''kųq''' in the non-past indicative but '''ųkhaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ''' or '''r''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<u>x</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>x</u>''' is realised as '''x'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' is '''rokex''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''orkeheq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme begins with the heavy reflex of PW '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', and the morpheme may follow another morpheme within the same word, or if its initial syllable may be inverted by transformation, then this heavy reflex of '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' (or possibly '''<u>q</u>''' or '''<u>x</u>''', if the morpheme consists of this single consonant followed by a final lax vowel, and the morpheme can occur as the final morpheme in the word). This '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when it follows a morpheme that ends in a lax vowel, and disappears otherwise. For example, '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį''' 'be friendly' is '''ewaį''' in the non-past indicative, and still '''ouewaį''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' is added, but '''ophewaį''' when the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is one more consonant alternation to take note of (besides weight alternations, which we will go into below): morpheme-final nasals and '''h''' disappear before consonants. Morpheme-final '''nj''' and its heavy counterpart '''h''', of course, disappear word-finally as well, so that they only actually appear before close vowels. These disappearing morpheme-final nasals are ''not'' normally written in superscript, for two reasons: first, there is a need to distinguish '''ng''', which only disappears before consonants, from '''<sup>ng</sup>''', which disappears word-finally and after close vowels as well, and, secondly, these morpheme-final nasals do not disappear if no suffixes are added, so they are generally present in the most unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
Some examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' is '''nojem''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''an'jeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
** When the solid inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added, '''nojem''' becomes '''nojemį'''. This is despite the fact '''nojem''' and '''-į''' come from Pre-Wendoth '''naɣem''' and '''-ʔe''' respectively, and '''naɣemʔe''' would regularly develop into '''nojendį'''. Historically, palatalised PW '''m''' was prevented from developing into '''nd''' word-finally (before the loss of final lax vowels, which has resulted all instances of word-final '''nd''' in Wendoth), and the '''m''' was generalised into the other forms in words like '''nojem'''. This is why no Wendoth morphemes end in '''nd''', even though it patterns as a nasal with regards to weight alternations.<br />
* '''waun''' 'lie' is '''waun''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''wauq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''sing''' '2p sg.' is '''sing''' in the nominative but '''sit''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ṭare<sup>nj</sup>''' 'sibling, cousin' is '''ṭare''' in the nominative and '''aṭret''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''aṭrenjį''' when the possessive suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' is '''ngozhebe''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''ngozhebeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''ngozhebehį''' when the countable inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth '''i''' and '''u''' became '''ɨ''' before Pre-Wendoth nasals, and later this '''ɨ''' merged with '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere. However, this change occured after the disappearance of nasals before a consonant. Therefore, in Wendoth there are some morphemes in which the vowel before the final nasal, which is a reflex of PW '''ɨ''', alternates between '''i''' and '''u''' depending on the following consonant. In all of these morphemes, the vowel follows a non-labial consonant (for if it follows a labial consonant PW '''ɨ''' is reliably realised as '''u'''). If the vowel is before '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng''', it will be '''u''' when a suffix beginning with a labial consonant is added and will be '''i''' otherwise. If the vowel is before '''m''', it will be '''i''' when a suffix beginning with a non-labial consonant is added and will be '''u''' otherwise. Either way, vowels like this are written '''ü'''. For example, '''ngü<sup>h</sup>''' (< PW '''nuŋ'''), the past-tense stem of '''nge''' 'see', is '''ngi''' in the specific indicative and '''ngup''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added. <br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has a kind of right-to-left consonant harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes to acquire the same weight as a weighted phoneme in a following syllable. However, it is somewhat limited in application. It is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''a''' to become palatalised if '''i''' or '''e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''a''' and the '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, weighted phonemes that may alternate due to weight harmony are written underlined. However, it is possible to predict which consonants will be affected by weight harmony, according to the following rules.<br />
<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''o''' is affected by weight harmony.<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''a''' is affected by weight harmony as long as the following syllable begins with a nasal consonant. (If the syllable containing the '''a''' ends with an underlying coda nasal, this does not cause the consonant to be affected by weight harmony.)<br />
<br />
The same cannot be said for close vowels; only those originating from Pre-Wendoth '''ʔa''' and '''ɦa''' are affected by weight harmony, but it is impossible to distinguish these close vowels from others from the surrounding phonemes. This is why the underlining is necessary.<br />
<br />
Alternating weighted phonemes manifest as light phonemes if the following syllable begins with a light phoneme, unless the light phoneme is itself in a position where it is affected by weight harmony (and is therefore light only due to weight harmony). Otherwise, they manifest as heavy. Syllables beginning with a light consonant that is not affected by weight harmony are said to be light, and non-light syllables are said to be heavy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍa<u>į</u>''' 'rock' is '''ḍaų''' in the nominative, but '''ḍaįt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative, but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* Adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''', but adding it to '''chį<sup>ng</sup>''' 'remember' results in '''otchį'''.<br />
<br />
Weight harmony applies before all other morphophonological rules. So, for example, '''<u>nj</u>''', '''<u>g</u>''', '''<u>j</u>''' and '''<u>r</u>''' show their usual alternations depending on which form they take.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth words alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms of the word. It is convenient to say that every word has an untransformed and transformed form, although some have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a root takes depends on both morphological and syntactic considerations. In general, it depends on morphology:<br />
<br />
* Nouns are transformed when they are in the accusative or dative case and when a postpositional clitic or noun class suffix is added to the noun.<br />
* Verbs are transformed when they are in the generic aspect or the subjunctive mood and when a noun class prefix or suffix is added to the verb.<br />
* Determiners are transformed except when they agree with nouns of superclass 2 or 3 that are in the nominative case.<br />
<br />
However, there are some exceptions to these rules, where heads that end in vowels prevent transformation of a following complement. For example, determiners may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following NP, and verbs may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following VP. When a transformed word, beginning with a vowel, follows a word that ends with a lax vowel, it is common for the final lax vowel of the preceding word to be elided in non-careful speech. The most common word this occurs with is '''be''' 'I', so, for example, '''be opyatorą''' 'I woke up' is often pronounced as '''b'opyatorą'''. Other words to which often applies include the distal demonstratives '''va''' and '''xe'''.<br />
<br />
In general, transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. (Diphthongs are counted as single Vs.) For example, the transformed form of '''kashų''' 'blood (acc.)' is '''akshų''' and the transformed form of '''noijių''' 'lip (acc.)' is '''oinjių'''. But transformation does not have any effect if the following syllable begins with a tense vowel, rather than a consonant. For example, the transformed form of '''suų''' 'person (acc.)' is '''suų'''. It also does not have any effect if the initial syllable begins with an underlying vowel (which will always be a close vowel), so, for example, the transformed form of '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)' is '''įbuų'''.<br />
<br />
However, if the initial syllable begins with underlying '''<sup>h</sup>''', this '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when the word is transformed. For example, the transformed form of '''ewaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past ind.)' is '''ehwaįq''' (the citation form is '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį'''). Since words beginning with a close vowel might have an underlying initial '''<sup>h</sup>''' too, this meant that the transformed forms of such words were unpredictable: a '''h''' might be inserted after the initial close vowel, or (more commonly) it might not be inserted. This was a highly unstable situation, so the Wendoth languages all simplified it if they preserved these alternations at all. Some of them generalised the '''h'''-insertion to apply to all words beginning with a vowel, so that the transformed form of '''įbuų''' became '''įhbuų'''. Otherwise start to only insert '''h''' in the transformed forms of words beginning with a lax vowel.<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a lax vowel to precede a nasal. For example, the transformed form of '''medųų''' 'forehead (acc.)' is '''umdųų'''. Although the reverse process probably occured in an early stage of Wendoth, where a vowel is 'un-mutated' when it comes to no longer precede an (underlying) nasal, this seems to have been levelled out by analogy, so the transformed form of '''siqį''' 'for you (sg.)' (< '''sing''' 'you (sg.)' + '''-qį''' 'for') is '''isqį''', not '''esqį'''. In fact, vowel mutation due to transformation also had a strong tendency to be levelled out by analogy in the Wendoth languages, although it does survive to some extent.<br />
<br />
The effect of transformation on prefixes is worthy of special notice. In a word with a prefix added, the initial syllable often coincides with the prefix. Therefore, transformation has the effect of reversing the prefix. For example, the transformed form of '''todhemer''' 'he moves away from (spec. ind.)', which has the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' added, is '''otdhemer'''. However, when a prefix ending in a lax vowel is added to a stem beginning with a close vowel, a diphthong will be formed and the number of syllables will be unchanged. Transformation still occurs in this case and reverses the whole initial syllable, as usual. This may result in the prefix being broken up phonologically. For example, the transformed form of '''toųmų''' 'he pushes (spec. ind.)' is '''oųtmų'''. The transformed form of '''toįdh''' 'he is imaginary (ind.)' is '''toįdh''', with no reversal, because the word is monosyllabic.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Case ====<br />
<br />
Nouns take three cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are marked by suffixes. In addition, there are seven postpositions which are generally analysed as enclitics. However, each of the possible combinations of case suffixes and postpositional enclitics can be analysed as a case in its own right, in which case there are up to eighteen different cases.<br />
<br />
In general, the nominative case is marked by adding no suffix and keeping the noun untransformed, the accusative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' and transforming the noun, and the dative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' and transforming the noun. But there are complications.<br />
<br />
First of all, nouns can be transformed in the nominative case, because adding a postpositional enclitic causes nouns to be transformed. Likewise, nouns can be untransformed in the accusative and dative cases, because preceding determiners sometimes prevent nouns from transforming.<br />
<br />
Also, there are some nouns which have two different stems. One, which is called the primary stem, is used in the nominative case; the other, which is called the secondary stem, is used in the accusative and dative cases. These nouns also sometimes take slightly different accusative and dative suffixes. Nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III, based on their behaviour in this respect. Type II and III nouns are the ones which have two stems; when introducing such a noun, we give both stems and separate them by a slash, with the primary stem preceding the secondary stem, and we write a hyphen after the secondary stem because it always has a suffix added after it. For example, '''sum''' / '''se-''' is the Wendoth word for 'person'. Note that since the secondary stem always has a suffix added to it, final lax vowels and preceding '''nj''', '''ng''' and '''h''' need not be marked with a superscript.<br />
<br />
===== Type I nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns, which comprise the majority of nouns, have a single stem which ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The accusative and dative suffixes for Type I nouns are, as said above, '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' respectively. There are no complications here apart from regular morphophonological alternations; note, in particular, that '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' induces mutation of the preceding vowel, and '''-<u>į</u>''' is realised as '''-ų''' when no suffix follows.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type I nouns. The nouns are given in their transformed forms in the accusative and dative cases, and in their untransformed forms in the nominative cases, which is what we will usually do when giving nouns in isolation; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed and nouns in the nominative case are not always untransformed. Each cell contains two forms; one is the surface form seen when no extra suffixes are added, and the other, in parentheses, is the underlying form which further suffixes are added to.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'blood'<br />
| kash<sup>e</sup><br />
| kash (kash<sup>e</sup>)<br />
| akshų (kash<u>į</u>)<br />
| akshum (kashum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'success'<br />
| sas<sup>a</sup><br />
| sas (sas<sup>a</sup>)<br />
| assaų (sasa<u>į</u>)<br />
| assem (sasem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'water'<br />
| i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup><br />
| ix (i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>)<br />
| ihoų (iho<u>į</u>)<br />
| iham (iham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'forehead'<br />
| medų<br />
| medų (medų)<br />
| umdųų (medų<u>į</u>)<br />
| umdųm (medųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type II nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have a primary stem which ends in a tense vowel. All nouns with primary stems ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of type II, but some nouns with primary stems ending in close vowels are of Type III instead.<br />
<br />
For Type II nouns, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears. <!-- and if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it will sometimes, but not always, change into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>'''. (but this need not be indicated because all suffixes are heavy) --><br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. Note that if it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant should, on the basis of etymology, become alternating in the secondary stem. But the secondary stem is always followed by a case suffix, and both case suffixes begin with a heavy syllable, so the alternation does not have any effect. There is, therefore, no need to indicate the alternation when the secondary stem is written down.<br />
<br />
The nominative and dative suffixes for Type II nouns are mostly the same as with Type I nouns, but there is a change in the accusative suffix: it is '''-<u>į</u>''', as usual, if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', it is '''-<u>i</u>'''; i.e., the voice of the vowel in the accusative suffix agrees with the voice of the final tense vowel of the primary stem.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type II nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'fire'<br />
| yį<br />
| ye-<br />
| yį (yį)<br />
| yų (yų)<br />
| yum (yum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'lip'<br />
| noiji <br />
| noije-<br />
| noiji (noiji)<br />
| oin'ju (oin'j<u>i</u>)<br />
| oin'jum (oin'jum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'milk'<br />
| dewų<br />
| dewe-<br />
| dewų (dewų)<br />
| edwų (dew<u>į</u>)<br />
| edwum (dewum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'wood'<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohe-<br />
| fohu (fohu)<br />
| ofhu (foh<u>i</sup>)<br />
| ofhum (fohum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'fall'<br />
| zashą<br />
| zasha-<br />
| zashą (zashą) <br />
| azshaų (zasha<u>į</u>)<br />
| azshem (zashem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'father'<br />
| kechã<br />
| keche-<br />
| kechã (kechã)<br />
| ekchu (kech<u>i</u>)<br />
| ekchum (kechum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'death'<br />
| yehą<br />
| yeho-<br />
| yehą (yehą)<br />
| eyhoų (yeho<u>į</u>)<br />
| eyham (yeham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'clan'<br />
| cawųã<br />
| cawų-<br />
| cawųã (cawųã)<br />
| cawųu (cawų<u>i</u>)<br />
| cawųm (cawųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type III nouns =====<br />
<br />
All nouns with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''<sup>h</sup>''' are of Type III; the Type III nouns also include some nouns whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III nouns, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' of the primary stem is deleted, and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is '''a''', and this '''a''' is preceded by a consonant, then, in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''', this consonant becomes alternating and is written with an underline. The consonant will almost always be light, so that this alternation has an affect, but there is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one', which has the secondary stem '''mo-''' (there is no need to write '''<u>nd</u>o-''' because the stem is always followed by a heavy syllable).<br />
<br />
The nominative and accusative suffixes are the same as for Type I nouns, but there is a change in the dative suffix: it is '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''m''', '''-ng<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''n''' or '''ng''', and '''-<sup>ha</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type III nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'person'<br />
| sum<br />
| se-<br />
| sum<br />
| sų<br />
| sum<br />
|-<br />
| 'forest'<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbu-<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbuų<br />
| įbung<br />
|-<br />
| 'sand'<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųza-<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųzaų<br />
| ųzeng<br />
|-<br />
| 'heart'<br />
| taunj<br />
| tau-<br />
| tau<br />
| tauų<br />
| tau<br />
|-<br />
| 'effect'<br />
| <sup>h</sup>au<sup>h</sup><br />
| <sup>h</sup>au-<br />
| au<br />
| auų<br />
| au<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Number ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not inflect nouns for number, although it does distinguish number for human (and bovine) referents by indirect means: humans and bovines in the singular take one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifiers (depending on whether they are male or female) and humans and bovines in the plural take the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifier. See [[#Noun classes|Noun classes]]] for more on this.<br />
<br />
It is possible to form collectives by reduplication, but this is far from being a true plural marker; not only is it entirely optional, it is also not wholly productive. Furthermore, many collectives have somewhat more specific meanings than simply referring to a group of the usual referents of the noun; for example, '''cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eyes' and '''tetepum''' / '''tetepe-'''' 'ears' refer specifically to the pair of eyes or ears on an individual human's face; a heap of severed ears, for example, could not be referred to as '''tetepum'''.<br />
<br />
==== Postpositional enclitics ====<br />
<br />
The postpositional enclitics are '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' and '''-zh<sup>a</sup>''', the locative postpositions, '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''', the genitive postpositions, '''-shã''', the instrumental postposition, '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', the comitative postposition, and '''-qį''', the benefactive postposition. Of these postpositions, the last three have the greatest claim to being case suffixes; in particular, '''-shã''' appears to have at least gone through a stage as a case suffix in every Wendoth language. Each of these three postpositions, '''-shã''', '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', and '''-qį''', are added only after nouns in the nominative case, so no suffix comes in between them and the noun stem.<br />
<br />
The genitive postpositions, on the other hand, can be added after the accusative suffix; they take a nominative object if the possession is alienable, and an accusative object if the possession is inalienable. The difference between '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is subtle and it is to some extent unpredictable which is used; however, one generalisations which can be made is that '''-į''' is used only to indicate possession of inanimates by animates. Hence it is used to indicate possession of body parts or personal characteristics (which are inalienable), and possession of personal or social property (which is alienable). '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for other kinds of possession: possession of kin, parts of a whole (these are all examples of inalienable possession). The most common kind of alienable possession '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for is posession of an agent or patient by an action (this is not really alienable possession in semantic terms, but it is treated as such).<br />
<br />
The accusative case suffixes '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-<u>i</u>''' are irregularly realised as '''-ų''' and '''-u''' (not the expected '''į''' and '''i''') before the suffix '''-į''', even though this suffix consists of a light syllable; this is due to dissimilation.<br />
<br />
The locative postpositions can be added after both the accusative and dative suffixes. Their meanings with each kind of object are summarised in the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case of object<br />
! Meaning of t<sup>a</sup><br />
! Meaning of z<sup>a</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Nominative<br />
| Illative ('into')<br />
| Inessive or elative ('in' or 'from the inside of')<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative<br />
| Locative or allative ('at' or 'to')<br />
| Ablative ('from')<br />
|-<br />
| Dative<br />
| Inexact locative ('near')<br />
| Inexact inessive ('somewhere in')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These are the meanings when these postpositions take objects referring to physical objects. These postpositions may also take objects that refer to times, but when they do the object always takes the nominative case. In general, '''t<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to points in time and '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to periods in time. When an indefinite time is referred to, this indefinite time is thought of as a period, so '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used (unlike in English).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhthaq|<u>z</u>o-tha-q<sup>a</sup>|c4-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chechejot.|cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|eyes-at}}<br />
{{glend|At some time it (the animal) will appear.}}<br />
<br />
==== Noun classes ====<br />
<br />
Nouns are classified into eleven classes (although many words can be put in different classes, with different but related senses in each class). The distinction between these classes makes no difference to noun inflection, but it does make a difference to pronoun, determiner and verb inflection. Each of the eleven noun classes is associated with a classifier affix, which may be added to a pronoun, determiner or verb for agreement purposes (although the rules on when to add these affixes are complex, and are covered in the sections on each individual kind of word the affixes can be added to). The classes are customarily referred to by reference to the associated classifier affix (e.g. &lsquo;the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;, &lsquo;the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;). Each class is also associated with a number which is used for glossing purposes: the gloss for the ''n''th class is &lsquo;c''n''&rsquo;. However, the first two classes, the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, are glossed as &lsquo;MASC&rsquo; and &lsquo;FEM&rsquo; respectively.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to male humans (and bulls). Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>acau''' 'man', '''kechã''' 'father', '''po<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Dad', '''posa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'bachelor'.<br />
# The '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to female humans (and cows). Examples: '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman', '''mund<sup>a</sup>''' 'mother', '''qo<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Mum', '''kosa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'spinster'.<br />
# The '''i''' class consists of nouns referring to foodstuffs. Examples: '''iq<sup>a</sup>''' 'meat', '''<sup>h</sup>ang<sup>a</sup>''' 'vegetables', '''geha<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'seeds'.<br />
# The '''<u>zh</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to humans of unspecified gender, groups of humans, and culturally important animals. Its members are referred to as 'strong animates'. Examples: '''sum''' 'person', '''kejazang''' 'cow, bull', '''naketh<sup>e</sup>''' 'large animal', '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog', '''<sup>h</sup>e<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'game (for hunting)'. <br />
# The '''<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to other animals, plants and other things that show some movement not caused by an external object (e.g. fire, wind). Its members are referred to as 'weak animates'. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>oich<sup>a</sup>''' 'bug', '''mop<sup>e</sup>''' 'fish', '''ųha<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tree', '''yį''' 'fire', '''ḍįj<sup>a</sup>''' 'sun', '''awe<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'moon'.<br />
# The '''cüm''' class consists of nouns referring to tools and devices. Examples: '''shexau<u>n</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'spear', '''ndewįth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sword', '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat', '''jhebou''' 'dye'.<br />
# The '''b<u>į</u>''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as mass nouns. It includes words referring to fluids, as well as many others, which are somewhat unpredictably placed in either the '''b<u>į</u>''' class or the '''į''' class. Examples: '''i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'water', '''ṭoq<sup>e</sup>''' 'drinking water', '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood', '''dok<u>u</u>''' 'earth'.<br />
# The '''į''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as countable nouns. Examples: '''ḍa<u>ų</u>''' 'rock', '''ug<sup>e</sup>''' 'mountain', '''ųzeng''' 'grain of sand', '''xob<sup>e</sup>''' 'speck of dust', '''zhaxang''' 'teardrop'.<br />
# The '''thą''' class consists of nouns referring to places, buildings and other things that people are typically on or inside, as well as nouns referring to periods of time. Examples: '''cecum<sup>e</sup>''' 'village', '''bodhoth<sup>e</sup>''' 'wilderness', '''seth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sky', '''įj<sup>a</sup>''' 'day'.<br />
# The '''<u>nd</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to feelings and sensory impressions, including colours and sounds. Examples: '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'anger', '''reįb<sup>e</sup>''' 'black', '''į<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'white', '''įka<u>g</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sound', '''qobeqob<sup>e</sup>''' 'thunder'.<br />
# The '''ḍa<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to ideas and other abstractions. Examples: '''sas<sup>a</sup>''' 'success', '''gaxaihi''' 'respect', '''cawųã''' 'clan', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise', '''wamer<sup>e</sup>''' 'dusk', '''jath<sup>a</sup>''' 'dawn'.<br />
<br />
Of course, nouns often do not clearly fall into in a single one of these classes. Such nouns are assigned to classes somewhat arbitrarily. For example, body part terms are mostly in the '''į''' class, but the words for the principal sensory organs ('''che<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eye', '''tepum''' 'ear', '''zhum''' 'nose', '''tegi''' 'mouth', '''kochu<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue') are in the '''<u>zh</u>o''' class. '''newaų''' 'star' is in the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, perhaps due to an association with '''nihaį''' 'night'. '''boha<sup>h</sup>''' 'field' is in the '''i''' class, probably due to the association with crops. It may also seem odd at first that '''boj<sup>e</sup>''' 'penis' is in the '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but, if you think about it, it makes sense. However, the classes are much more closely related to meaning than, say, the masculine, feminine and neuter classes of German.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, nouns can often be put in several different classes to obtain different but related meanings. However, each noun has a primary class, which it is assumed to be in if there is no classifier affix agreeing with it and explicitly stating its class. Some regular patterns can be identified with regard to these sense alternations between different classes.<br />
* Every noun which refers to a kind of human in its primary sense, whether individual or plural, can be placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class to refer to a group of humans of said kind, and can be placed in at least one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes to refer to a single male or female human of said kind. Any of these three classes might be the primary class of the noun. Nouns in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' can also sometimes refer to plural human referents, but only if the group of humans has a leader of known gender; this should be seen as a kind of metonymic usage where the name of the leader is used to refer to the whole group. The noun '''kejazang''' shows the same pattern as nouns referring to kinds of humans; it means 'bull' in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, 'cow' in the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and 'cattle' in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class (which is the primary one). It is the only noun that can be placed in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes which does not refer to a human. Conversely, the noun '''coįã''' 'foreigner', when it is used with a negative connotation, is placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class even if it refers to a single foreigner of known gender; this is related to the use of the gender markers as honorifics (see below).<br />
* Many nouns referring to animals whose primary class is the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class can also be placed in the '''i''' class to refer to the meat of that animal, consumed as food. This includes '''kejazang''', which means 'beef' in the '''i''' class.<br />
* Nouns referring to inanimates whose primary class is the '''į''' class can be put in the '''b<u>į</u>''' class when it is a group of the inanimate in question, treated as an undifferentiated mass, which is referred to.<br />
<br />
One of the circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used, then, is to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, rather than in the primary class. A brief list of the other circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used is given below.<br />
<br />
* To indicate the presence of a subject or object of a verb or determiner when there is no corresponding subject or object NP (either because it has been dropped&mdash;Wendoth is a pro-drop language&mdash;or because it is not part of the same clause (as in relative clauses) or it has been moved to an unusual syntactic position).<br />
* To indicate the gender of a human referent in the singular. The masculine and feminine classifiers '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' function as a sort of honorific. It is considered impolite to refer to a non-intimate without using the appropriate classifier to indicate their gender, although it is not grammatically required; indeed, it is common to drop the classifiers when one wishes to deliberately insult somebody, or when referring to somebody from an enemy tribe. However, with children and intimates, it is permissible to drop the classifiers without any insulting connotations (the youngest children, in fact, are seen as non-gendered; '''yandį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'baby', for example, is of the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class). During courtship, one would refer to one's lover with the appropriate classifier, but after marriage the spouse is considered an intimate, and usually the husband and wife stop needing to use the classifiers to refer to each other (although there are some marriages in which this stage is never reached). Note that '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' is always used to refer to human referents in the plural.<br />
* To disambiguate referents.<br />
* To make the sentence fit a meter, or alliterate, so that it sounds better.<br />
<br />
==== Mass and count nouns ====<br />
<br />
Nouns in classes '''i''', '''b<u>į</u>''' and '''<u>nd</u>o''' are mass nouns, and nouns in the other classes are count nouns. The distinction is generally unimportant, but the determiners '''ma<u>sh</u>-''' 'much' and '''<u>i</u><u>d</u>-''' 'many' are used with mass and count nouns respectively, and the determiners '''pa<u>j</u>-''' 'little' and '''re<u>dh</u>''' 'few' are used with mass and count nouns respectively.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with their head nouns in case and noun class. But only the nominative case is distinguished from the other cases by agreement; the accusative and dative cases take the same agreement markers. Likewise, the noun classes are grouped into four superclasses with respect to agreement, so that there are eight different agreement markers in total. The superclasses are:<br />
<br />
# gendered humans (covering the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C1')<br />
# foodstuffs, non-gendered humans and groups of humans, and non-human animates (covering the '''i''', '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C2')<br />
# concrete inanimates (covering the '''cum''', '''b<u>į</u>''', '''į''' and '''thą''' classes) (gloss 'C3')<br />
# abstract inanimates (covering the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C4')<br />
<br />
Nouns in the first two superclasses can be collectively referred to as animate nouns, and nouns in the second two superclasses can be collectively referred to as inanimate nouns.<br />
<br />
There are also some determiners which can (optionally) take classifier suffixes to allow the exact class of a noun to be indicated. These are precisely the demonstrative and interrogative determiners, which are also the determiners which have pronominal counterparts, and show other unique syntactic behaviour. The classifier suffixes are added after the regular agreement suffixes. Other determiners cannot take classifier suffixes.<br />
<br />
The stems of determiners agreeing with nouns in the nominative always have a weighted phoneme at the end, although the weighted phoneme is followed by the lax vowel '''e''' (never any other vowel) if it is a consonant. This weighted phoneme is called the alternating part of the determiner. If the noun is animate, the weighted phoneme manifests as light. If the noun is inanimate, the weighted phoneme manifests as heavy. Determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 1 are distinguished from those agreeing with nouns in superclass 2 by having an extra suffix '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem (which causes mutation of the final '''e''' if it is present), and determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 4 are distinguished from determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 3 by having an extra suffix '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem; determiners agreeing with nouns in superclasses 2-3 do not have any suffix added after the stem. If the noun is in the accusative or dative case, the only thing that changes is that '''ą''' is inserted at the end of the stem, replacing the final lax vowel if one is present.<br />
<br />
The following table summarises the declension of determiners by giving all the possible endings that may occur (with the endings starting at and including the alternating part). '''Y''' denotes the light manifestation of the determiner's alternating part and '''W''' denotes its heavy manifestation. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Yin<sup>a</sup>, -Yn<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
| -Y<sup>e</sup>, -Y<sup>1</sup><br />
| -W<sup>e</sup>, -W<sup>1</sup><br />
| -Wedh<sup>a</sup>, -Wdh<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| -Yąn<sup>a</sup><br />
| -Yą<br />
| -Wą<br />
| -Wądh<sup>a</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The '''e''' or '''i''' in these suffixes is not present if the alternating part is a close vowel.<br />
<br />
The usual morphophonological alternations also occur.<br />
<br />
* The final lax vowels that are present in all the endings except '''-Yą''' and '''-Wą''' disappear unless a suffix is added after them. Final '''e''' disappears even if a suffix is added, if that suffix begins with a close vowel.<br />
* If the alternating part is preceded by '''o''' (if the alternating part is non-nasal) or '''a''' (if the alternating part is nasal), then the consonant before the '''o''' or '''a''' is affected by weight harmony and takes on the same weight as the alternating part. These alternating consonants are underlined in the citation forms. Close vowels preceding the alternating part may also be affected by weight harmony, but not all of them; as usual, those that are affected are underlined.<br />
<br />
Determiners are untransformed when they agree with nominative nouns in superclasses 2 or 3, unless they have an additional noun class affix added (see below). Otherwise, they are transformed.<br />
<br />
In addition, determiners, which generally occupy the initial position within an NP, prevent transformation of the following word under certain circumstances, generally when the determiner ends in a vowel. More specifically, transformation is prevented when the alternating part of the determiner is a consonant and the determiner ends in '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with an accusative/dative noun in superclass 2 or 3), or the alternating part of the determiner is a close vowel and the determiner ends in that vowel or '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with a noun in superclass 2 or 3). Note that this does not include the case where the alternating part of the determiner is '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' and this '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' disappears when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 or 3. In that case, the determiner does end in a vowel but '''h''' is inserted (as usual) to break up the hiatus produced if the following word is transformed.<br />
<br />
As the three other stems of a determiner are deducible from any given stem, there is no need to give all four stems when introducing a new determiner. Instead, we just give the common stem up to the alternating part, which is given in its light manifestation, and leave a trailing hyphen. From this, all four stems can easily be derived.<br />
<br />
Some example determiner declensions are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! re<u>dh</u>- 'few'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| erdhin<br />
| redh<br />
| rev<br />
| ervedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| erdhąn<br />
| erdhą<br />
| ervą<br />
| ervądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>i</u><u>d</u>- 'many'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| idin<br />
| id<br />
| ub <br />
| ubedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| idąn<br />
| idą<br />
| ubą<br />
| ubądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>ṭ</u>o<u>į</u>- 'this'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| choįn<br />
| choį<br />
| ṭoų <br />
| ṭoųdh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| choįąn<br />
| choįą<br />
| ṭoųą<br />
| ṭoųądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! mane<u>r</u>- 'only'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| amnerin<br />
| maner<br />
| mane<br />
| amnehedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| amnerąn<br />
| manerą<br />
| manehą<br />
| amnehądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Singular<br />
!colspan="2"| Plural<br />
|-<br />
! inclusive<br />
! exclusive<br />
|-<br />
! First-person<br />
| be<br><br />
ḍã<br />
| seb<sup>e</sup>, sub<sup>e</sup><br><br />
umḍã<br />
| <sup>h</sup>e<u>k</u><sup>o</sup><br><br />
aḍḍã<br />
|-<br />
! Second-person<br />
| süng / se-, se<br><br />
mu<br />
|colspan="2"|ni / ne-<br><br />
ummu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each personal pronoun (except the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''; see below). In each cell, the first form given is used as the stem in the nominative and dative cases, and has the usual nominative and dative case suffixes added after it, while the second form given is the full form in the accusative case; it does not have the usual accusative case suffix added after it. Accordingly, the second form has been given in its transformed form. Note, however, that the second form will not always be transformed, due to preceding determiners. The untransformed forms of '''umḍã''', '''aḍḍã''' and '''ummu''' are '''muḍã''', '''ḍaḍã''' and '''mumu''', respectively.<br />
<br />
The variants '''süng''' / '''se-''' and '''se''' are attested from different Wendoth languages; likewise with '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' and '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''. The two variations are independent; for example, there are many Wendoth languages which show reflexes of '''süng''' / '''se-''' rather than '''se''', but which also show reflexes of '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' rather than '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; noun class affixes serve their purpose in subject and object positions, and demonstratives with an appropriate noun class affix serve their purpose in other positions. There is one more personal pronoun which is not listed in the table above: the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''. This pronoun declines regularly; there is no suppletion in the accusative case as with the other pronouns. It is mainly used as an indirect object or as the object of a postpositional phrase, as the verbal reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' is used for the same purpose to indicate a reflexive object. It can be used as an direct object, along with an agreeing reflexive suffix, for emphasis.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otnevįsh|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-n<sup>e</sup>-vį-sh<sup>a</sup>|MASC-DETR-do-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|owqį.|<u>y</u>o-qį|REFL-for}}<br />
{{glend|Everything he does is for his own benefit.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|no}}<br />
{{gl|oįtwangew|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-įwang<sup>e</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-love-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|''woų''!|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>|REFL-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|No, you love ''yourself''!}}<br />
<br />
==== Demonstratives ====<br />
<br />
There are seven different demonstratives, which can be used as both pronouns and determiners.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Noun<br />
! Determiner<br />
|-<br />
| First-person<br />
| <u>ch</u>o, ṭob<sup>e</sup><br />
| <u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>, ṭob<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Second person<br />
| ṭosüng / ṭose-, ṭos<sup>e</sup><br />
| ṭosi<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>, ṭos<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Non-directed<br />
| jhã / jha-<br />
| jh<u>i</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, visible<br />
| va<br />
| va<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, invisible<br />
| xe<br />
| x<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, visible<br />
| vav<sup>a</sup><br />
| vava<u>į</u>, va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, invisible<br />
| xex<sup>e</sup><br />
| xex<u>į</u>, xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each demonstrative pronoun, along with the corresponding determiners (which are given in their citation forms). For the first-person demonstratives, two different forms are attested, one with the suffix '''-b<sup>e</sup>''' (from the first-person singular pronoun), by analogy with the second-person demonstratives, and one without. The second-person demonstrative's two variants correspond to the two variants of the second-person singular pronoun. As for the two variants of the superdistal demonstrative determiners, it is probable that '''va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup>''' and '''xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup>''' are the older forms, while '''vava<u>į</u>''' and '''xex<u>į</u>''' are formed by analogy with '''va<u>į</u>''' and '''x<u>į</u>'''.<br />
<br />
The first-person and second-person demonstratives are used to refer to objects close to the speaker and the addressee, respectively. The &lsquo;non-directed&rsquo; demonstrative '''jhã''' / '''jha-''' is used when it does not make sense to speak of the place of the object referred to. For example, it might be used to refer to the place the speaker and addressee are currently in, or it might be used to refer to a sound coming from an unknown location, or it might be used to refer to an idea or topic of conversation. It can usually be glossed as 'this'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jhã|jhã|this}}<br />
{{gl|nethoreth!|nethoreth<sup>e</sup>|be_ridiculous}}<br />
{{glend|This is ridiculous! (referring to a general situation)}}<br />
<br />
The two distal demonstratives are used for objects which are removed from both the speaker and addressee, but relatively close, while the superdistal demonstratives are used for objects which are relatively far away. '''va''' and '''vav<sup>e</sup>''' are used for visible objects and '''xe''' and '''xex<sup>e</sup>''' are used for invisible objects.<br />
<br />
Demonstrative pronouns can optionally take classifier suffixes agreeing with the noun class of their referent. This is especially common when they are used to refer to humans, <br />
<br />
The demonstratives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents in both their pronoun and determiner forms. These are added after case suffixes and agreement suffixes, but before postpositional enclitics. In particular, the demonstrative determiners can sometimes follow, rather than precede, their head noun&mdash;but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
There is a single interrogative determiner, '''nda<u>i</u>''', but there are two interrogative pronouns, '''ndai''' and '''ndau''': '''ndai''' 'who' is used to refer to humans, i.e. referents that could be referred to by a noun in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, or, equivalently, referents that take determiners with the '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' suffix, and '''ndau''' 'what' is used to refer to non-humans. <br />
<br />
The interrogatives also function as indefinites in declarative statements; as mentioned above, there are verbal prefixes and suffixes which can be used as indefinite markers, but using the explicit pronouns has the effect of putting the focus on the indefinite element rather than away from it.<br />
<br />
Like the demonstratives, the interrogatives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents, and they can follow their head noun, but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Noun class affixes on demonstratives and interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
Although determiners agree with their head nouns with respect to class, they do not use the usual noun class affixes to do so in general. However, demonstrative and interrogative determiners, unlike all the other determiners, may take a noun class suffix, in addition to their usual agreement suffixes. The suffix follows any of the usual agreement suffixes. Likewise, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns may take a noun class suffix, which follows any case suffix. As usual, addition of these suffixes is entirely optional but it may be used to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents or for metrical / alliterative purposes. It is also possible for demonstrative and interrogative determiners to follow their complement NPs rather than precede them, as normal, in which case they always have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the complement NP.<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth do not appear to have been a very numerate people. Most of the numerals have transparent etymologies, and there appear to have been several variants of quite a few of them. Reconstructing numerals beyond 12 is impossible, and it is likely that these were formed on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<br />
<br />
The first three cardinal numbers have both nominal and determiner forms, which are used in free variation. For the numeral 1, the determiner form was the most common one, but the reverse was the situation for 2 and 3. Hardly any of the Wendoth languages preserve the determiner form of 2 in its original sense, and none of them preserve the determiner form of 3. Instead, the more common change has been for the determiner forms of 2 and 3 (sometimes just 3) to change sense and become used as ordinal numerals instead, paralleling '''i<u>r</u>-''', the ordinal numeral 1. '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''', listed here as the ordinal numeral 2, is best glossed as 'other', as it has a wider sense, more comparable to that English word than 'second'. Hence, in the languages that started to use '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' to mean 'second', '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''' often survived as 'other'.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals higher than 2 cannot be reconstructed. The Wendoth languages exhibit a wide variety of constructions for these. It is quite possible that there was simply no way of forming these ordinals in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The following numeral forms can be reconstructed:<br />
<br />
# '''mang''' / '''<u>nd</u>o-''' (determiner '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', ordinal determiner '''i<u>r</u>-''')<br />
# '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''')<br />
# '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''', '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u>-''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>-'''<br />
# '''che(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''ndache(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''chechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįqeche(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''jot(eh)ajote<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''che(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# ['''ahajabą''' / '''ahaja<u>d</u>o-'''] ('''chechetate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''chet(eh)achete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
<br />
The forms of the numeral 1 are presumably of ancient origin, as is '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'second' (which is also used in the sense of 'other'). Influence from the determiner form may be the reason why Pre-Wendoth '''man''' become '''mang''' as a noun rather than the expected '''*ndan'''. Note that in addition to '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', there is also a determiner '''u<u>i</u><u>y</u>''' meaning 'single, exactly one'.<br />
<br />
The cardinal numeral 2, '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''', shows no relation to '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>'''. In fact, it likely originated from a Pre-Wendoth word '''ʔeʔeku''', which was reduplicated from a root, '''ʔeku''', meaning 'finger'. We also see this root in '''nguįq<sup>e</sup>''' 'be cunning, clever' (< PW '''ŋun-ʔeku''' 'use the finger'), although no trace of it survives otherwise (the word for 'finger' in Wendoth is '''įau''', which is a compound formed from '''į-''', the secondary stem of '''įą''' 'hand', and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end'). The determiner form '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' fell out of use in most of the Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
The two forms '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' and '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' of the cardinal numeral 3 both originate from compounds of the numerals for one and two. In Pre-Wendoth, such a compound would have looked like '''man-ʔeʔeku'''. But it seems that the '''n-ʔ''' cluster was simplified to either '''n''' or '''ʔ''' in different dialects, accounting for the two forms. It seems also that the determiner form of 3 was formed in an entirely different way, by appending the '''che-''' prefix to '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>'''. Perhaps '''ch(eg)ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' was once another variant of the cardinal numeral 3, but no trace of it survives. In every Wendoth language in which the form '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' survives, it has come to be used exclusively as an ordinal.<br />
<br />
The numeral 5, '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>''' 'five', is identical with the word for 'fist' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''), and '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' The numeral 10 originates from a reduplication of the same word. Presumably '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' was once a Type II noun with the primary stem '''tatehą''', but the primary stem fell out of use and it became a Type I noun. As for the numeral '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' 'twelve', it is of unknown origin. But in some languages its meaning is 'one hundred', which suggests that 'twelve' may be a anachronistic reconstruction&mdash;it probably originally just meant 'a large quantity'.<br />
<br />
The other numerals are formed from compounds. Some of these make use of the verbs '''<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'precede' and '''ch<sup>e</sup>''' 'succeed'. These verbs in their plain forms are obselete in Wendoth, having been replaced by forms with the verb '''g<sup>e</sup>''' compounded on the end&mdash;'''jog<sup>e</sup>''' and '''cheg<sup>e</sup>'''&mdash;and many of the Wendoth languages have inserted '''-g<sup>e</sup>''' into at least some of these numerals accordingly. The secondary stem '''te<sup>ha</sup>''' for 'five' is used in these compounds (as is typical for the compounds in Wendoth of more ancient origin).<br />
<br />
In some Wendoth languages, the '''jo-''' and '''che-''' prefixes are added twice to form the numerals for 7, 8 and/or 12. This must be of recent origin, because the '''jo-''' prefix is unaffected by weight harmony: PW '''ɣaɣapepeŋo''' would result in '''*<sup>h</sup>ojotate<sup>ha</sup>''' rather than '''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>'''. Other languages have formed the forms for 8 and 12 by reduplicating the forms for 4 and 6, resulting in '''jotehajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetehachete<sup>ha</sup>''', which were then simplified to '''jotajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetachete<sup>ha</sup>''' (the loss of a sequence of the form '''Vh''' is attested in a few other compounds, such as '''kejazang''' 'cattle', which was originally '''kejazohang''' < PW '''kiɣa-zo ran''' 'kept aurochs'). More commonly, though, the numerals for 7 and 8 were simply formed as additive compounds (with the smaller numeral preceding the larger one), and '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' was used for the numeral 12.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Each verb in Wendoth has a primary stem, used in the non-past tense, and a secondary stem, used in the non-past tense. Finite verbs take additional suffixes marking for mood (indicative vs. subjunctive, subjunctive being the marked mood) and, for some verbs, aspect (specific vs. generic, generic being the marked mood). They can also, optionally, take noun class affixes to agree with their arguments (prefixes agree with subjects, suffixes agree with objects); the noun class suffixes follow the subjunctive and generic suffixes if present. Finally, there are a few verbal enclitics which follow the noun class suffixes and are used for misellaneous purposes: negation, imperatives, etc.<br />
<br />
Verbs are transformed whenever an affix is added (which might be a noun class affix or the subjunctive or generic marker), but not necessarily when an enclitic is added, or when the secondary stem is used rather than the primary stem.<br />
<br />
Verbs may be intransitive, monotransitive or ditransitive. Some monotransitive verbs take their object in the dative case, such as '''kaų<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'wash'. These dative objects can still be considered indirect objects, because it is impossible to add a noun class suffix to a verb to agree with its dative object. Noun class suffixes can only agree with objects in the accusative case.<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
<br />
Just like nouns, based on the relation between the primary and secondary stem, verbs can be classified into three kinds.<br />
<br />
===== Type I verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type I verbs, which comprise the majority of verbs, have a primary stem that ends in a lax vowel or close vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in a lax vowel are of Type I, but some verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type II.<br />
<br />
For Type I verbs, in the secondary stem, the final vowel is mutated, and either '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is usually added to the end of the stem. The secondary stem can be regularly derived from the primary stem.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''į''', '''i''' or a light consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>nj</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a heavy consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>h</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''ų''' or '''u''', then the secondary stem is exactly the same as the primary stem, so the past and present tenses are not distinguished for these verbs.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', then the secondary stem has non-alternating '''į''' or '''i''' instead and has '''<sup>nj</sup>''' added afterwards.<br />
<br />
In general, however, the distinction between which of the two consonants are added is irrelevant, because both '''<sup>nj</sup>''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappear word-finally and before consonants, leaving only the mutation of the final lax vowel to differentiate the two stems. The only time the distinction is relevant is when a suffix beginning with a close vowel (one of the noun class suffixes '''-i''' or '''-į''', the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''', or the possessive suffix '''-į''') is added to the secondary stem, in which case '''<sup>nj</sup>''' appears as '''nj''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' appears as '''h''' (or disappears, if a tense vowel precedes it).<br />
<br />
Note that if the primary stem ends in '''e''', and the consonant preceding the '''e''' is not labial, the mutation in the secondary stem turns this '''e''' into '''ü''', which is realised as '''i''' most of the time but as '''u''' if a suffix is added to the secondary stem which begins with a labial consonant, i.e. one of the noun class suffixes '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' (if they are not followed by a light syllable) and '''-b<u>į</u>''', or the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''per<sup>e</sup>''' 'be under' has the secondary stem '''perü<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''qawang<sup>e</sup>''' 'explore' has the secondary stem '''qawangü'''.<br />
* '''uzhec<sup>a</sup>''' 'travel' has the secondary stem '''uzhece<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ṭase<u>q</u>a''' 'wear' has the secondary stem '''ṭasehe<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
* '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' has the secondary stem '''veqeya<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''cuį''' 'lack' has the secondary stem '''cuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndotau''' 'be cruel' has the secondary stem '''ndotau'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>ųm<u>į</u>''' 'push' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>ųmį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type II verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type II verbs have a primary stem that ends in an underlying tense vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of Type II, but most verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type I rather than Type II. <br />
<br />
For Type II verbs, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears.<br />
** Even if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it never changes into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', because the only light syllable that can be added after the secondary stem is the past tense suffix, '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''', and although historically, some instances of '''ų''' and '''u''' did change to '''į''' and '''i''' before this suffix due to weight harmony, dissimilation resulted in them changing back into '''ų''' and '''u'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. If it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant will become alternating in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, a suffix is added to the secondary stem: '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a creaky-voiced vowel ('''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą''') and '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a breathy-voiced vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''). This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''į''' or '''i''' to change into '''ų''' or '''u''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''megį''' 'take' has the secondary stem '''mege-''' and the past tense form '''megį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''uįqu''' 'split' has the secondary stem '''uįqe-''' and the past tense form '''uįqi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''unjã''' 'make dirty' has the secondary stem '''unja-''' and the past tense form '''unjai<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndųbą''' 'bend' has the secondary stem '''nduba-''' and the past tense form '''ndųbaį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''yehą''' 'be dead' has the secondary stem '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''yegoį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''iã''' 'be above' has the secondary stem '''i-''' and the past tense form '''ui<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ḍoųã''' 'crush, grind' has the secondary stem '''ḍoų-''' and the past tense form '''ḍoųi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''dhįuą''' 'be in pain' has the secondary stem '''dhįu-''' (historically '''dhį<u>i</u>-''') and the past tense form '''dhįuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type III verbs =====<br />
<br />
All verbs with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''h''' are of Type III; the Type III verbs also include some verbs whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''h'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III verbs, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''h''' of the primary stem is deleted (if it is present) and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem, and the preceding light phoneme becomes alternating.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''' and '''i''' in the primary stem sometimes become alternating in the secondary stem. Otherwise, they remain unchanged.<br />
* '''ų''' in the primary stem remains unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, the suffix '''-u''' is added to the secondary stem. This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''ų''' or '''u''' to change into '''į''' or '''i''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍaxendam''' 'lie down' has the secondary stem '''ḍaxe<u>nd</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''ḍaxemou'''.<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' has the secondary stem '''noja-''' and the past tense form '''nojau'''.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' has the secondary stem '''ngozheba-''' and the past tense form '''ngozhebau'.<br />
* '''gemahüng''' 'enjoy' has the secondary stem '''gemahe-''' and the past tense form '''gemahu'''.<br />
* '''shehumu''' 'bring' has the secondary stem '''shehume-''' and the past tense form '''shehumu'''.<br />
* '''chį<sup>nj</sup>''' 'remember' has the secondary stem '''chį-''' and the past tense form '''chį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'touch' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>au-''' and the past tense form '''<sup>h</sup>aiu'''.<br />
* '''cedhing''' 'lift' has the secondary stem '''cedh<u>i</u>-''' and the past tense form '''cedhiu''' (but as a verbal noun, in the accusative case, it is '''cedhuų''').<br />
<br />
==== Aspect and mood ====<br />
<br />
The subjunctive suffix is '''-q<sup>a</sup>''', and the generic suffix is '''-sh<sup>a</sup>'''. If both suffixes are added, the generic suffix precedes the subjunctive suffix. Apart from the usual morphophonological alternations (the final '''a'''s of both suffixes disappear when no extra suffix is added), there are no complications in adding these suffixes.<br />
<br />
Many verbs cannot have the generic suffix added to them. These verbs can be considered stative verbs, while the other verbs are considered dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be thought of as being generic by default. They often correspond to adjectives in English, e.g. '''rauį''' 'be red', '''faį<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be asleep'. Often, a stative verb has a dynamic counterpart with a distinct root, e.g. '''į<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sleep'. Dynamic verbs can also be derived from stative verbs using the inceptive prefix '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and the cessative prefix '''<sup>h</sup>au-'''.<br />
<br />
==== Subject and object agreement ====<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can be used as both prefixes and suffixes on verbs. When a noun class affix is prefixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's subject, and when a noun class affix is suffixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's direct object. The addition of these affixes is mandatory when the NP they agree with follows the verb, or when the verb is the main verb of a relative clause and the affix agrees with the NP which the relative clause is attached to, or when the NP is absent altogether. Otherwise, addition of the affixes is optional.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophezecaz|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-slay-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{gl|enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ophezeca|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-slay-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare!|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
In addition, the noun class affixes can be used for the purposes listed above: to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents, or for metrical / alliterative purposes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|įk|įk<sup>a</sup>|laugh}}<br />
{{glend|I am laughing.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (male addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|koįk|<u>k</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|FEM-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (female addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can also be used to agree with an entity which does not actually have a noun referring to it in the sentence. This entity is always assumed to be a third person. The noun class affixes thus serve the function of the third-person pronouns of other languages.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|He is laughing.}}<br />
<br />
Note that it is impossible for a noun class affix to agree with the indirect object of a verb. By &ldquo;indirect object&rdquo; here, we mean any noun in the dative. There is a class of verbs that take their single argument in the dative case; these verbs cannot have a noun class suffix added to them, because they never have a direct object. These verbs can still take noun class prefixes agreeing with their subjects.<br />
<br />
==== Special agreement suffixes ====<br />
<br />
There are a couple of additional agreement affixes, besides the classifiers.<br />
<br />
The first of these is the reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>'''. This is added to verbs to indicate that the object is the same as the subject. If the appropriate noun class suffix was used instead, this would entail that the object was different from the subject, and just of the same class.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophauųųmeqaw|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ų~ųm<sup>e</sup>-q<sup>a</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CESS-ITER~hit-SUB-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|tok!|tok|IMP}}<br />
{{glend|Stop hitting yourself!}}<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are the indefinite affixes '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' and '''m<sup>e</sup>'''. These are added to verbs to indicate that the subject or object is indefinite&mdash;'somebody' (if '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used) or 'something' (if '''m<sup>e</sup>''' is used). There are also explicit indefinite pronouns '''ndai''' and '''ndau''', as mentioned above, but the indefinite affixes are used to lend less emphasis to the indefinite argument. The effect they have is akin to a passive construction, and in fact the usual way to translate passives where the subject is not indicated in a &lsquo;by&rsquo;-phrase is using these affixes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indcindup.|nde-cindu-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-kill.PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He was killed.}}<br />
<br />
==== Derivation ====<br />
<br />
===== The verbal noun =====<br />
<br />
Every verb can also be nominalised to form a verbal noun (a noun denoting the action or state expressed by the verb). This is a fully productive process, more morphological than derivational.<br />
<br />
If the verb is of Type I, then the verbal noun is formed from its primary stem, and it is a Type I noun. Otherwise, the verbal noun takes the same type, the same primary stem and the same secondary stem as the original verb (although the secondary stem does not have the past tense suffix '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''', '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-u''' added).<br />
<br />
The class of the nominalised verb is usually the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but sometimes it is the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, depending on the meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
The arguments of a nominalised verb can be indicated via PPs using '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' with the PP's complement noun in the nominative (if the argument is the subject of the verb) or the accusative (if the argument is the object of the verb). Remember that the complement of a PP using '''dh<sup>a</sup>''' is considered to be alienable if it is in the nominative case and inalienable if it is in the accusative case, so this means that subjects are considered to be alienably possessed by the actions they perform, while objects are considered to be inalienably possessed by the actions that are performed on them. The same method is not used to indicate dative arguments ('''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' never takes complements in the dative case); instead, these can be indicated using PPs headed by '''-qį''' 'for'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ephezac|pehez<sup>a</sup>-c<sup>e</sup>|be_satisified_with-with}}<br />
{{gl|emgįzh|megį-<sup>zh</sup><sup>o</sup>|take-c4}}<br />
{{gl|choįąn|choįą-n<sup>a</sup>|this.ACC-HUM}}<br />
{{gl|įrmų|rįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|give-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ohqajhiqį|<sup>h</sup>oqajhi-qį|family-for}}<br />
{{gl|aiyfaįdh|yaif<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|child-ACC-of}}<br />
{{glend|I accept this gift to our family of your daughter.}}<br />
<br />
===== Other nominalising suffixes =====<br />
<br />
There are also quite a few nominalising suffixes which are used for more specialised kinds of nominalisation.<br />
<br />
The most ancient of these suffixes can be identified by the fact that they attach to the secondary stem of a Type II/III verb (without its usual past suffix added), rather than the primary stem. These suffixes are fairly productive, but many formations have somewhat idiomatic, unpredictable meanings. They are:<br />
* '''-ni''' / '''-ne-''', the agentive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent in the state expressed by the verb, or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent which habitually carries out the action expressed by the verb. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the patientive-stative suffix '''-k<sup>e</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ne-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''waun''' / '''wau-''' 'lie' > '''wauni''' / '''waune-''' 'liar', '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'be angry' > '''xahesani''' / '''xahesane-''' 'raving lunatic'<br />
* '''-r<sup>e</sup>''', the causative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an animate that habitually causes, undergoes or carries out the state or action described by the verb (it is thus broader in meaning than its name would suggest). The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' > '''veqeyor<sup>e</sup>''' 'chilly breeze', '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' > '''rokeher<sup>e</sup>''' 'object that floats'<br />
* '''-k<sup>e</sup>''', the patientive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that habitually undergoes the action or takes the state expressed by the verb. If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''yehą''' / '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' 'be dead' > '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse', '''dhemer<sup>e</sup>''' 'move away from' > '''dhemerek<sup>e</sup>''' 'outcast, loner', '''ṭase<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'wear' > '''ṭashehak<sup>e</sup>''' 'clothes'<br />
* '''-ką''' / '''-ka-''', the past agentive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent that has taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not), or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent that has carried out the action expressed by the verb before. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the past patientive suffix '''-f<sup>a</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ka-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''cindiką''' / '''cindika-''' 'person who has made their first kill (of a human)', '''reqeyaką''' / '''reqeyaka-''' 'married person', '''xepadaką''' / '''xepadaka-''' 'person who has left' (including the meanings of 'escapee' and 'deserter')<br />
* '''-f<sup>a</sup>''', the past patientive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that has undergone the action or taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not). If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ṭeqahef<sup>a</sup>''' 'injured person', '''sathef<sup>a</sup>''' 'received wisdom, tradition', '''reqeyaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'unhappily married person', '''kejaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'domestic animal'<br />
<br />
There are also two suffixes of more recent origin which attach to the primary stem rather than the secondary stem.<br />
* '''-va<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''', the instrumental suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that can be used to carry out the action or maintain the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehąva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'medicine', '''cindi''' 'kill' > '''cindiva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'weapon'<br />
* '''-į<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''', the resultative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that results from carrying out the action or maintaining the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ḍaḍ<sup>a</sup>''' 'attack' > '''ḍaḍaį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'loot, plunder (n.)', '''<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>''' 'speak' > '''<sup>h</sup>ayį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'message'<br />
<br />
In addition, each of these suffixes can have the morpheme '''-x<sup>e</sup>''' 'not' added after them, in which case they have the opposite of their usual meaning&mdash;they refer to a noun that fails to have the usual property. Historically, this arises from sentences of the following form:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wauni|wauni|liar}}<br />
{{gl|xe!|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I am not a liar!}}<br />
<br />
The '''wauni xe''' part of the sentence was reanalysed as a single noun, '''waunixe''', and underwent regular sound change and a slight shift in the emphasis of the meaning to become '''waunix''' 'honest person'. Only nouns derived from verbs via these derivational suffixes were reanalysed in this way, but it is a highly productive process&mdash;virtually every such noun has a 'complement' formed by adding '''-x<sup>e</sup>'''. For example, from '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse' we have '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' 'survivor; one who still lives'. As this example shows, the original meaning is still emphasised to some extent; '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' does not simply mean 'living person'. Likewise, '''xahesanix<sup>e</sup>''' does not mean 'mild-mannered person' but rather 'somebody who keeps their temper under control'.<br />
<br />
===== Inceptives and cessatives =====<br />
<br />
The rather similar prefixes '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and '''<sup>h</sup>au-''', derived from the verbs '''<sup>h</sup>ou''' 'begin' and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end', are used to indicate inceptive and cessative aspect, respectively. The resulting verb is always dynamic. These prefixes are highly productive and the change in meaning they induce is highly regular, so they could, in fact, be considered morphological rather than derivational prefixes. <br />
<br />
===== Iteratives and intensives =====<br />
<br />
Iteratives (of dynamic verbs) and intensives (of stative verbs) are formed by reduplicating the verb stem. Only the first syllable is reduplicated. There are many fossilised iterations in which the reduplicated first syllable changes, due to vowel mutation or dissimilation: for example, '''nging<sup>e</sup>''' 'be entranced by' is derived from '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', and '''ųįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be a nuisance' is derived from '''įka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'make noise'. However, more recent iterations do not show these changes, so that the reduplicated syllable is identical to the old one. For example, we also have '''įįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' meaning 'make noise over and over again'.<br />
<br />
===== Causatives =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ų-''' is used to form causatives. If an intransitive verb has the meaning &lsquo;to ''X''&rsquo;, then adding '''ų-''' to it gives it the new meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X''&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes a dative object, which is the causee, while its subject is the causer. The causee has to be an agent capable of volition. Similarly, if the verb is transitive, adding '''ų-''' results in the meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X'' sth./sbd. (acc.)&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes the causer as its subject, the causee as its indirect object and the object of the caused action as its direct object. However, any noun class suffix added to the derived verb agrees with the indirect object (the causee), rather than the indirect object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpning|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-ning<sup>e</sup>|MASC-CAUS-cry}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭmap.|<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-DAT-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|I made him cry.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpqahen|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-qahen<sup>a</sup>|MASC-CAUS-help}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭrem|ṭar<sup>a</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>|brother-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|mundaų.|mund<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>|mother-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I made my little brother help his mother.}}<br />
<br />
===== Intransitivisation =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ne-''' is an intransitivising prefix. It is less productive than the other derivational methods mentioned in this section, but it is still reasonably productive. Many verbs with '''ne-''' added have become independent lexical stems and drifted in meaning from the original verb; for example, we have '''thareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'annoy, bother, frustrate' but '''nethareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'be foolish, silly, ridiculous', and '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure, suffer' but '''nezhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'be suffering'. Note that both of these verbs changed from dynamic to stative when '''ne-''' was added. This does not always happen, but it is not uncommon; it is also possible for a verb to change from stative to dynamic when '''ne-''' is added. This is due to the fact that '''ne-''' has been a productive derivational suffix since before the distinction between stative and dynamic verbs evolved.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== Sentences ===<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal intransitive clause in Wendoth has a subject and a verb. There are no impersonal verbs, like &ldquo;rain&rdquo; in English; these meanings are conveyed by other means (for example, &ldquo;it is raining&rdquo; is phrased as &ldquo;rain is falling&rdquo;). It is, however, possible for the subject to be conveyed only by a subject-marking prefix, having no corresponding NP.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcendoi.|<u>t</u>o-cendoi|MASC-be brave}}<br />
{{glend|He is brave.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in intransitive clauses is SV (subject-verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham<sup>a</sup>|rain}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
Verb-subject (VS) word order is also possible, but if this word order is used, the verb must take a subject-marking prefix (in accordance with the general rule that a verb must take an affix marking an argument which follows the verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbzashą|b<u>į</u>-zashą|c7-fall}}<br />
{{gl|baham|baham|rain}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
The two possible word orders are not associated with any difference in meaning. However, VS is much more marked, and speakers who use it frequently will be criticised for clumsy phrasing. This is in contrast to the situation with SVO vs. VSO word order in transitive clauses, where VSO is the more usual word order.<br />
<br />
==== Transitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal transitive clause in Wendoth has a subject, a verb and a direct object. However, as in intransitive clauses, the subject and direct object may be marked only by affixes on the verb.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcindup.|<u>t</u>o-cind<sup>e</sup>-u-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-kill-PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He killed him.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in transitive sentences is VSO; when the verb precedes the subject and object it has to take subject-marking and object-marking prefixes agreeing with them.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ṭekaį|ṭekaį|older brother}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|My (older) brother ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
However, if the subject is a pronoun, whether personal, demonstrative or interrogative, then it is more usual for the subject to precede the verb, resulting in SVO word order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|You ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ndai|ndai|who}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių?|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Who ate the food?}}<br />
<br />
Even so, word order is largely free due to case marking, and both VSO and SVO word orders are used in both situations; it is only the relative frequency of the two that differs depending on whether the subject is a pronoun. Historically, the predominant word order was SOV, and this is still sometimes used as well: fossilised proverbs and set phrases often have preserved SOV word order, and due to the influence of these it is common for people to use SOV word order when they are trying to impart some wisdom that they want people to remember. An example is the following insult, which literally means &ldquo;you lick the earth&rdquo; and is intended to humiliate the addressee by referring to their low social status.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|odkum|dok<u>i</u>-m<sup>a</sup>|earth-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|thųṭum.|thųṭum|lick}}<br />
{{glend|You're trash.}}<br />
<br />
Because of the free word order, it is difficult to say what is the usual position of indirect objects in transitive clauses. They are always in the same place as the direct object, but they may precede or follow the direct object. It is slightly more common for them to follow the direct object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aįrmeq|raįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>|give}}<br />
{{gl|ingių|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|süng-m<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.DAT}}<br />
{{glend|I will give you food.}}<br />
<br />
==== The copula ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth makes use of a zero copula to indicate identity between two referents.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I am your father.}}<br />
<br />
However, in order to indicate membership of a referent in a class, one must use a verb, or a verb derived from the noun referring to the class using the prefix '''u-'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ukechã|u-kechã|be-father}}<br />
{{glend|I am a father.}}<br />
<br />
This prefix is related to the verb '''u''' 'be', which can also be used as a verbal copula to indicate that a noun is described by a prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh!|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I'm behind you!}}<br />
<br />
The verb '''u''' has an irregular past form '''au''' (it is actually etymologically unrelated); this form of the copula can also be used to indicate identity between nouns in the past tense.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|wa|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I was your father.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|u|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh.|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I was behind you.}}<br />
<br />
=== Determiner phrases ===<br />
<br />
The subjects and objects of clauses are determiner phrases (DPs). DPs are headed by either a personal pronoun or a determiner (possibly a zero determiner). If a DP is headed by a personal pronoun, it consists of this single word and has no other internal structure. On the other hand, DPs headed by determiners obligatorily take a single noun phrase (NP) as a complement.<br />
<br />
In general, the complement in a determiner-headed DP (the NP) follows the head (the determiner). If the determiner ends in a vowel, transformation of the first word in the following NP is prevented where it would otherwise occur.<br />
<br />
{{gl|erdhin|redh<sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|few.NOM-C1}}<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{glend|few men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|aųpną|paųną|every.NOM.AN}}<br />
{{gl|nakethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|every beast (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
The exceptions to this rule are the demonstrative and interrogative determiners. These determiners can follow their complement NPs, but if they do, they have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the noun in the NP. <br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Determiner-final DPs, when allowed, are in free variation with determiner-initial DPs, and determiner-initial DPs remain the most common variant.<br />
<br />
=== Noun phrases ===<br />
<br />
Noun phrases (NPs) are headed by nouns. The head noun in an NP does not take any complements, but it can have adjuncts attached to it, which are of three kinds: postpositional phrases (PPs), appositive NPs, and relative clauses. PPs are always the closest adjuncts to the head noun, but appositive NPs and RCs can be placed in any order.<br />
<br />
==== Appositive NPs ====<br />
<br />
Appositive NPs precede their head nouns, and agree in case with them. In general, appositive constructions are uncommon in Wendoth; other languages make use them to convey adjectival meanings, but Wendoth prefers to use relative clauses for this purpose. However, the cardinal numerals are commonly used as appositives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acauų|acau-<u>į</u>|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ndanaįqų|ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|three-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|three men (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
In order to understand how a phrase like this behaves, it is helpful to think of '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' as meaning &ldquo;triple&rdquo; (as in a group of three objects) rather than &ldquo;three&rdquo;. Hence the phrase above can be taken as meaning &ldquo;a man-triple&rdquo; or &ldquo;a triple of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
It is therefore possible to multiply numbers by stacking them together:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|tate|tate<sup>ha</sup>|three}}<br />
{{gl|tehą|tehą|five}}<br />
{{glend|fifty men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
The meaning of this phrase can be taken as &ldquo;a 5-tuple of 10-tuples of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
PPs are headed by postpositions. As mentioned above, the postpositions form a very small closed class with just 7 members. In addition, every PP must take a single NP as a complement. The NP always precedes the postposition (otherwise, the name &ldquo;postposition&rdquo; would not be appropriate).<br />
<br />
Even though this was the state of affairs in at least an early stage of Wendoth, it is not preserved in any of the daughter languages. The situation in Wendoth as reconstructed here, where there were postpositions but there was also primary VSO word order in transitive sentences, violates a syntactic universal. It is therefore likely that it was only the situation for a very short period, if at all. Each postposition has fallen out of use or has become a case suffix or preposition in each daughter languages.<br />
<br />
In fact, it is possible that the postpositions were already case suffixes in Wendoth. It is impossible to know whether constructions such as the following, where a postpositional enclitic cliticised to the end of the NP but not to the end of the head noun of the NP, were possible in Wendoth:<br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnatodh|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC-of}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
But, considering the fact that the postpositional enclitics were apparently tightly bound to the words they cliticised to, it is quite likely that such constructions were impossible, and instead this would be phrased as<br />
<br />
{{gl|sidh|sum-dh<sup>a</sup>|person-of}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Of course, if the postpositions were true case suffixes it is less plausible that they would become prepositions. In general, it is safe to say that the syntactic nature of the Wendoth adpositions was in a state of flux at the time of the language's dispersal.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== '''Kejazang ouhyehąsh''': a poem ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shuzh aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb ershem įyanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|th<sup>a</sup>-sh<sup>a</sup>|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-t<sup>a</sup>|stop-ACC-at}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųne-n<sup>a</sup>|all-NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mange-dh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|one-NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|safą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą:|yehą|be dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb<sup>e</sup>|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|ershem|rem-sh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įyanum.|į<u>y</u>o-nu-m<sup>a</sup>|be_good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== '''Ḍengedh ngįaye''': the legend of the hare ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from a Nivkh legend given in Gruzdeva (1998). This is written in more casual language, as a storyteller might tell it.<br />
<br />
''Oz'hounoixi ųm acau ųįq ąthcizh oz'hezindi todh akshewoqįdh aqwangeqį. Upazh, ozhnoixi og ndochãzh, oz'hau ceg inhaįqį įbįzh. Ozṭahesix yų, ozfau uymat, xou ḍeng įkaganj įbįzh. Eḍngųį ahyeshã, ottharethiz ekekechã eḍngų. Otchum ekeyaif, "Ophauḍa tok; ndauqį ottharethiz sing eḍngų?" Cai, oųpdhemerum chag ettepum owqųį ahyų, ekekechã įįkag chag eḍngųį ahyeshã. Eḍngųį aye dhedhecu ją, yį uuhoqeqi ją. Ekeyaif nenetahehu ją. Otginj ųm, opḍoxomou, oųppofowagubų baḍ wam uqrų woį ngįdh vįhau, xou, ndochãzh, ophoufaįra.''<br />
<br />
''Jathaįzh, įj tha chag, otyatoraį chag ekeyaif. Opngi baḍ. Yį ouhyehu, ehkekechum umngau. Shez ḍoxomou įjahauzh exzhodh oḍxomoįdh zhec. Ehkekechãdh waįdh thąt, maneh įąṭasehak wa ją. Taw oṭḍa aundqį xe ozhjhauheḍa sum eḍngįdh athrethų. Indvawum choįnazh woq ųįqadh auįdh thum Xaunezu.''<br />
<br />
Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away. On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son-in-law. They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare. The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?" But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more. The son-in-law became more and more afraid. He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.<br />
<br />
At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up. He looked around. The fire had gone out, and his father-in-law had disappeared. The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening. Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained. And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare. The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oz'hounoixi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-noixü|c4-INCP-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm|<sup>h</sup>ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ųįq|ųįq<sup>e</sup>|two}}<br />
{{gl|ąthcizh|thącüm-zh<sup>a</sup>|home-from}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hezindi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezindü<sup>nj</sup>|live.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|todh|todh|far}}<br />
{{gl|akshewoqįdh|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|relative-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aqwangeqį.|qawang<sup>e</sup>-qį|visit-for}}<br />
{{glend|Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upazh,|up<sup>a</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhnoixi|<u>zh</u>o-noixü|c4-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|og|<sup>h</sup>og|before}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hau|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au|c4-stop.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|cheg|cheg|after}}<br />
{{gl|inhaįqį|nihaį-qį|night-for}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Irin|i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|one.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã,|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|yoshin|<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|other.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son in law.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ozṭahesix|<u>zh</u>o-ṭahesü-<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-make.PAST-c5}}<br />
{{gl|yų,|ye-<u>į</u>|fire-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ozfau|<u>zh</u>o-fau|c4-sit.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|uymat,|ye-m<sup>a</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|fire-DAT-at}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeng|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>|hare}}<br />
{{gl|įkaganj|įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate.PAST-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų.|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otchum|<u>t</u>o-che-u-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-say-PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif,|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|"Ophauḍa|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-stop-c11}}<br />
{{gl|tok;|please}}<br />
{{gl|ndauqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate-c4}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų?"|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|oųpdhemerum|<u>t</u>o-ų-dhemer<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CAUS-move away from.PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ettepum|tetepe-m<sup>a</sup>|ears-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|owqųį|woq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|friend-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyų,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|speech-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|įįkaga|į~įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|ITER~cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã.|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{glend|But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aye|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>|speech}}<br />
{{gl|dhedhecu|dhe~dhece-u|ITER~grow-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją,|ją|more}}<br />
{{gl|yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|uuhoqeqi|u~uhoqeqü|ITER~burn.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ekeyaif|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|nenetahehu|ne~netahehe-u|be_afraid-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law became more and more afraid.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otginj|<u>t</u>o-gi<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-go.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm,|ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|opḍoxomou,|<u>t</u>o-ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|MASC-lie down-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|oųppofowagubų|<u>t</u>o-ų-pofowage-u-bų|MASC-CAUS-be covered with-PAST-c7}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{gl|wam|<u>y</u>o-m<sup>a</sup>|REFL-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|uqrų|qur<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|grass-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|woįdh|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|REFL-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ngįdh|nge-<sup>į</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|sight-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|vįhau,|vįhau-qį|prevention-for}}<br />
{{gl|xou,|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|ophoufaįra.|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-faįra<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-INCP-be asleep.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jathaįzh,|jath<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-zh<sup>a</sup>|dawn-ACC-in}}<br />
{{gl|įj|įj<sup>a</sup>|light}}<br />
{{gl|tha|the<sup>nj</sup>|come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag,|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|otyatoraį|<u>t</u>o-yatora-į<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-wake up-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opngi|<u>t</u>o-ngü|MASC-look}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ.|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{glend|He looked around.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehu,|<sup>h</sup>ou-ye<u>g</u>o-u|INCP-be_dead.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ehkekechum|<sup>h</sup>ekekeche-m<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|umngau.|me-nga-u|NDEF.IN-cause to disappear-PAST|}}<br />
{{glend|The fire had gone, and his father-in-law had disappeared.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shez|she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|dog}}<br />
{{gl|ḍoxomou|ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|lie-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įjahauzh|įjahau-zh<sup>a</sup>|evening-in}}<br />
{{gl|exzhodh|xe-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|that-c4-of}}<br />
{{gl|oḍxomoįdh|doxo<u>nd</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|lying-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|zhec|zhe-c<sup>e</sup>|sameness-with}}<br />
{{glend|The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ehkekechãdh|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã-dh<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-of}}<br />
{{gl|waįdh|w<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|existence-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thąt,|thą-t<sup>a</sup>|place-at}}<br />
{{gl|maneh|mane<u>h</u><sup>e</sup>|only.NOM.IN}}<br />
{{gl|įąṭasehak|įąṭasehak<sup>e</sup>|footwear}}<br />
{{gl|wa|w<sup>a</sup>|exist.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|oṭḍah|ṭo-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|this-c11}}<br />
{{gl|aundqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|ozhjhauheḍa|<u>zh</u>o-jhau<u>q</u><sup>e</sup>-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-want-c11}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngįdh|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|athrethų.|thareth<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|agitate-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indvawum|nde-vaw<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-name-c10}}<br />
{{gl|choįnazh|ṭaį-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|this.NOM.AN-HU-c4}}<br />
{{gl|woq|woq<sup>e</sup>|friend}}<br />
{{gl|ųįqadh|ųįq<sup>e</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|two-of}}<br />
{{gl|auįdh|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|stop.PAST-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thum|the-m<sup>a</sup>|place-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|Xaunezu.|Xaunezu|Xaunezu}}<br />
{{glend|The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-05-30T11:05:13Z<p>Alces: /* Morphophonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa.<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Historical phonology ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Historical_phonology]]<br />
<br />
== Phonology =<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /mˠ/ (> /m/)<br />
| '''nd''' /ⁿd̪ʲ/ (> /<sup>n</sup>d̪/)<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/ (> /ɲ/)<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /pˠ/ (> /p/)<br />
| '''t''' /t̪ʲ/ (> /t̪/)<br />
| '''ṭ''' /tˠ/ (> /ʈ/)<br />
| '''ch''' /tsʲ/ (> /tʃ/)<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/ (> /c/)<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /bˠ/ (> /b/)<br />
| '''d''' /d̪ʲ/ (> /d̪/) <br />
| '''ḍ''' /dˠ/ (> /ɖ/)<br />
| '''jh''' /dzʲ/ (> /dʒ/)<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/ (> /ɟ/)<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /fˠ/ (> /f/)<br />
| '''th''' /xʲ/ (> /θ/)<br />
| '''s''' /sˠ/ (> /ʂ/)<br />
| '''sh''' /sʲ/ (> /ʃ/)<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/ (> /ç/)<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /vˠ/ (> /v/)<br />
| '''dh''' /ðʲ/ (> /ð/)<br />
| '''z''' /zˠ/ (> /ʐ/)<br />
| '''zh''' /zʲ/ (> /ʒ/)<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/ (> /ʝ/)<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The labials, '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', originate from Pre-Wendoth velarised labials. Their reflexes in [[Hỳng]] are velar, which suggests that they retained velarisation at the time of the proto-language, but all the other Wendoth languages do not betray any trace of the labials' former velarisation, suggesting that it was lost in the Nuclear Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials. At an early stage, they retained palatalisation, and in fact this secondary articulation was the primary feature distinguishing '''t''' and '''d''' from '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' (which were velarised alveolars; '''s''' and '''z''' were probably also velarised in parallel, although their sibilance was already sufficient to distinguish them from '''th''' and '''dh'''). Later on, these velarised alveolars (which descended from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals) became retroflexes, and the secondary articulation became unnecessary to distinguish them. However, this change did not affect the dialect which became Hỳng, and traces of the older secondary articulations remain in some Nuclear Wendoth languages (for example, '''th''' and '''dh''' are reflected as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in some of them).<br />
<br />
Similarly, '''ch''', '''jh''', '''sh''' and '''zh''', which originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, were probably pronounced as palatalised alveolars at an early stage. In the North Wendoth languages, for example, they lost their palatalisation at some stage and became pronounced as /ts dz s z/. But in most of the other Wendoth languages, they became postalveolar. '''n''' and '''r''' also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, but as they had no similar consonants to contrast with it is unlikely that their palatalisation was retained for very long.<br />
<br />
The front velars, '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars, and are transcribed as such. They were fronted further in all of the Wendoth languages except for the [[Mboroth]] languages, in which they lost their palatalisation and became plain velars.<br />
<br />
The back velars, '''ng''', '''q''', '''x''' and '''h''', originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars. Although they shifted back to velars in some daughters such as Yewedu, there is considerable evidence that they went through a stage of being pronounced as uvulars in all Wendoth languages. '''ng''' appears to have been pronounced as a uvular /ɴ/ at an early stage, but it had already been elided in many environments and shifted to /ŋ/ elsewhere before the Wendoth languages broke up. The fortition of '''ng''' to pre-nasalised /ŋg/ is a fairly widespread change in the Wendoth languages (occuring in both North Wendoth and Hỳng, for example), which suggests that this may have already been a variant in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The consonant '''h''' is usually pronounced as an approximant, rather than a fricative. It is somewhat more frequent than the other consonants, and is often inserted as sandhi (see [[#Syllable structure|Syllable structure]] below).<br />
<br />
'''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. It appears that earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in most environments, but North Wendoth has [l] as the reflex of '''y''' and '''w''' in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels, which suggests that they retained their lateral pronunciations in this environment. This is also suggested by the otherwise curious fact that in Hỳng, '''y''' and '''w''' became [ʒ] and [β], respectively, before non-close vowels but not before close vowels (what happened was that [j] and [w] underwent this change while '''y''' and '''w''' were still pronounced as [lʲ] and [lˠ] before close vowels, and then much later [lʲ] and [lˠ] shifted to [j] and [w]).<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of Wendoth, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. However, before a pause they were pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced), and were likely not as long as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, and it is convenient to do so for morphophonological purposes (for example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndaų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added). However, these diphthongs do comprise single syllable nuclei, and they are about as frequent as the close vowels in isolation.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form (C)V(C); in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form (C)V. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces syllables of the form VC, resulting in clusters consisting of two consonants. Every single combination of two consonants is possible (although note that '''y''' and '''w''' are pronounced [lʲ] and [lˠ] before consonants); it is likely that these clusters underwent ''ad hoc'' assimilations (e.g. of voice, or PoA in the case of nasals preceding a plosive), but the influence of the untransformed form stopped these assimilations having an effect on the underlying representations. Accordingly, we write clusters without indicating any assimilation in this document.<br />
<br />
Clusters other than resulting from transformation were rare and consisted solely of liquid + obstruent clusters ('''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise') and nasal + homorganic plosive clusters ('''<sup>h</sup>omban<sup>e</sup>''' 'flower'). It is thought that all of these are recent loanwords from a substrate. It is not clear how transformation applied to words containing these clusters; it is likely that the Wendoth speakers were still undecided on the matter, and would sometimes simply fail to transform them in the usual environment (resulting in, e.g., '''xursų''' 'promise') or make an attempt at transforming them giving a three-consonant cluster (resulting instead in '''urxsų''' or '''uxrsų'''). In this document, I have assumed that they were not transformed.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /nd̪ʲ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sˠʁ/ and /zˠʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
The consonants '''nj''' and '''h''' have defective distributions; they do not appear word-finally (but they can appear syllable-finally). '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (but it can appear syllable-initially even after another consonant). But apart from these exceptions, every consonant can appear word- and syllable-initially and word- and syllable-finally. As for vowels, /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries outside of certain loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain', and /o/ never appears before nasals.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''h''' disappeared after close vowels, and hence it is rare in this position. However, this change was somewhat irregular, and hence it is preserved in some common words such as '''įhą''' 'arm, leg'. In this particular case, we can point to the fact that it would have merged with '''įą''' 'hand, foot' otherwise; but in general there is no such explanation. For example, '''vįhau''' 'prevent' preserves the '''h''', too.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a tense vowel (including '''ą''' and '''ã'''). When a syllable beginning with a vowel follows a tense vowel, an epenthetic [ʔ] (if the tense vowel is creaky) or [ɦ] (if the tense vowel is breathy) is inserted to break up the hiatus; the same epenthesis applies across word boundaries.<br />
<br />
A similar epenthesis breaks up hiatuses in which the first vowel is lax when these hiatuses occur across word boundaries. In this case, it is '''h''' which is inserted to break up the hiatus, due to the fact that all non-monosyllabic words ending in a lax vowel originally ended in '''h'''. This is therefore a sandhi process similar to the English linking /r/. Indeed, just as with the English linking /r/, it has been generalised to apply to monosyllabic words that never ended in '''h''', such as the 1p nom. sg. pronoun '''be''': for example, '''be įka''' 'I laughed' is pronounced '''bˠəˈʁḭkʲa'''.<br />
<br />
'''h'''-insertion does not occur, however, before words which begin with a vowel only because they are in their [[#Transformation|transformed forms]]. When a word ending with a lax vowel precedes a transformed form, the lax vowel is generally deleted, although not always. Hence '''be opthe''' 'I (male) came' is pronounced '''bopˠˈθə''' (and may accordingly be written as '''b'opthe''').<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is not contrastive; it is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' or '''u''') in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. This rule applies to the fully-inflected word, so the addition of suffixes often results in stress alternations; for example, '''kochum<sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue' is '''kochúm''' in the nominative case but '''okchumóų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added. Function words, such as pronouns, often carry no stress in connected speech.<br />
<br />
The North Wendoth languages became strongly stress-timed and underwent heavy vowel reduction. The dialects that became Hỳng also became stress-timed, although not to quite the same extent. Other Wendoth languages are generally syllable-timed. It is uncertain what the situation in the proto-language was. The /ə/ phoneme is not evidence that it was stress-timed, because it arises not from vowel reduction, but rather from the transferral of vocalic [+front] and [+back] features to preceding consonants that took place during the development of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
=== Example pronunciations ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ [bˠə]<br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)' /kʲotsʲṳmˠ/ [kʲoˈtsʲṳːmˠ]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner (nom.)' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge (nom.)' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmˠⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳmˠˈn̪d̪ṵʔ], or, in less careful speech, probably just [ṳmˠˈd̪ṵʔ] or [ṳn̪ˠˈd̪ṵʔ]<br />
<br />
== The Wendoth substrate ==<br />
<br />
We have already mentioned that some loanwords can be identified due to the presence of consonant or clusters or non-final open tense vowels within the underlying form. Some others can be identified based on the fact that their Pre-Wendoth proto-form would have to have an unusual number of syllables. For example, '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat' would go back to '''muhItihUri''', where '''I''' is either '''i''' or '''e''' and '''U''' is either '''u''' or '''o'''&mdash;but there are no known Pre-Wendoth roots with five syllables.<br />
<br />
Apart from '''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel' and '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise, make an oath', all of these loanwords are used only as nouns. These two verbs also probably were originally borrowed as nouns, and they can still be used as nouns to mean 'the act of kneeling' and 'promise, oath' respectively. Evidently, these social rituals had some special characteristics or some additional significance for the speakers of the substrate language, and the Wendoth speakers, being influenced by the substrate speakers and perhaps taking on some of their customs with regards to these rituals, felt a need to borrow these terms.<br />
<br />
We can draw some tentative conclusions about the substrate language from these loanwords. First, none of the loanwords ends in an underlying lax vowel other than '''e''', which suggests that these words either ended in a consonant in their most unmarked in the substrate ('''e''', being a schwa, would be the natural vowel to insert to fit Wendoth morphophonological rules) or ended in an unrounded mid vowel.<br />
<br />
The loanwords lack the vowels '''į''', '''ų''', '''e''' and '''ã''', which leaves five vowels, '''i''', '''u''', '''ą''', '''o''' and '''a''' that do appear in the loanwords. These may correspond to a five-vowel system of /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ and /a/ in the substrate (considering that '''ą''' was pronounced as a front vowel).<br />
<br />
The only consonants found in the loanwords are '''m''', '''n''', '''nd''' (probably reflecting a cluster rather than a phoneme in the substrate), '''p''', '''b''', '''t''', '''d''', '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', '''k''', '''g''', '''q''', '''s''', '''x''' and '''r'''. '''nj''', '''ng''', '''ch''', '''jh''', '''f''', '''v''', '''th''', '''dh''', '''z''', '''sh''', '''zh''', '''c''', '''j''', '''h''' and '''nj''' are absent. In addition, '''k''' and '''q''' are in complementary distribution, with '''k''' appearing before '''i''' and '''ą''' and '''q''' appearing elsewhere. Interestingly, no such rule seems to be in place with '''t'''/'''d''' and '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', which suggests that the substrate distinguished two series of alveolar stops. Perhaps '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' are the borrowed forms of retroflexes, or labialised alveolars, in the substrate.<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. But they interacted with each other in regular, predictable ways.<br />
<br />
The citation forms of morphemes in Wendoth often contain segments which are written in superscripts; c.f. '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood' and, for an extreme example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' 'elbow, knee'. The superscripts indicate that the segments contained within disappear in the most unmarked form (for example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' is '''i''' in the nominative case). Segments may also be underlined; this indicates that the segement does not disappear, but alternates depending on the surrounding morphemes.<br />
<br />
Every morpheme in Wendoth begins with an underlying consonant or a close vowel and ends in an underlying vowel, nasal ('''m''', '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng'''&mdash;not '''nd''' though) or '''h'''. The open tense vowels '''ã''' and '''ą''' appear only in morpheme-final position, outside of a couple of loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
=== Final lax vowel alternations ===<br />
<br />
Morphemes which end in an underlying lax vowel have the lax vowel elided when they occur as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Therefore, the final lax vowel in such morphemes is written in superscript in the citation form unless the morpheme never occurs as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Even in monosyllabic morphemes, an underlying final lax vowel may disappear if another morpheme precedes in the same word. For example, adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''' 'he sees (ind.)'. If a morpheme-final lax vowel is written without a superscript in the underlying form, this indicates that the morpheme is monosyllabic and never occurs after another morpheme within a single word.<br />
<br />
Morpheme-final '''e''' also disappears when a suffix is added that begins with a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''ei''', '''eų''' and '''eu''' do not appear in Wendoth. However, morpheme-final '''e''' is only written as a superscript in the citation form if it also disappears word-finally, so the underlying form of the first person singular pronoun is written '''be''', rather than '''b<sup>e</sup>''', even though adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' results in '''bį'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' is '''thind''' in the nominative but '''ithndat''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' is '''ngak''' in the nominative but '''engket''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added and '''engkų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is another alternation that affects morpheme-final lax vowels. If these lax vowels come to occur before a nasal, their quality changes, as follows:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''. For example, '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' becomes '''eshzam''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''. For example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndem''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials ('''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', but not '''w'''). It becomes '''i''' elsewhere. For example, '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' becomes '''engkum''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added, and the intransitivising prefix '''ne-''', when added to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', produces the verb '''ning<sup>e</sup>''' 'see something'.<br />
<br />
This process is called vowel mutation, and it is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
Final tense vowels (and diphthongs, which end in tense vowels) are much easier to deal with; they do not disappear word-finally, nor are they affected by mutation. For example, '''z<u>į</u>''' 'top' is '''zų''' in the nominative and '''zųų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added, and '''kechã''' 'father' is '''kechã''' in the nominative and '''kechãt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
=== Light and heavy phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The consonants of the Wendoth proto-language, together with the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', are called the weighted phonemes, because they can be organised into pairs, where in each pair one phoneme is said to be light and the other is said to be heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~h~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''ng''' after a consonant or a word boundary, '''h''' after non-close vowels and '''∅''' after close vowels and before a consonant or a word boundary.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ/r''' (the two consonants merged when heavy) is '''x''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the underlying forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable. The consonant is underlined to remind the reader that it may also appear as its heavy counterpart.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with morphemes that contain the light reflex of '''ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''ŋ''', '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* If a morpheme has the light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this light reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>nj</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>nj</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''nj'''. For example, '''woḍe<sup>nja</sup>''' 'rest' is '''woḍe''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''owḍenjaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''h'''. For example, '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure' is '''zhate''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''azhtehoq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added. <br />
** Historically, the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' also alternated when it occured at the beginning of a morpheme, being realised as '''ng''' word-initially and '''h''' when following a morpheme ending in a lax vowel, and disappearing when following a morpheme ending in a tense vowel. But this alternation has been levelled out by analogy in all morphemes, so that morpheme-initial '''<sup>ng</sup>''' has become indistinguishable from non-alternating '''ng''' (the heavy reflex of PW '''n'''). For example, '''ngįą''' 'be big' (< PW '''ŋuʔeʔ''') is '''ngįą''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''oungįą''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' (< PW '''ɣaɦu-''') is added, even though '''ɣaɦu-ŋuʔeʔ''' should have become '''*ouįą''' by regular sound change.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''g''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''g''' is written as '''<u>q</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>q</u>''' is realised as '''q'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''kų<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be to the west' is '''kųq''' in the non-past indicative but '''ųkhaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ''' or '''r''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<u>x</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>x</u>''' is realised as '''x'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' is '''rokex''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''orkeheq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme begins with the heavy reflex of PW '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', and the morpheme may follow another morpheme within the same word, or if its initial syllable may be inverted by transformation, then this heavy reflex of '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' (or possibly '''<u>q</u>''' or '''<u>x</u>''', if the morpheme consists of this single consonant followed by a final lax vowel, and the morpheme can occur as the final morpheme in the word). This '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when it follows a morpheme that ends in a lax vowel, and disappears otherwise. For example, '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį''' 'be friendly' is '''ewaį''' in the non-past indicative, and still '''ouewaį''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' is added, but '''ophewaį''' when the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is one more consonant alternation to take note of (besides weight alternations, which we will go into below): morpheme-final nasals and '''h''' disappear before consonants. Morpheme-final '''nj''' and its heavy counterpart '''h''', of course, disappear word-finally as well, so that they only actually appear before close vowels. These disappearing morpheme-final nasals are ''not'' normally written in superscript, for two reasons: first, there is a need to distinguish '''ng''', which only disappears before consonants, from '''<sup>ng</sup>''', which disappears word-finally and after close vowels as well, and, secondly, these morpheme-final nasals do not disappear if no suffixes are added, so they are generally present in the most unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
Some examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' is '''nojem''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''an'jeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
** When the solid inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added, '''nojem''' becomes '''nojemį'''. This is despite the fact '''nojem''' and '''-į''' come from Pre-Wendoth '''naɣem''' and '''-ʔe''' respectively, and '''naɣemʔe''' would regularly develop into '''nojendį'''. Historically, palatalised PW '''m''' was prevented from developing into '''nd''' word-finally (before the loss of final lax vowels, which has resulted all instances of word-final '''nd''' in Wendoth), and the '''m''' was generalised into the other forms in words like '''nojem'''. This is why no Wendoth morphemes end in '''nd''', even though it patterns as a nasal with regards to weight alternations.<br />
* '''waun''' 'lie' is '''waun''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''wauq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''sing''' '2p sg.' is '''sing''' in the nominative but '''sit''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ṭare<sup>nj</sup>''' 'sibling, cousin' is '''ṭare''' in the nominative and '''aṭret''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''aṭrenjį''' when the possessive suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' is '''ngozhebe''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''ngozhebeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''ngozhebehį''' when the countable inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth '''i''' and '''u''' became '''ɨ''' before Pre-Wendoth nasals, and later this '''ɨ''' merged with '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere. However, this change occured after the disappearance of nasals before a consonant. Therefore, in Wendoth there are some morphemes in which the vowel before the final nasal, which is a reflex of PW '''ɨ''', alternates between '''i''' and '''u''' depending on the following consonant. In all of these morphemes, the vowel follows a non-labial consonant (for if it follows a labial consonant PW '''ɨ''' is reliably realised as '''u'''). If the vowel is before '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng''', it will be '''u''' when a suffix beginning with a labial consonant is added and will be '''i''' otherwise. If the vowel is before '''m''', it will be '''i''' when a suffix beginning with a non-labial consonant is added and will be '''u''' otherwise. Either way, vowels like this are written '''ü'''. For example, '''ngü<sup>h</sup>''' (< PW '''nuŋ'''), the past-tense stem of '''nge''' 'see', is '''ngi''' in the specific indicative and '''ngup''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added. <br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has a kind of right-to-left consonant harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes to acquire the same weight as a weighted phoneme in a following syllable. However, it is somewhat limited in application. It is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''a''' to become palatalised if '''i''' or '''e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''a''' and the '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, weighted phonemes that may alternate due to weight harmony are written underlined. However, it is possible to predict which consonants will be affected by weight harmony, according to the following rules.<br />
<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''o''' is affected by weight harmony.<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''a''' is affected by weight harmony as long as the following syllable begins with a nasal consonant. (If the syllable containing the '''a''' ends with an underlying coda nasal, this does not cause the consonant to be affected by weight harmony.)<br />
<br />
The same cannot be said for close vowels; only those originating from Pre-Wendoth '''ʔa''' and '''ɦa''' are affected by weight harmony, but it is impossible to distinguish these close vowels from others from the surrounding phonemes. This is why the underlining is necessary.<br />
<br />
Alternating weighted phonemes manifest as light phonemes if the following syllable begins with a light phoneme, unless the light phoneme is itself in a position where it is affected by weight harmony (and is therefore light only due to weight harmony). Otherwise, they manifest as heavy. Syllables beginning with a light consonant that is not affected by weight harmony are said to be light, and non-light syllables are said to be heavy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍa<u>į</u>''' 'rock' is '''ḍaų''' in the nominative, but '''ḍaįt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative, but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* Adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''', but adding it to '''chį<sup>ng</sup>''' 'remember' results in '''otchį'''.<br />
<br />
Weight harmony applies before all other morphophonological rules. So, for example, '''<u>nj</u>''', '''<u>g</u>''', '''<u>j</u>''' and '''<u>r</u>''' show their usual alternations depending on which form they take.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth words alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms of the word. It is convenient to say that every word has an untransformed and transformed form, although some have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a root takes depends on both morphological and syntactic considerations. In general, it depends on morphology:<br />
<br />
* Nouns are transformed when they are in the accusative or dative case and when a postpositional clitic or noun class suffix is added to the noun.<br />
* Verbs are transformed when they are in the generic aspect or the subjunctive mood and when a noun class prefix or suffix is added to the verb.<br />
* Determiners are transformed except when they agree with nouns of superclass 2 or 3 that are in the nominative case.<br />
<br />
However, there are some exceptions to these rules, where heads that end in vowels prevent transformation of a following complement. For example, determiners may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following NP, and verbs may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following VP. When a transformed word, beginning with a vowel, follows a word that ends with a lax vowel, it is common for the final lax vowel of the preceding word to be elided in non-careful speech. The most common word this occurs with is '''be''' 'I', so, for example, '''be opyatorą''' 'I woke up' is often pronounced as '''b'opyatorą'''. Other words to which often applies include the distal demonstratives '''va''' and '''xe'''.<br />
<br />
In general, transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. (Diphthongs are counted as single Vs.) For example, the transformed form of '''kashų''' 'blood (acc.)' is '''akshų''' and the transformed form of '''noijių''' 'lip (acc.)' is '''oinjių'''. But transformation does not have any effect if the following syllable begins with a tense vowel, rather than a consonant. For example, the transformed form of '''suų''' 'person (acc.)' is '''suų'''. It also does not have any effect if the initial syllable begins with an underlying vowel (which will always be a close vowel), so, for example, the transformed form of '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)' is '''įbuų'''.<br />
<br />
However, if the initial syllable begins with underlying '''<sup>h</sup>''', this '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when the word is transformed. For example, the transformed form of '''ewaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past ind.)' is '''ehwaįq''' (the citation form is '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį'''). Since words beginning with a close vowel might have an underlying initial '''<sup>h</sup>''' too, this meant that the transformed forms of such words were unpredictable: a '''h''' might be inserted after the initial close vowel, or (more commonly) it might not be inserted. This was a highly unstable situation, so the Wendoth languages all simplified it if they preserved these alternations at all. Some of them generalised the '''h'''-insertion to apply to all words beginning with a vowel, so that the transformed form of '''įbuų''' became '''įhbuų'''. Otherwise start to only insert '''h''' in the transformed forms of words beginning with a lax vowel.<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a lax vowel to precede a nasal. For example, the transformed form of '''medųų''' 'forehead (acc.)' is '''umdųų'''. Although the reverse process probably occured in an early stage of Wendoth, where a vowel is 'un-mutated' when it comes to no longer precede an (underlying) nasal, this seems to have been levelled out by analogy, so the transformed form of '''siqį''' 'for you (sg.)' (< '''sing''' 'you (sg.)' + '''-qį''' 'for') is '''isqį''', not '''esqį'''. In fact, vowel mutation due to transformation also had a strong tendency to be levelled out by analogy in the Wendoth languages, although it does survive to some extent.<br />
<br />
The effect of transformation on prefixes is worthy of special notice. In a word with a prefix added, the initial syllable often coincides with the prefix. Therefore, transformation has the effect of reversing the prefix. For example, the transformed form of '''todhemer''' 'he moves away from (spec. ind.)', which has the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' added, is '''otdhemer'''. However, when a prefix ending in a lax vowel is added to a stem beginning with a close vowel, a diphthong will be formed and the number of syllables will be unchanged. Transformation still occurs in this case and reverses the whole initial syllable, as usual. This may result in the prefix being broken up phonologically. For example, the transformed form of '''toųmų''' 'he pushes (spec. ind.)' is '''oųtmų'''. The transformed form of '''toįdh''' 'he is imaginary (ind.)' is '''toįdh''', with no reversal, because the word is monosyllabic.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Case ====<br />
<br />
Nouns take three cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are marked by suffixes. In addition, there are seven postpositions which are generally analysed as enclitics. However, each of the possible combinations of case suffixes and postpositional enclitics can be analysed as a case in its own right, in which case there are up to eighteen different cases.<br />
<br />
In general, the nominative case is marked by adding no suffix and keeping the noun untransformed, the accusative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' and transforming the noun, and the dative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' and transforming the noun. But there are complications.<br />
<br />
First of all, nouns can be transformed in the nominative case, because adding a postpositional enclitic causes nouns to be transformed. Likewise, nouns can be untransformed in the accusative and dative cases, because preceding determiners sometimes prevent nouns from transforming.<br />
<br />
Also, there are some nouns which have two different stems. One, which is called the primary stem, is used in the nominative case; the other, which is called the secondary stem, is used in the accusative and dative cases. These nouns also sometimes take slightly different accusative and dative suffixes. Nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III, based on their behaviour in this respect. Type II and III nouns are the ones which have two stems; when introducing such a noun, we give both stems and separate them by a slash, with the primary stem preceding the secondary stem, and we write a hyphen after the secondary stem because it always has a suffix added after it. For example, '''sum''' / '''se-''' is the Wendoth word for 'person'. Note that since the secondary stem always has a suffix added to it, final lax vowels and preceding '''nj''', '''ng''' and '''h''' need not be marked with a superscript.<br />
<br />
===== Type I nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns, which comprise the majority of nouns, have a single stem which ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The accusative and dative suffixes for Type I nouns are, as said above, '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' respectively. There are no complications here apart from regular morphophonological alternations; note, in particular, that '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' induces mutation of the preceding vowel, and '''-<u>į</u>''' is realised as '''-ų''' when no suffix follows.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type I nouns. The nouns are given in their transformed forms in the accusative and dative cases, and in their untransformed forms in the nominative cases, which is what we will usually do when giving nouns in isolation; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed and nouns in the nominative case are not always untransformed. Each cell contains two forms; one is the surface form seen when no extra suffixes are added, and the other, in parentheses, is the underlying form which further suffixes are added to.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'blood'<br />
| kash<sup>e</sup><br />
| kash (kash<sup>e</sup>)<br />
| akshų (kash<u>į</u>)<br />
| akshum (kashum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'success'<br />
| sas<sup>a</sup><br />
| sas (sas<sup>a</sup>)<br />
| assaų (sasa<u>į</u>)<br />
| assem (sasem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'water'<br />
| i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup><br />
| ix (i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>)<br />
| ihoų (iho<u>į</u>)<br />
| iham (iham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'forehead'<br />
| medų<br />
| medų (medų)<br />
| umdųų (medų<u>į</u>)<br />
| umdųm (medųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type II nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have a primary stem which ends in a tense vowel. All nouns with primary stems ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of type II, but some nouns with primary stems ending in close vowels are of Type III instead.<br />
<br />
For Type II nouns, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears. <!-- and if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it will sometimes, but not always, change into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>'''. (but this need not be indicated because all suffixes are heavy) --><br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. Note that if it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant should, on the basis of etymology, become alternating in the secondary stem. But the secondary stem is always followed by a case suffix, and both case suffixes begin with a heavy syllable, so the alternation does not have any effect. There is, therefore, no need to indicate the alternation when the secondary stem is written down.<br />
<br />
The nominative and dative suffixes for Type II nouns are mostly the same as with Type I nouns, but there is a change in the accusative suffix: it is '''-<u>į</u>''', as usual, if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', it is '''-<u>i</u>'''; i.e., the voice of the vowel in the accusative suffix agrees with the voice of the final tense vowel of the primary stem.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type II nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'fire'<br />
| yį<br />
| ye-<br />
| yį (yį)<br />
| yų (yų)<br />
| yum (yum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'lip'<br />
| noiji <br />
| noije-<br />
| noiji (noiji)<br />
| oin'ju (oin'j<u>i</u>)<br />
| oin'jum (oin'jum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'milk'<br />
| dewų<br />
| dewe-<br />
| dewų (dewų)<br />
| edwų (dew<u>į</u>)<br />
| edwum (dewum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'wood'<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohe-<br />
| fohu (fohu)<br />
| ofhu (foh<u>i</sup>)<br />
| ofhum (fohum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'fall'<br />
| zashą<br />
| zasha-<br />
| zashą (zashą) <br />
| azshaų (zasha<u>į</u>)<br />
| azshem (zashem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'father'<br />
| kechã<br />
| keche-<br />
| kechã (kechã)<br />
| ekchu (kech<u>i</u>)<br />
| ekchum (kechum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'death'<br />
| yehą<br />
| yeho-<br />
| yehą (yehą)<br />
| eyhoų (yeho<u>į</u>)<br />
| eyham (yeham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'clan'<br />
| cawųã<br />
| cawų-<br />
| cawųã (cawųã)<br />
| cawųu (cawų<u>i</u>)<br />
| cawųm (cawųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type III nouns =====<br />
<br />
All nouns with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''<sup>h</sup>''' are of Type III; the Type III nouns also include some nouns whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III nouns, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' of the primary stem is deleted, and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is '''a''', and this '''a''' is preceded by a consonant, then, in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''', this consonant becomes alternating and is written with an underline. The consonant will almost always be light, so that this alternation has an affect, but there is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one', which has the secondary stem '''mo-''' (there is no need to write '''<u>nd</u>o-''' because the stem is always followed by a heavy syllable).<br />
<br />
The nominative and accusative suffixes are the same as for Type I nouns, but there is a change in the dative suffix: it is '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''m''', '''-ng<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''n''' or '''ng''', and '''-<sup>ha</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type III nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'person'<br />
| sum<br />
| se-<br />
| sum<br />
| sų<br />
| sum<br />
|-<br />
| 'forest'<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbu-<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbuų<br />
| įbung<br />
|-<br />
| 'sand'<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųza-<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųzaų<br />
| ųzeng<br />
|-<br />
| 'heart'<br />
| taunj<br />
| tau-<br />
| tau<br />
| tauų<br />
| tau<br />
|-<br />
| 'effect'<br />
| <sup>h</sup>au<sup>h</sup><br />
| <sup>h</sup>au-<br />
| au<br />
| auų<br />
| au<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Number ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not inflect nouns for number, although it does distinguish number for human (and bovine) referents by indirect means: humans and bovines in the singular take one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifiers (depending on whether they are male or female) and humans and bovines in the plural take the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifier. See [[#Noun classes|Noun classes]]] for more on this.<br />
<br />
It is possible to form collectives by reduplication, but this is far from being a true plural marker; not only is it entirely optional, it is also not wholly productive. Furthermore, many collectives have somewhat more specific meanings than simply referring to a group of the usual referents of the noun; for example, '''cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eyes' and '''tetepum''' / '''tetepe-'''' 'ears' refer specifically to the pair of eyes or ears on an individual human's face; a heap of severed ears, for example, could not be referred to as '''tetepum'''.<br />
<br />
==== Postpositional enclitics ====<br />
<br />
The postpositional enclitics are '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' and '''-zh<sup>a</sup>''', the locative postpositions, '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''', the genitive postpositions, '''-shã''', the instrumental postposition, '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', the comitative postposition, and '''-qį''', the benefactive postposition. Of these postpositions, the last three have the greatest claim to being case suffixes; in particular, '''-shã''' appears to have at least gone through a stage as a case suffix in every Wendoth language. Each of these three postpositions, '''-shã''', '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', and '''-qį''', are added only after nouns in the nominative case, so no suffix comes in between them and the noun stem.<br />
<br />
The genitive postpositions, on the other hand, can be added after the accusative suffix; they take a nominative object if the possession is alienable, and an accusative object if the possession is inalienable. The difference between '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is subtle and it is to some extent unpredictable which is used; however, one generalisations which can be made is that '''-į''' is used only to indicate possession of inanimates by animates. Hence it is used to indicate possession of body parts or personal characteristics (which are inalienable), and possession of personal or social property (which is alienable). '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for other kinds of possession: possession of kin, parts of a whole (these are all examples of inalienable possession). The most common kind of alienable possession '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for is posession of an agent or patient by an action (this is not really alienable possession in semantic terms, but it is treated as such).<br />
<br />
The accusative case suffixes '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-<u>i</u>''' are irregularly realised as '''-ų''' and '''-u''' (not the expected '''į''' and '''i''') before the suffix '''-į''', even though this suffix consists of a light syllable; this is due to dissimilation.<br />
<br />
The locative postpositions can be added after both the accusative and dative suffixes. Their meanings with each kind of object are summarised in the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case of object<br />
! Meaning of t<sup>a</sup><br />
! Meaning of z<sup>a</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Nominative<br />
| Illative ('into')<br />
| Inessive or elative ('in' or 'from the inside of')<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative<br />
| Locative or allative ('at' or 'to')<br />
| Ablative ('from')<br />
|-<br />
| Dative<br />
| Inexact locative ('near')<br />
| Inexact inessive ('somewhere in')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These are the meanings when these postpositions take objects referring to physical objects. These postpositions may also take objects that refer to times, but when they do the object always takes the nominative case. In general, '''t<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to points in time and '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to periods in time. When an indefinite time is referred to, this indefinite time is thought of as a period, so '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used (unlike in English).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhthaq|<u>z</u>o-tha-q<sup>a</sup>|c4-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chechejot.|cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|eyes-at}}<br />
{{glend|At some time it (the animal) will appear.}}<br />
<br />
==== Noun classes ====<br />
<br />
Nouns are classified into eleven classes (although many words can be put in different classes, with different but related senses in each class). The distinction between these classes makes no difference to noun inflection, but it does make a difference to pronoun, determiner and verb inflection. Each of the eleven noun classes is associated with a classifier affix, which may be added to a pronoun, determiner or verb for agreement purposes (although the rules on when to add these affixes are complex, and are covered in the sections on each individual kind of word the affixes can be added to). The classes are customarily referred to by reference to the associated classifier affix (e.g. &lsquo;the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;, &lsquo;the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;). Each class is also associated with a number which is used for glossing purposes: the gloss for the ''n''th class is &lsquo;c''n''&rsquo;. However, the first two classes, the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, are glossed as &lsquo;MASC&rsquo; and &lsquo;FEM&rsquo; respectively.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to male humans (and bulls). Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>acau''' 'man', '''kechã''' 'father', '''po<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Dad', '''posa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'bachelor'.<br />
# The '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to female humans (and cows). Examples: '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman', '''mund<sup>a</sup>''' 'mother', '''qo<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Mum', '''kosa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'spinster'.<br />
# The '''i''' class consists of nouns referring to foodstuffs. Examples: '''iq<sup>a</sup>''' 'meat', '''<sup>h</sup>ang<sup>a</sup>''' 'vegetables', '''geha<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'seeds'.<br />
# The '''<u>zh</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to humans of unspecified gender, groups of humans, and culturally important animals. Its members are referred to as 'strong animates'. Examples: '''sum''' 'person', '''kejazang''' 'cow, bull', '''naketh<sup>e</sup>''' 'large animal', '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog', '''<sup>h</sup>e<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'game (for hunting)'. <br />
# The '''<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to other animals, plants and other things that show some movement not caused by an external object (e.g. fire, wind). Its members are referred to as 'weak animates'. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>oich<sup>a</sup>''' 'bug', '''mop<sup>e</sup>''' 'fish', '''ųha<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tree', '''yį''' 'fire', '''ḍįj<sup>a</sup>''' 'sun', '''awe<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'moon'.<br />
# The '''cüm''' class consists of nouns referring to tools and devices. Examples: '''shexau<u>n</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'spear', '''ndewįth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sword', '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat', '''jhebou''' 'dye'.<br />
# The '''b<u>į</u>''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as mass nouns. It includes words referring to fluids, as well as many others, which are somewhat unpredictably placed in either the '''b<u>į</u>''' class or the '''į''' class. Examples: '''i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'water', '''ṭoq<sup>e</sup>''' 'drinking water', '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood', '''dok<u>u</u>''' 'earth'.<br />
# The '''į''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as countable nouns. Examples: '''ḍa<u>ų</u>''' 'rock', '''ug<sup>e</sup>''' 'mountain', '''ųzeng''' 'grain of sand', '''xob<sup>e</sup>''' 'speck of dust', '''zhaxang''' 'teardrop'.<br />
# The '''thą''' class consists of nouns referring to places, buildings and other things that people are typically on or inside, as well as nouns referring to periods of time. Examples: '''cecum<sup>e</sup>''' 'village', '''bodhoth<sup>e</sup>''' 'wilderness', '''seth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sky', '''įj<sup>a</sup>''' 'day'.<br />
# The '''<u>nd</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to feelings and sensory impressions, including colours and sounds. Examples: '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'anger', '''reįb<sup>e</sup>''' 'black', '''į<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'white', '''įka<u>g</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sound', '''qobeqob<sup>e</sup>''' 'thunder'.<br />
# The '''ḍa<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to ideas and other abstractions. Examples: '''sas<sup>a</sup>''' 'success', '''gaxaihi''' 'respect', '''cawųã''' 'clan', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise', '''wamer<sup>e</sup>''' 'dusk', '''jath<sup>a</sup>''' 'dawn'.<br />
<br />
Of course, nouns often do not clearly fall into in a single one of these classes. Such nouns are assigned to classes somewhat arbitrarily. For example, body part terms are mostly in the '''į''' class, but the words for the principal sensory organs ('''che<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eye', '''tepum''' 'ear', '''zhum''' 'nose', '''tegi''' 'mouth', '''kochu<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue') are in the '''<u>zh</u>o''' class. '''newaų''' 'star' is in the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, perhaps due to an association with '''nihaį''' 'night'. '''boha<sup>h</sup>''' 'field' is in the '''i''' class, probably due to the association with crops. It may also seem odd at first that '''boj<sup>e</sup>''' 'penis' is in the '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but, if you think about it, it makes sense. However, the classes are much more closely related to meaning than, say, the masculine, feminine and neuter classes of German.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, nouns can often be put in several different classes to obtain different but related meanings. However, each noun has a primary class, which it is assumed to be in if there is no classifier affix agreeing with it and explicitly stating its class. Some regular patterns can be identified with regard to these sense alternations between different classes.<br />
* Every noun which refers to a kind of human in its primary sense, whether individual or plural, can be placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class to refer to a group of humans of said kind, and can be placed in at least one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes to refer to a single male or female human of said kind. Any of these three classes might be the primary class of the noun. Nouns in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' can also sometimes refer to plural human referents, but only if the group of humans has a leader of known gender; this should be seen as a kind of metonymic usage where the name of the leader is used to refer to the whole group. The noun '''kejazang''' shows the same pattern as nouns referring to kinds of humans; it means 'bull' in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, 'cow' in the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and 'cattle' in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class (which is the primary one). It is the only noun that can be placed in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes which does not refer to a human. Conversely, the noun '''coįã''' 'foreigner', when it is used with a negative connotation, is placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class even if it refers to a single foreigner of known gender; this is related to the use of the gender markers as honorifics (see below).<br />
* Many nouns referring to animals whose primary class is the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class can also be placed in the '''i''' class to refer to the meat of that animal, consumed as food. This includes '''kejazang''', which means 'beef' in the '''i''' class.<br />
* Nouns referring to inanimates whose primary class is the '''į''' class can be put in the '''b<u>į</u>''' class when it is a group of the inanimate in question, treated as an undifferentiated mass, which is referred to.<br />
<br />
One of the circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used, then, is to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, rather than in the primary class. A brief list of the other circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used is given below.<br />
<br />
* To indicate the presence of a subject or object of a verb or determiner when there is no corresponding subject or object NP (either because it has been dropped&mdash;Wendoth is a pro-drop language&mdash;or because it is not part of the same clause (as in relative clauses) or it has been moved to an unusual syntactic position).<br />
* To indicate the gender of a human referent in the singular. The masculine and feminine classifiers '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' function as a sort of honorific. It is considered impolite to refer to a non-intimate without using the appropriate classifier to indicate their gender, although it is not grammatically required; indeed, it is common to drop the classifiers when one wishes to deliberately insult somebody, or when referring to somebody from an enemy tribe. However, with children and intimates, it is permissible to drop the classifiers without any insulting connotations (the youngest children, in fact, are seen as non-gendered; '''yandį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'baby', for example, is of the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class). During courtship, one would refer to one's lover with the appropriate classifier, but after marriage the spouse is considered an intimate, and usually the husband and wife stop needing to use the classifiers to refer to each other (although there are some marriages in which this stage is never reached). Note that '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' is always used to refer to human referents in the plural.<br />
* To disambiguate referents.<br />
* To make the sentence fit a meter, or alliterate, so that it sounds better.<br />
<br />
==== Mass and count nouns ====<br />
<br />
Nouns in classes '''i''', '''b<u>į</u>''' and '''<u>nd</u>o''' are mass nouns, and nouns in the other classes are count nouns. The distinction is generally unimportant, but the determiners '''ma<u>sh</u>-''' 'much' and '''<u>i</u><u>d</u>-''' 'many' are used with mass and count nouns respectively, and the determiners '''pa<u>j</u>-''' 'little' and '''re<u>dh</u>''' 'few' are used with mass and count nouns respectively.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with their head nouns in case and noun class. But only the nominative case is distinguished from the other cases by agreement; the accusative and dative cases take the same agreement markers. Likewise, the noun classes are grouped into four superclasses with respect to agreement, so that there are eight different agreement markers in total. The superclasses are:<br />
<br />
# gendered humans (covering the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C1')<br />
# foodstuffs, non-gendered humans and groups of humans, and non-human animates (covering the '''i''', '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C2')<br />
# concrete inanimates (covering the '''cum''', '''b<u>į</u>''', '''į''' and '''thą''' classes) (gloss 'C3')<br />
# abstract inanimates (covering the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C4')<br />
<br />
Nouns in the first two superclasses can be collectively referred to as animate nouns, and nouns in the second two superclasses can be collectively referred to as inanimate nouns.<br />
<br />
There are also some determiners which can (optionally) take classifier suffixes to allow the exact class of a noun to be indicated. These are precisely the demonstrative and interrogative determiners, which are also the determiners which have pronominal counterparts, and show other unique syntactic behaviour. The classifier suffixes are added after the regular agreement suffixes. Other determiners cannot take classifier suffixes.<br />
<br />
The stems of determiners agreeing with nouns in the nominative always have a weighted phoneme at the end, although the weighted phoneme is followed by the lax vowel '''e''' (never any other vowel) if it is a consonant. This weighted phoneme is called the alternating part of the determiner. If the noun is animate, the weighted phoneme manifests as light. If the noun is inanimate, the weighted phoneme manifests as heavy. Determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 1 are distinguished from those agreeing with nouns in superclass 2 by having an extra suffix '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem (which causes mutation of the final '''e''' if it is present), and determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 4 are distinguished from determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 3 by having an extra suffix '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem; determiners agreeing with nouns in superclasses 2-3 do not have any suffix added after the stem. If the noun is in the accusative or dative case, the only thing that changes is that '''ą''' is inserted at the end of the stem, replacing the final lax vowel if one is present.<br />
<br />
The following table summarises the declension of determiners by giving all the possible endings that may occur (with the endings starting at and including the alternating part). '''Y''' denotes the light manifestation of the determiner's alternating part and '''W''' denotes its heavy manifestation. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Yin<sup>a</sup>, -Yn<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
| -Y<sup>e</sup>, -Y<sup>1</sup><br />
| -W<sup>e</sup>, -W<sup>1</sup><br />
| -Wedh<sup>a</sup>, -Wdh<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| -Yąn<sup>a</sup><br />
| -Yą<br />
| -Wą<br />
| -Wądh<sup>a</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The '''e''' or '''i''' in these suffixes is not present if the alternating part is a close vowel.<br />
<br />
The usual morphophonological alternations also occur.<br />
<br />
* The final lax vowels that are present in all the endings except '''-Yą''' and '''-Wą''' disappear unless a suffix is added after them. Final '''e''' disappears even if a suffix is added, if that suffix begins with a close vowel.<br />
* If the alternating part is preceded by '''o''' (if the alternating part is non-nasal) or '''a''' (if the alternating part is nasal), then the consonant before the '''o''' or '''a''' is affected by weight harmony and takes on the same weight as the alternating part. These alternating consonants are underlined in the citation forms. Close vowels preceding the alternating part may also be affected by weight harmony, but not all of them; as usual, those that are affected are underlined.<br />
<br />
Determiners are untransformed when they agree with nominative nouns in superclasses 2 or 3, unless they have an additional noun class affix added (see below). Otherwise, they are transformed.<br />
<br />
In addition, determiners, which generally occupy the initial position within an NP, prevent transformation of the following word under certain circumstances, generally when the determiner ends in a vowel. More specifically, transformation is prevented when the alternating part of the determiner is a consonant and the determiner ends in '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with an accusative/dative noun in superclass 2 or 3), or the alternating part of the determiner is a close vowel and the determiner ends in that vowel or '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with a noun in superclass 2 or 3). Note that this does not include the case where the alternating part of the determiner is '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' and this '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' disappears when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 or 3. In that case, the determiner does end in a vowel but '''h''' is inserted (as usual) to break up the hiatus produced if the following word is transformed.<br />
<br />
As the three other stems of a determiner are deducible from any given stem, there is no need to give all four stems when introducing a new determiner. Instead, we just give the common stem up to the alternating part, which is given in its light manifestation, and leave a trailing hyphen. From this, all four stems can easily be derived.<br />
<br />
Some example determiner declensions are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! re<u>dh</u>- 'few'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| erdhin<br />
| redh<br />
| rev<br />
| ervedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| erdhąn<br />
| erdhą<br />
| ervą<br />
| ervądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>i</u><u>d</u>- 'many'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| idin<br />
| id<br />
| ub <br />
| ubedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| idąn<br />
| idą<br />
| ubą<br />
| ubądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>ṭ</u>o<u>į</u>- 'this'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| choįn<br />
| choį<br />
| ṭoų <br />
| ṭoųdh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| choįąn<br />
| choįą<br />
| ṭoųą<br />
| ṭoųądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! mane<u>r</u>- 'only'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| amnerin<br />
| maner<br />
| mane<br />
| amnehedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| amnerąn<br />
| manerą<br />
| manehą<br />
| amnehądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Singular<br />
!colspan="2"| Plural<br />
|-<br />
! inclusive<br />
! exclusive<br />
|-<br />
! First-person<br />
| be<br><br />
ḍã<br />
| seb<sup>e</sup>, sub<sup>e</sup><br><br />
umḍã<br />
| <sup>h</sup>e<u>k</u><sup>o</sup><br><br />
aḍḍã<br />
|-<br />
! Second-person<br />
| süng / se-, se<br><br />
mu<br />
|colspan="2"|ni / ne-<br><br />
ummu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each personal pronoun (except the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''; see below). In each cell, the first form given is used as the stem in the nominative and dative cases, and has the usual nominative and dative case suffixes added after it, while the second form given is the full form in the accusative case; it does not have the usual accusative case suffix added after it. Accordingly, the second form has been given in its transformed form. Note, however, that the second form will not always be transformed, due to preceding determiners. The untransformed forms of '''umḍã''', '''aḍḍã''' and '''ummu''' are '''muḍã''', '''ḍaḍã''' and '''mumu''', respectively.<br />
<br />
The variants '''süng''' / '''se-''' and '''se''' are attested from different Wendoth languages; likewise with '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' and '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''. The two variations are independent; for example, there are many Wendoth languages which show reflexes of '''süng''' / '''se-''' rather than '''se''', but which also show reflexes of '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' rather than '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; noun class affixes serve their purpose in subject and object positions, and demonstratives with an appropriate noun class affix serve their purpose in other positions. There is one more personal pronoun which is not listed in the table above: the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''. This pronoun declines regularly; there is no suppletion in the accusative case as with the other pronouns. It is mainly used as an indirect object or as the object of a postpositional phrase, as the verbal reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' is used for the same purpose to indicate a reflexive object. It can be used as an direct object, along with an agreeing reflexive suffix, for emphasis.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otnevįsh|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-n<sup>e</sup>-vį-sh<sup>a</sup>|MASC-DETR-do-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|owqį.|<u>y</u>o-qį|REFL-for}}<br />
{{glend|Everything he does is for his own benefit.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|no}}<br />
{{gl|oįtwangew|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-įwang<sup>e</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-love-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|''woų''!|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>|REFL-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|No, you love ''yourself''!}}<br />
<br />
==== Demonstratives ====<br />
<br />
There are seven different demonstratives, which can be used as both pronouns and determiners.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Noun<br />
! Determiner<br />
|-<br />
| First-person<br />
| <u>ch</u>o, ṭob<sup>e</sup><br />
| <u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>, ṭob<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Second person<br />
| ṭosüng / ṭose-, ṭos<sup>e</sup><br />
| ṭosi<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>, ṭos<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Non-directed<br />
| jhã / jha-<br />
| jh<u>i</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, visible<br />
| va<br />
| va<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, invisible<br />
| xe<br />
| x<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, visible<br />
| vav<sup>a</sup><br />
| vava<u>į</u>, va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, invisible<br />
| xex<sup>e</sup><br />
| xex<u>į</u>, xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each demonstrative pronoun, along with the corresponding determiners (which are given in their citation forms). For the first-person demonstratives, two different forms are attested, one with the suffix '''-b<sup>e</sup>''' (from the first-person singular pronoun), by analogy with the second-person demonstratives, and one without. The second-person demonstrative's two variants correspond to the two variants of the second-person singular pronoun. As for the two variants of the superdistal demonstrative determiners, it is probable that '''va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup>''' and '''xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup>''' are the older forms, while '''vava<u>į</u>''' and '''xex<u>į</u>''' are formed by analogy with '''va<u>į</u>''' and '''x<u>į</u>'''.<br />
<br />
The first-person and second-person demonstratives are used to refer to objects close to the speaker and the addressee, respectively. The &lsquo;non-directed&rsquo; demonstrative '''jhã''' / '''jha-''' is used when it does not make sense to speak of the place of the object referred to. For example, it might be used to refer to the place the speaker and addressee are currently in, or it might be used to refer to a sound coming from an unknown location, or it might be used to refer to an idea or topic of conversation. It can usually be glossed as 'this'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jhã|jhã|this}}<br />
{{gl|nethoreth!|nethoreth<sup>e</sup>|be_ridiculous}}<br />
{{glend|This is ridiculous! (referring to a general situation)}}<br />
<br />
The two distal demonstratives are used for objects which are removed from both the speaker and addressee, but relatively close, while the superdistal demonstratives are used for objects which are relatively far away. '''va''' and '''vav<sup>e</sup>''' are used for visible objects and '''xe''' and '''xex<sup>e</sup>''' are used for invisible objects.<br />
<br />
Demonstrative pronouns can optionally take classifier suffixes agreeing with the noun class of their referent. This is especially common when they are used to refer to humans, <br />
<br />
The demonstratives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents in both their pronoun and determiner forms. These are added after case suffixes and agreement suffixes, but before postpositional enclitics. In particular, the demonstrative determiners can sometimes follow, rather than precede, their head noun&mdash;but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
There is a single interrogative determiner, '''nda<u>i</u>''', but there are two interrogative pronouns, '''ndai''' and '''ndau''': '''ndai''' 'who' is used to refer to humans, i.e. referents that could be referred to by a noun in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, or, equivalently, referents that take determiners with the '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' suffix, and '''ndau''' 'what' is used to refer to non-humans. <br />
<br />
The interrogatives also function as indefinites in declarative statements; as mentioned above, there are verbal prefixes and suffixes which can be used as indefinite markers, but using the explicit pronouns has the effect of putting the focus on the indefinite element rather than away from it.<br />
<br />
Like the demonstratives, the interrogatives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents, and they can follow their head noun, but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Noun class affixes on demonstratives and interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
Although determiners agree with their head nouns with respect to class, they do not use the usual noun class affixes to do so in general. However, demonstrative and interrogative determiners, unlike all the other determiners, may take a noun class suffix, in addition to their usual agreement suffixes. The suffix follows any of the usual agreement suffixes. Likewise, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns may take a noun class suffix, which follows any case suffix. As usual, addition of these suffixes is entirely optional but it may be used to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents or for metrical / alliterative purposes. It is also possible for demonstrative and interrogative determiners to follow their complement NPs rather than precede them, as normal, in which case they always have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the complement NP.<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth do not appear to have been a very numerate people. Most of the numerals have transparent etymologies, and there appear to have been several variants of quite a few of them. Reconstructing numerals beyond 12 is impossible, and it is likely that these were formed on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<br />
<br />
The first three cardinal numbers have both nominal and determiner forms, which are used in free variation. For the numeral 1, the determiner form was the most common one, but the reverse was the situation for 2 and 3. Hardly any of the Wendoth languages preserve the determiner form of 2 in its original sense, and none of them preserve the determiner form of 3. Instead, the more common change has been for the determiner forms of 2 and 3 (sometimes just 3) to change sense and become used as ordinal numerals instead, paralleling '''i<u>r</u>-''', the ordinal numeral 1. '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''', listed here as the ordinal numeral 2, is best glossed as 'other', as it has a wider sense, more comparable to that English word than 'second'. Hence, in the languages that started to use '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' to mean 'second', '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''' often survived as 'other'.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals higher than 2 cannot be reconstructed. The Wendoth languages exhibit a wide variety of constructions for these. It is quite possible that there was simply no way of forming these ordinals in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The following numeral forms can be reconstructed:<br />
<br />
# '''mang''' / '''<u>nd</u>o-''' (determiner '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', ordinal determiner '''i<u>r</u>-''')<br />
# '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''')<br />
# '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''', '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u>-''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>-'''<br />
# '''che(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''ndache(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''chechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįqeche(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''jot(eh)ajote<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''che(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# ['''ahajabą''' / '''ahaja<u>d</u>o-'''] ('''chechetate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''chet(eh)achete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
<br />
The forms of the numeral 1 are presumably of ancient origin, as is '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'second' (which is also used in the sense of 'other'). Influence from the determiner form may be the reason why Pre-Wendoth '''man''' become '''mang''' as a noun rather than the expected '''*ndan'''. Note that in addition to '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', there is also a determiner '''u<u>i</u><u>y</u>''' meaning 'single, exactly one'.<br />
<br />
The cardinal numeral 2, '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''', shows no relation to '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>'''. In fact, it likely originated from a Pre-Wendoth word '''ʔeʔeku''', which was reduplicated from a root, '''ʔeku''', meaning 'finger'. We also see this root in '''nguįq<sup>e</sup>''' 'be cunning, clever' (< PW '''ŋun-ʔeku''' 'use the finger'), although no trace of it survives otherwise (the word for 'finger' in Wendoth is '''įau''', which is a compound formed from '''į-''', the secondary stem of '''įą''' 'hand', and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end'). The determiner form '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' fell out of use in most of the Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
The two forms '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' and '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' of the cardinal numeral 3 both originate from compounds of the numerals for one and two. In Pre-Wendoth, such a compound would have looked like '''man-ʔeʔeku'''. But it seems that the '''n-ʔ''' cluster was simplified to either '''n''' or '''ʔ''' in different dialects, accounting for the two forms. It seems also that the determiner form of 3 was formed in an entirely different way, by appending the '''che-''' prefix to '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>'''. Perhaps '''ch(eg)ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' was once another variant of the cardinal numeral 3, but no trace of it survives. In every Wendoth language in which the form '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' survives, it has come to be used exclusively as an ordinal.<br />
<br />
The numeral 5, '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>''' 'five', is identical with the word for 'fist' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''), and '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' The numeral 10 originates from a reduplication of the same word. Presumably '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' was once a Type II noun with the primary stem '''tatehą''', but the primary stem fell out of use and it became a Type I noun. As for the numeral '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' 'twelve', it is of unknown origin. But in some languages its meaning is 'one hundred', which suggests that 'twelve' may be a anachronistic reconstruction&mdash;it probably originally just meant 'a large quantity'.<br />
<br />
The other numerals are formed from compounds. Some of these make use of the verbs '''<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'precede' and '''ch<sup>e</sup>''' 'succeed'. These verbs in their plain forms are obselete in Wendoth, having been replaced by forms with the verb '''g<sup>e</sup>''' compounded on the end&mdash;'''jog<sup>e</sup>''' and '''cheg<sup>e</sup>'''&mdash;and many of the Wendoth languages have inserted '''-g<sup>e</sup>''' into at least some of these numerals accordingly. The secondary stem '''te<sup>ha</sup>''' for 'five' is used in these compounds (as is typical for the compounds in Wendoth of more ancient origin).<br />
<br />
In some Wendoth languages, the '''jo-''' and '''che-''' prefixes are added twice to form the numerals for 7, 8 and/or 12. This must be of recent origin, because the '''jo-''' prefix is unaffected by weight harmony: PW '''ɣaɣapepeŋo''' would result in '''*<sup>h</sup>ojotate<sup>ha</sup>''' rather than '''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>'''. Other languages have formed the forms for 8 and 12 by reduplicating the forms for 4 and 6, resulting in '''jotehajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetehachete<sup>ha</sup>''', which were then simplified to '''jotajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetachete<sup>ha</sup>''' (the loss of a sequence of the form '''Vh''' is attested in a few other compounds, such as '''kejazang''' 'cattle', which was originally '''kejazohang''' < PW '''kiɣa-zo ran''' 'kept aurochs'). More commonly, though, the numerals for 7 and 8 were simply formed as additive compounds (with the smaller numeral preceding the larger one), and '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' was used for the numeral 12.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Each verb in Wendoth has a primary stem, used in the non-past tense, and a secondary stem, used in the non-past tense. Finite verbs take additional suffixes marking for mood (indicative vs. subjunctive, subjunctive being the marked mood) and, for some verbs, aspect (specific vs. generic, generic being the marked mood). They can also, optionally, take noun class affixes to agree with their arguments (prefixes agree with subjects, suffixes agree with objects); the noun class suffixes follow the subjunctive and generic suffixes if present. Finally, there are a few verbal enclitics which follow the noun class suffixes and are used for misellaneous purposes: negation, imperatives, etc.<br />
<br />
Verbs are transformed whenever an affix is added (which might be a noun class affix or the subjunctive or generic marker), but not necessarily when an enclitic is added, or when the secondary stem is used rather than the primary stem.<br />
<br />
Verbs may be intransitive, monotransitive or ditransitive. Some monotransitive verbs take their object in the dative case, such as '''kaų<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'wash'. These dative objects can still be considered indirect objects, because it is impossible to add a noun class suffix to a verb to agree with its dative object. Noun class suffixes can only agree with objects in the accusative case.<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
<br />
Just like nouns, based on the relation between the primary and secondary stem, verbs can be classified into three kinds.<br />
<br />
===== Type I verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type I verbs, which comprise the majority of verbs, have a primary stem that ends in a lax vowel or close vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in a lax vowel are of Type I, but some verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type II.<br />
<br />
For Type I verbs, in the secondary stem, the final vowel is mutated, and either '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is usually added to the end of the stem. The secondary stem can be regularly derived from the primary stem.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''į''', '''i''' or a light consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>nj</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a heavy consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>h</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''ų''' or '''u''', then the secondary stem is exactly the same as the primary stem, so the past and present tenses are not distinguished for these verbs.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', then the secondary stem has non-alternating '''į''' or '''i''' instead and has '''<sup>nj</sup>''' added afterwards.<br />
<br />
In general, however, the distinction between which of the two consonants are added is irrelevant, because both '''<sup>nj</sup>''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappear word-finally and before consonants, leaving only the mutation of the final lax vowel to differentiate the two stems. The only time the distinction is relevant is when a suffix beginning with a close vowel (one of the noun class suffixes '''-i''' or '''-į''', the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''', or the possessive suffix '''-į''') is added to the secondary stem, in which case '''<sup>nj</sup>''' appears as '''nj''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' appears as '''h''' (or disappears, if a tense vowel precedes it).<br />
<br />
Note that if the primary stem ends in '''e''', and the consonant preceding the '''e''' is not labial, the mutation in the secondary stem turns this '''e''' into '''ü''', which is realised as '''i''' most of the time but as '''u''' if a suffix is added to the secondary stem which begins with a labial consonant, i.e. one of the noun class suffixes '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' (if they are not followed by a light syllable) and '''-b<u>į</u>''', or the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''per<sup>e</sup>''' 'be under' has the secondary stem '''perü<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''qawang<sup>e</sup>''' 'explore' has the secondary stem '''qawangü'''.<br />
* '''uzhec<sup>a</sup>''' 'travel' has the secondary stem '''uzhece<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ṭase<u>q</u>a''' 'wear' has the secondary stem '''ṭasehe<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
* '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' has the secondary stem '''veqeya<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''cuį''' 'lack' has the secondary stem '''cuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndotau''' 'be cruel' has the secondary stem '''ndotau'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>ųm<u>į</u>''' 'push' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>ųmį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type II verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type II verbs have a primary stem that ends in an underlying tense vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of Type II, but most verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type I rather than Type II. <br />
<br />
For Type II verbs, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears.<br />
** Even if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it never changes into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', because the only light syllable that can be added after the secondary stem is the past tense suffix, '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''', and although historically, some instances of '''ų''' and '''u''' did change to '''į''' and '''i''' before this suffix due to weight harmony, dissimilation resulted in them changing back into '''ų''' and '''u'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. If it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant will become alternating in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, a suffix is added to the secondary stem: '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a creaky-voiced vowel ('''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą''') and '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a breathy-voiced vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''). This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''į''' or '''i''' to change into '''ų''' or '''u''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''megį''' 'take' has the secondary stem '''mege-''' and the past tense form '''megį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''uįqu''' 'split' has the secondary stem '''uįqe-''' and the past tense form '''uįqi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''unjã''' 'make dirty' has the secondary stem '''unja-''' and the past tense form '''unjai<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndųbą''' 'bend' has the secondary stem '''nduba-''' and the past tense form '''ndųbaį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''yehą''' 'be dead' has the secondary stem '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''yegoį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''iã''' 'be above' has the secondary stem '''i-''' and the past tense form '''ui<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ḍoųã''' 'crush, grind' has the secondary stem '''ḍoų-''' and the past tense form '''ḍoųi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''dhįuą''' 'be in pain' has the secondary stem '''dhįu-''' (historically '''dhį<u>i</u>-''') and the past tense form '''dhįuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type III verbs =====<br />
<br />
All verbs with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''h''' are of Type III; the Type III verbs also include some verbs whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''h'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III verbs, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''h''' of the primary stem is deleted (if it is present) and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem, and the preceding light phoneme becomes alternating.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''' and '''i''' in the primary stem sometimes become alternating in the secondary stem. Otherwise, they remain unchanged.<br />
* '''ų''' in the primary stem remains unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, the suffix '''-u''' is added to the secondary stem. This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''ų''' or '''u''' to change into '''į''' or '''i''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍaxendam''' 'lie down' has the secondary stem '''ḍaxe<u>nd</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''ḍaxemou'''.<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' has the secondary stem '''noja-''' and the past tense form '''nojau'''.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' has the secondary stem '''ngozheba-''' and the past tense form '''ngozhebau'.<br />
* '''gemahüng''' 'enjoy' has the secondary stem '''gemahe-''' and the past tense form '''gemahu'''.<br />
* '''shehumu''' 'bring' has the secondary stem '''shehume-''' and the past tense form '''shehumu'''.<br />
* '''chį<sup>nj</sup>''' 'remember' has the secondary stem '''chį-''' and the past tense form '''chį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'touch' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>au-''' and the past tense form '''<sup>h</sup>aiu'''.<br />
* '''cedhing''' 'lift' has the secondary stem '''cedh<u>i</u>-''' and the past tense form '''cedhiu''' (but as a verbal noun, in the accusative case, it is '''cedhuų''').<br />
<br />
==== Aspect and mood ====<br />
<br />
The subjunctive suffix is '''-q<sup>a</sup>''', and the generic suffix is '''-sh<sup>a</sup>'''. If both suffixes are added, the generic suffix precedes the subjunctive suffix. Apart from the usual morphophonological alternations (the final '''a'''s of both suffixes disappear when no extra suffix is added), there are no complications in adding these suffixes.<br />
<br />
Many verbs cannot have the generic suffix added to them. These verbs can be considered stative verbs, while the other verbs are considered dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be thought of as being generic by default. They often correspond to adjectives in English, e.g. '''rauį''' 'be red', '''faį<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be asleep'. Often, a stative verb has a dynamic counterpart with a distinct root, e.g. '''į<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sleep'. Dynamic verbs can also be derived from stative verbs using the inceptive prefix '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and the cessative prefix '''<sup>h</sup>au-'''.<br />
<br />
==== Subject and object agreement ====<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can be used as both prefixes and suffixes on verbs. When a noun class affix is prefixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's subject, and when a noun class affix is suffixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's direct object. The addition of these affixes is mandatory when the NP they agree with follows the verb, or when the verb is the main verb of a relative clause and the affix agrees with the NP which the relative clause is attached to, or when the NP is absent altogether. Otherwise, addition of the affixes is optional.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophezecaz|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-slay-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{gl|enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ophezeca|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-slay-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare!|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
In addition, the noun class affixes can be used for the purposes listed above: to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents, or for metrical / alliterative purposes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|įk|įk<sup>a</sup>|laugh}}<br />
{{glend|I am laughing.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (male addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|koįk|<u>k</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|FEM-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (female addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can also be used to agree with an entity which does not actually have a noun referring to it in the sentence. This entity is always assumed to be a third person. The noun class affixes thus serve the function of the third-person pronouns of other languages.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|He is laughing.}}<br />
<br />
Note that it is impossible for a noun class affix to agree with the indirect object of a verb. By &ldquo;indirect object&rdquo; here, we mean any noun in the dative. There is a class of verbs that take their single argument in the dative case; these verbs cannot have a noun class suffix added to them, because they never have a direct object. These verbs can still take noun class prefixes agreeing with their subjects.<br />
<br />
==== Special agreement suffixes ====<br />
<br />
There are a couple of additional agreement affixes, besides the classifiers.<br />
<br />
The first of these is the reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>'''. This is added to verbs to indicate that the object is the same as the subject. If the appropriate noun class suffix was used instead, this would entail that the object was different from the subject, and just of the same class.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophauųųmeqaw|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ų~ųm<sup>e</sup>-q<sup>a</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CESS-ITER~hit-SUB-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|tok!|tok|IMP}}<br />
{{glend|Stop hitting yourself!}}<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are the indefinite affixes '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' and '''m<sup>e</sup>'''. These are added to verbs to indicate that the subject or object is indefinite&mdash;'somebody' (if '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used) or 'something' (if '''m<sup>e</sup>''' is used). There are also explicit indefinite pronouns '''ndai''' and '''ndau''', as mentioned above, but the indefinite affixes are used to lend less emphasis to the indefinite argument. The effect they have is akin to a passive construction, and in fact the usual way to translate passives where the subject is not indicated in a &lsquo;by&rsquo;-phrase is using these affixes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indcindup.|nde-cindu-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-kill.PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He was killed.}}<br />
<br />
==== Derivation ====<br />
<br />
===== The verbal noun =====<br />
<br />
Every verb can also be nominalised to form a verbal noun (a noun denoting the action or state expressed by the verb). This is a fully productive process, more morphological than derivational.<br />
<br />
If the verb is of Type I, then the verbal noun is formed from its primary stem, and it is a Type I noun. Otherwise, the verbal noun takes the same type, the same primary stem and the same secondary stem as the original verb (although the secondary stem does not have the past tense suffix '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''', '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-u''' added).<br />
<br />
The class of the nominalised verb is usually the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but sometimes it is the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, depending on the meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
The arguments of a nominalised verb can be indicated via PPs using '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' with the PP's complement noun in the nominative (if the argument is the subject of the verb) or the accusative (if the argument is the object of the verb). Remember that the complement of a PP using '''dh<sup>a</sup>''' is considered to be alienable if it is in the nominative case and inalienable if it is in the accusative case, so this means that subjects are considered to be alienably possessed by the actions they perform, while objects are considered to be inalienably possessed by the actions that are performed on them. The same method is not used to indicate dative arguments ('''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' never takes complements in the dative case); instead, these can be indicated using PPs headed by '''-qį''' 'for'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ephezac|pehez<sup>a</sup>-c<sup>e</sup>|be_satisified_with-with}}<br />
{{gl|emgįzh|megį-<sup>zh</sup><sup>o</sup>|take-c4}}<br />
{{gl|choįąn|choįą-n<sup>a</sup>|this.ACC-HUM}}<br />
{{gl|įrmų|rįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|give-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ohqajhiqį|<sup>h</sup>oqajhi-qį|family-for}}<br />
{{gl|aiyfaįdh|yaif<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|child-ACC-of}}<br />
{{glend|I accept this gift to our family of your daughter.}}<br />
<br />
===== Other nominalising suffixes =====<br />
<br />
There are also quite a few nominalising suffixes which are used for more specialised kinds of nominalisation.<br />
<br />
The most ancient of these suffixes can be identified by the fact that they attach to the secondary stem of a Type II/III verb (without its usual past suffix added), rather than the primary stem. These suffixes are fairly productive, but many formations have somewhat idiomatic, unpredictable meanings. They are:<br />
* '''-ni''' / '''-ne-''', the agentive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent in the state expressed by the verb, or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent which habitually carries out the action expressed by the verb. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the patientive-stative suffix '''-k<sup>e</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ne-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''waun''' / '''wau-''' 'lie' > '''wauni''' / '''waune-''' 'liar', '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'be angry' > '''xahesani''' / '''xahesane-''' 'raving lunatic'<br />
* '''-r<sup>e</sup>''', the causative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an animate that habitually causes, undergoes or carries out the state or action described by the verb (it is thus broader in meaning than its name would suggest). The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' > '''veqeyor<sup>e</sup>''' 'chilly breeze', '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' > '''rokeher<sup>e</sup>''' 'object that floats'<br />
* '''-k<sup>e</sup>''', the patientive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that habitually undergoes the action or takes the state expressed by the verb. If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''yehą''' / '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' 'be dead' > '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse', '''dhemer<sup>e</sup>''' 'move away from' > '''dhemerek<sup>e</sup>''' 'outcast, loner', '''ṭase<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'wear' > '''ṭashehak<sup>e</sup>''' 'clothes'<br />
* '''-ką''' / '''-ka-''', the past agentive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent that has taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not), or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent that has carried out the action expressed by the verb before. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the past patientive suffix '''-f<sup>a</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ka-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''cindiką''' / '''cindika-''' 'person who has made their first kill (of a human)', '''reqeyaką''' / '''reqeyaka-''' 'married person', '''xepadaką''' / '''xepadaka-''' 'person who has left' (including the meanings of 'escapee' and 'deserter')<br />
* '''-f<sup>a</sup>''', the past patientive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that has undergone the action or taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not). If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ṭeqahef<sup>a</sup>''' 'injured person', '''sathef<sup>a</sup>''' 'received wisdom, tradition', '''reqeyaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'unhappily married person', '''kejaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'domestic animal'<br />
<br />
There are also two suffixes of more recent origin which attach to the primary stem rather than the secondary stem.<br />
* '''-va<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''', the instrumental suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that can be used to carry out the action or maintain the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehąva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'medicine', '''cindi''' 'kill' > '''cindiva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'weapon'<br />
* '''-į<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''', the resultative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that results from carrying out the action or maintaining the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ḍaḍ<sup>a</sup>''' 'attack' > '''ḍaḍaį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'loot, plunder (n.)', '''<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>''' 'speak' > '''<sup>h</sup>ayį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'message'<br />
<br />
In addition, each of these suffixes can have the morpheme '''-x<sup>e</sup>''' 'not' added after them, in which case they have the opposite of their usual meaning&mdash;they refer to a noun that fails to have the usual property. Historically, this arises from sentences of the following form:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wauni|wauni|liar}}<br />
{{gl|xe!|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I am not a liar!}}<br />
<br />
The '''wauni xe''' part of the sentence was reanalysed as a single noun, '''waunixe''', and underwent regular sound change and a slight shift in the emphasis of the meaning to become '''waunix''' 'honest person'. Only nouns derived from verbs via these derivational suffixes were reanalysed in this way, but it is a highly productive process&mdash;virtually every such noun has a 'complement' formed by adding '''-x<sup>e</sup>'''. For example, from '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse' we have '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' 'survivor; one who still lives'. As this example shows, the original meaning is still emphasised to some extent; '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' does not simply mean 'living person'. Likewise, '''xahesanix<sup>e</sup>''' does not mean 'mild-mannered person' but rather 'somebody who keeps their temper under control'.<br />
<br />
===== Inceptives and cessatives =====<br />
<br />
The rather similar prefixes '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and '''<sup>h</sup>au-''', derived from the verbs '''<sup>h</sup>ou''' 'begin' and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end', are used to indicate inceptive and cessative aspect, respectively. The resulting verb is always dynamic. These prefixes are highly productive and the change in meaning they induce is highly regular, so they could, in fact, be considered morphological rather than derivational prefixes. <br />
<br />
===== Iteratives and intensives =====<br />
<br />
Iteratives (of dynamic verbs) and intensives (of stative verbs) are formed by reduplicating the verb stem. Only the first syllable is reduplicated. There are many fossilised iterations in which the reduplicated first syllable changes, due to vowel mutation or dissimilation: for example, '''nging<sup>e</sup>''' 'be entranced by' is derived from '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', and '''ųįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be a nuisance' is derived from '''įka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'make noise'. However, more recent iterations do not show these changes, so that the reduplicated syllable is identical to the old one. For example, we also have '''įįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' meaning 'make noise over and over again'.<br />
<br />
===== Causatives =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ų-''' is used to form causatives. If an intransitive verb has the meaning &lsquo;to ''X''&rsquo;, then adding '''ų-''' to it gives it the new meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X''&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes a dative object, which is the causee, while its subject is the causer. The causee has to be an agent capable of volition. Similarly, if the verb is transitive, adding '''ų-''' results in the meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X'' sth./sbd. (acc.)&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes the causer as its subject, the causee as its indirect object and the object of the caused action as its direct object. However, any noun class suffix added to the derived verb agrees with the indirect object (the causee), rather than the indirect object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpning|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-ning<sup>e</sup>|MASC-CAUS-cry}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭmap.|<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-DAT-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|I made him cry.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpqahen|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-qahen<sup>a</sup>|MASC-CAUS-help}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭrem|ṭar<sup>a</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>|brother-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|mundaų.|mund<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>|mother-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I made my little brother help his mother.}}<br />
<br />
===== Intransitivisation =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ne-''' is an intransitivising prefix. It is less productive than the other derivational methods mentioned in this section, but it is still reasonably productive. Many verbs with '''ne-''' added have become independent lexical stems and drifted in meaning from the original verb; for example, we have '''thareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'annoy, bother, frustrate' but '''nethareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'be foolish, silly, ridiculous', and '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure, suffer' but '''nezhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'be suffering'. Note that both of these verbs changed from dynamic to stative when '''ne-''' was added. This does not always happen, but it is not uncommon; it is also possible for a verb to change from stative to dynamic when '''ne-''' is added. This is due to the fact that '''ne-''' has been a productive derivational suffix since before the distinction between stative and dynamic verbs evolved.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== Sentences ===<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal intransitive clause in Wendoth has a subject and a verb. There are no impersonal verbs, like &ldquo;rain&rdquo; in English; these meanings are conveyed by other means (for example, &ldquo;it is raining&rdquo; is phrased as &ldquo;rain is falling&rdquo;). It is, however, possible for the subject to be conveyed only by a subject-marking prefix, having no corresponding NP.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcendoi.|<u>t</u>o-cendoi|MASC-be brave}}<br />
{{glend|He is brave.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in intransitive clauses is SV (subject-verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham<sup>a</sup>|rain}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
Verb-subject (VS) word order is also possible, but if this word order is used, the verb must take a subject-marking prefix (in accordance with the general rule that a verb must take an affix marking an argument which follows the verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbzashą|b<u>į</u>-zashą|c7-fall}}<br />
{{gl|baham|baham|rain}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
The two possible word orders are not associated with any difference in meaning. However, VS is much more marked, and speakers who use it frequently will be criticised for clumsy phrasing. This is in contrast to the situation with SVO vs. VSO word order in transitive clauses, where VSO is the more usual word order.<br />
<br />
==== Transitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal transitive clause in Wendoth has a subject, a verb and a direct object. However, as in intransitive clauses, the subject and direct object may be marked only by affixes on the verb.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcindup.|<u>t</u>o-cind<sup>e</sup>-u-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-kill-PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He killed him.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in transitive sentences is VSO; when the verb precedes the subject and object it has to take subject-marking and object-marking prefixes agreeing with them.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ṭekaį|ṭekaį|older brother}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|My (older) brother ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
However, if the subject is a pronoun, whether personal, demonstrative or interrogative, then it is more usual for the subject to precede the verb, resulting in SVO word order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|You ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ndai|ndai|who}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių?|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Who ate the food?}}<br />
<br />
Even so, word order is largely free due to case marking, and both VSO and SVO word orders are used in both situations; it is only the relative frequency of the two that differs depending on whether the subject is a pronoun. Historically, the predominant word order was SOV, and this is still sometimes used as well: fossilised proverbs and set phrases often have preserved SOV word order, and due to the influence of these it is common for people to use SOV word order when they are trying to impart some wisdom that they want people to remember. An example is the following insult, which literally means &ldquo;you lick the earth&rdquo; and is intended to humiliate the addressee by referring to their low social status.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|odkum|dok<u>i</u>-m<sup>a</sup>|earth-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|thųṭum.|thųṭum|lick}}<br />
{{glend|You're trash.}}<br />
<br />
Because of the free word order, it is difficult to say what is the usual position of indirect objects in transitive clauses. They are always in the same place as the direct object, but they may precede or follow the direct object. It is slightly more common for them to follow the direct object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aįrmeq|raįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>|give}}<br />
{{gl|ingių|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|süng-m<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.DAT}}<br />
{{glend|I will give you food.}}<br />
<br />
==== The copula ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth makes use of a zero copula to indicate identity between two referents.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I am your father.}}<br />
<br />
However, in order to indicate membership of a referent in a class, one must use a verb, or a verb derived from the noun referring to the class using the prefix '''u-'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ukechã|u-kechã|be-father}}<br />
{{glend|I am a father.}}<br />
<br />
This prefix is related to the verb '''u''' 'be', which can also be used as a verbal copula to indicate that a noun is described by a prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh!|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I'm behind you!}}<br />
<br />
The verb '''u''' has an irregular past form '''au''' (it is actually etymologically unrelated); this form of the copula can also be used to indicate identity between nouns in the past tense.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|wa|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I was your father.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|u|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh.|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I was behind you.}}<br />
<br />
=== Determiner phrases ===<br />
<br />
The subjects and objects of clauses are determiner phrases (DPs). DPs are headed by either a personal pronoun or a determiner (possibly a zero determiner). If a DP is headed by a personal pronoun, it consists of this single word and has no other internal structure. On the other hand, DPs headed by determiners obligatorily take a single noun phrase (NP) as a complement.<br />
<br />
In general, the complement in a determiner-headed DP (the NP) follows the head (the determiner). If the determiner ends in a vowel, transformation of the first word in the following NP is prevented where it would otherwise occur.<br />
<br />
{{gl|erdhin|redh<sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|few.NOM-C1}}<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{glend|few men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|aųpną|paųną|every.NOM.AN}}<br />
{{gl|nakethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|every beast (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
The exceptions to this rule are the demonstrative and interrogative determiners. These determiners can follow their complement NPs, but if they do, they have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the noun in the NP. <br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Determiner-final DPs, when allowed, are in free variation with determiner-initial DPs, and determiner-initial DPs remain the most common variant.<br />
<br />
=== Noun phrases ===<br />
<br />
Noun phrases (NPs) are headed by nouns. The head noun in an NP does not take any complements, but it can have adjuncts attached to it, which are of three kinds: postpositional phrases (PPs), appositive NPs, and relative clauses. PPs are always the closest adjuncts to the head noun, but appositive NPs and RCs can be placed in any order.<br />
<br />
==== Appositive NPs ====<br />
<br />
Appositive NPs precede their head nouns, and agree in case with them. In general, appositive constructions are uncommon in Wendoth; other languages make use them to convey adjectival meanings, but Wendoth prefers to use relative clauses for this purpose. However, the cardinal numerals are commonly used as appositives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acauų|acau-<u>į</u>|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ndanaįqų|ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|three-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|three men (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
In order to understand how a phrase like this behaves, it is helpful to think of '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' as meaning &ldquo;triple&rdquo; (as in a group of three objects) rather than &ldquo;three&rdquo;. Hence the phrase above can be taken as meaning &ldquo;a man-triple&rdquo; or &ldquo;a triple of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
It is therefore possible to multiply numbers by stacking them together:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|tate|tate<sup>ha</sup>|three}}<br />
{{gl|tehą|tehą|five}}<br />
{{glend|fifty men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
The meaning of this phrase can be taken as &ldquo;a 5-tuple of 10-tuples of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
PPs are headed by postpositions. As mentioned above, the postpositions form a very small closed class with just 7 members. In addition, every PP must take a single NP as a complement. The NP always precedes the postposition (otherwise, the name &ldquo;postposition&rdquo; would not be appropriate).<br />
<br />
Even though this was the state of affairs in at least an early stage of Wendoth, it is not preserved in any of the daughter languages. The situation in Wendoth as reconstructed here, where there were postpositions but there was also primary VSO word order in transitive sentences, violates a syntactic universal. It is therefore likely that it was only the situation for a very short period, if at all. Each postposition has fallen out of use or has become a case suffix or preposition in each daughter languages.<br />
<br />
In fact, it is possible that the postpositions were already case suffixes in Wendoth. It is impossible to know whether constructions such as the following, where a postpositional enclitic cliticised to the end of the NP but not to the end of the head noun of the NP, were possible in Wendoth:<br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnatodh|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC-of}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
But, considering the fact that the postpositional enclitics were apparently tightly bound to the words they cliticised to, it is quite likely that such constructions were impossible, and instead this would be phrased as<br />
<br />
{{gl|sidh|sum-dh<sup>a</sup>|person-of}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Of course, if the postpositions were true case suffixes it is less plausible that they would become prepositions. In general, it is safe to say that the syntactic nature of the Wendoth adpositions was in a state of flux at the time of the language's dispersal.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== '''Kejazang ouhyehąsh''': a poem ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shuzh aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb ershem įyanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|th<sup>a</sup>-sh<sup>a</sup>|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-t<sup>a</sup>|stop-ACC-at}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųne-n<sup>a</sup>|all-NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mange-dh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|one-NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|safą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą:|yehą|be dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb<sup>e</sup>|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|ershem|rem-sh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įyanum.|į<u>y</u>o-nu-m<sup>a</sup>|be_good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== '''Ḍengedh ngįaye''': the legend of the hare ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from a Nivkh legend given in Gruzdeva (1998). This is written in more casual language, as a storyteller might tell it.<br />
<br />
''Oz'hounoixi ųm acau ųįq ąthcizh oz'hezindi todh akshewoqįdh aqwangeqį. Upazh, ozhnoixi og ndochãzh, oz'hau ceg inhaįqį įbįzh. Ozṭahesix yų, ozfau uymat, xou ḍeng įkaganj įbįzh. Eḍngųį ahyeshã, ottharethiz ekekechã eḍngų. Otchum ekeyaif, "Ophauḍa tok; ndauqį ottharethiz sing eḍngų?" Cai, oųpdhemerum chag ettepum owqųį ahyų, ekekechã įįkag chag eḍngųį ahyeshã. Eḍngųį aye dhedhecu ją, yį uuhoqeqi ją. Ekeyaif nenetahehu ją. Otginj ųm, opḍoxomou, oųppofowagubų baḍ wam uqrų woį ngįdh vįhau, xou, ndochãzh, ophoufaįra.''<br />
<br />
''Jathaįzh, įj tha chag, otyatoraį chag ekeyaif. Opngi baḍ. Yį ouhyehu, ehkekechum umngau. Shez ḍoxomou įjahauzh exzhodh oḍxomoįdh zhec. Ehkekechãdh waįdh thąt, maneh įąṭasehak wa ją. Taw oṭḍa aundqį xe ozhjhauheḍa sum eḍngįdh athrethų. Indvawum choįnazh woq ųįqadh auįdh thum Xaunezu.''<br />
<br />
Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away. On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son-in-law. They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare. The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?" But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more. The son-in-law became more and more afraid. He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.<br />
<br />
At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up. He looked around. The fire had gone out, and his father-in-law had disappeared. The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening. Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained. And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare. The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oz'hounoixi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-noixü|c4-INCP-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm|<sup>h</sup>ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ųįq|ųįq<sup>e</sup>|two}}<br />
{{gl|ąthcizh|thącüm-zh<sup>a</sup>|home-from}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hezindi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezindü<sup>nj</sup>|live.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|todh|todh|far}}<br />
{{gl|akshewoqįdh|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|relative-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aqwangeqį.|qawang<sup>e</sup>-qį|visit-for}}<br />
{{glend|Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upazh,|up<sup>a</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhnoixi|<u>zh</u>o-noixü|c4-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|og|<sup>h</sup>og|before}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hau|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au|c4-stop.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|cheg|cheg|after}}<br />
{{gl|inhaįqį|nihaį-qį|night-for}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Irin|i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|one.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã,|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|yoshin|<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|other.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son in law.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ozṭahesix|<u>zh</u>o-ṭahesü-<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-make.PAST-c5}}<br />
{{gl|yų,|ye-<u>į</u>|fire-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ozfau|<u>zh</u>o-fau|c4-sit.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|uymat,|ye-m<sup>a</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|fire-DAT-at}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeng|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>|hare}}<br />
{{gl|įkaganj|įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate.PAST-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų.|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otchum|<u>t</u>o-che-u-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-say-PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif,|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|"Ophauḍa|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-stop-c11}}<br />
{{gl|tok;|please}}<br />
{{gl|ndauqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate-c4}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų?"|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|oųpdhemerum|<u>t</u>o-ų-dhemer<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CAUS-move away from.PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ettepum|tetepe-m<sup>a</sup>|ears-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|owqųį|woq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|friend-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyų,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|speech-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|įįkaga|į~įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|ITER~cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã.|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{glend|But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aye|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>|speech}}<br />
{{gl|dhedhecu|dhe~dhece-u|ITER~grow-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją,|ją|more}}<br />
{{gl|yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|uuhoqeqi|u~uhoqeqü|ITER~burn.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ekeyaif|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|nenetahehu|ne~netahehe-u|be_afraid-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law became more and more afraid.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otginj|<u>t</u>o-gi<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-go.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm,|ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|opḍoxomou,|<u>t</u>o-ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|MASC-lie down-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|oųppofowagubų|<u>t</u>o-ų-pofowage-u-bų|MASC-CAUS-be covered with-PAST-c7}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{gl|wam|<u>y</u>o-m<sup>a</sup>|REFL-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|uqrų|qur<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|grass-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|woįdh|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|REFL-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ngįdh|nge-<sup>į</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|sight-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|vįhau,|vįhau-qį|prevention-for}}<br />
{{gl|xou,|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|ophoufaįra.|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-faįra<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-INCP-be asleep.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jathaįzh,|jath<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-zh<sup>a</sup>|dawn-ACC-in}}<br />
{{gl|įj|įj<sup>a</sup>|light}}<br />
{{gl|tha|the<sup>nj</sup>|come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag,|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|otyatoraį|<u>t</u>o-yatora-į<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-wake up-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opngi|<u>t</u>o-ngü|MASC-look}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ.|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{glend|He looked around.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehu,|<sup>h</sup>ou-ye<u>g</u>o-u|INCP-be_dead.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ehkekechum|<sup>h</sup>ekekeche-m<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|umngau.|me-nga-u|NDEF.IN-cause to disappear-PAST|}}<br />
{{glend|The fire had gone, and his father-in-law had disappeared.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shez|she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|dog}}<br />
{{gl|ḍoxomou|ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|lie-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įjahauzh|įjahau-zh<sup>a</sup>|evening-in}}<br />
{{gl|exzhodh|xe-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|that-c4-of}}<br />
{{gl|oḍxomoįdh|doxo<u>nd</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|lying-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|zhec|zhe-c<sup>e</sup>|sameness-with}}<br />
{{glend|The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ehkekechãdh|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã-dh<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-of}}<br />
{{gl|waįdh|w<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|existence-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thąt,|thą-t<sup>a</sup>|place-at}}<br />
{{gl|maneh|mane<u>h</u><sup>e</sup>|only.NOM.IN}}<br />
{{gl|įąṭasehak|įąṭasehak<sup>e</sup>|footwear}}<br />
{{gl|wa|w<sup>a</sup>|exist.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|oṭḍah|ṭo-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|this-c11}}<br />
{{gl|aundqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|ozhjhauheḍa|<u>zh</u>o-jhau<u>q</u><sup>e</sup>-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-want-c11}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngįdh|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|athrethų.|thareth<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|agitate-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indvawum|nde-vaw<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-name-c10}}<br />
{{gl|choįnazh|ṭaį-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|this.NOM.AN-HU-c4}}<br />
{{gl|woq|woq<sup>e</sup>|friend}}<br />
{{gl|ųįqadh|ųįq<sup>e</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|two-of}}<br />
{{gl|auįdh|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|stop.PAST-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thum|the-m<sup>a</sup>|place-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|Xaunezu.|Xaunezu|Xaunezu}}<br />
{{glend|The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-05-29T19:25:29Z<p>Alces: fundamentals of syntax</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa.<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Historical phonology ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Historical_phonology]]<br />
<br />
== Phonology =<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /mˠ/ (> /m/)<br />
| '''nd''' /ⁿd̪ʲ/ (> /<sup>n</sup>d̪/)<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/ (> /ɲ/)<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /pˠ/ (> /p/)<br />
| '''t''' /t̪ʲ/ (> /t̪/)<br />
| '''ṭ''' /tˠ/ (> /ʈ/)<br />
| '''ch''' /tsʲ/ (> /tʃ/)<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/ (> /c/)<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /bˠ/ (> /b/)<br />
| '''d''' /d̪ʲ/ (> /d̪/) <br />
| '''ḍ''' /dˠ/ (> /ɖ/)<br />
| '''jh''' /dzʲ/ (> /dʒ/)<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/ (> /ɟ/)<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /fˠ/ (> /f/)<br />
| '''th''' /xʲ/ (> /θ/)<br />
| '''s''' /sˠ/ (> /ʂ/)<br />
| '''sh''' /sʲ/ (> /ʃ/)<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/ (> /ç/)<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /vˠ/ (> /v/)<br />
| '''dh''' /ðʲ/ (> /ð/)<br />
| '''z''' /zˠ/ (> /ʐ/)<br />
| '''zh''' /zʲ/ (> /ʒ/)<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/ (> /ʝ/)<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The labials, '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', originate from Pre-Wendoth velarised labials. Their reflexes in [[Hỳng]] are velar, which suggests that they retained velarisation at the time of the proto-language, but all the other Wendoth languages do not betray any trace of the labials' former velarisation, suggesting that it was lost in the Nuclear Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials. At an early stage, they retained palatalisation, and in fact this secondary articulation was the primary feature distinguishing '''t''' and '''d''' from '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' (which were velarised alveolars; '''s''' and '''z''' were probably also velarised in parallel, although their sibilance was already sufficient to distinguish them from '''th''' and '''dh'''). Later on, these velarised alveolars (which descended from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals) became retroflexes, and the secondary articulation became unnecessary to distinguish them. However, this change did not affect the dialect which became Hỳng, and traces of the older secondary articulations remain in some Nuclear Wendoth languages (for example, '''th''' and '''dh''' are reflected as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in some of them).<br />
<br />
Similarly, '''ch''', '''jh''', '''sh''' and '''zh''', which originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, were probably pronounced as palatalised alveolars at an early stage. In the North Wendoth languages, for example, they lost their palatalisation at some stage and became pronounced as /ts dz s z/. But in most of the other Wendoth languages, they became postalveolar. '''n''' and '''r''' also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, but as they had no similar consonants to contrast with it is unlikely that their palatalisation was retained for very long.<br />
<br />
The front velars, '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars, and are transcribed as such. They were fronted further in all of the Wendoth languages except for the [[Mboroth]] languages, in which they lost their palatalisation and became plain velars.<br />
<br />
The back velars, '''ng''', '''q''', '''x''' and '''h''', originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars. Although they shifted back to velars in some daughters such as Yewedu, there is considerable evidence that they went through a stage of being pronounced as uvulars in all Wendoth languages. '''ng''' appears to have been pronounced as a uvular /ɴ/ at an early stage, but it had already been elided in many environments and shifted to /ŋ/ elsewhere before the Wendoth languages broke up. The fortition of '''ng''' to pre-nasalised /ŋg/ is a fairly widespread change in the Wendoth languages (occuring in both North Wendoth and Hỳng, for example), which suggests that this may have already been a variant in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The consonant '''h''' is usually pronounced as an approximant, rather than a fricative. It is somewhat more frequent than the other consonants, and is often inserted as sandhi (see [[#Syllable structure|Syllable structure]] below).<br />
<br />
'''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. It appears that earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in most environments, but North Wendoth has [l] as the reflex of '''y''' and '''w''' in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels, which suggests that they retained their lateral pronunciations in this environment. This is also suggested by the otherwise curious fact that in Hỳng, '''y''' and '''w''' became [ʒ] and [β], respectively, before non-close vowels but not before close vowels (what happened was that [j] and [w] underwent this change while '''y''' and '''w''' were still pronounced as [lʲ] and [lˠ] before close vowels, and then much later [lʲ] and [lˠ] shifted to [j] and [w]).<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of Wendoth, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. However, before a pause they were pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced), and were likely not as long as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, and it is convenient to do so for morphophonological purposes (for example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndaų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added). However, these diphthongs do comprise single syllable nuclei, and they are about as frequent as the close vowels in isolation.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form (C)V(C); in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form (C)V. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces syllables of the form VC, resulting in clusters consisting of two consonants. Every single combination of two consonants is possible (although note that '''y''' and '''w''' are pronounced [lʲ] and [lˠ] before consonants); it is likely that these clusters underwent ''ad hoc'' assimilations (e.g. of voice, or PoA in the case of nasals preceding a plosive), but the influence of the untransformed form stopped these assimilations having an effect on the underlying representations. Accordingly, we write clusters without indicating any assimilation in this document.<br />
<br />
Clusters other than resulting from transformation were rare and consisted solely of liquid + obstruent clusters ('''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise') and nasal + homorganic plosive clusters ('''<sup>h</sup>omban<sup>e</sup>''' 'flower'). It is thought that all of these are recent loanwords from a substrate. It is not clear how transformation applied to words containing these clusters; it is likely that the Wendoth speakers were still undecided on the matter, and would sometimes simply fail to transform them in the usual environment (resulting in, e.g., '''xursų''' 'promise') or make an attempt at transforming them giving a three-consonant cluster (resulting instead in '''urxsų''' or '''uxrsų'''). In this document, I have assumed that they were not transformed.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /nd̪ʲ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sˠʁ/ and /zˠʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
The consonants '''nj''' and '''h''' have defective distributions; they do not appear word-finally (but they can appear syllable-finally). '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (but it can appear syllable-initially even after another consonant). But apart from these exceptions, every consonant can appear word- and syllable-initially and word- and syllable-finally. As for vowels, /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries outside of certain loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain', and /o/ never appears before nasals.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''h''' disappeared after close vowels, and hence it is rare in this position. However, this change was somewhat irregular, and hence it is preserved in some common words such as '''įhą''' 'arm, leg'. In this particular case, we can point to the fact that it would have merged with '''įą''' 'hand, foot' otherwise; but in general there is no such explanation. For example, '''vįhau''' 'prevent' preserves the '''h''', too.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a tense vowel (including '''ą''' and '''ã'''). When a syllable beginning with a vowel follows a tense vowel, an epenthetic [ʔ] (if the tense vowel is creaky) or [ɦ] (if the tense vowel is breathy) is inserted to break up the hiatus; the same epenthesis applies across word boundaries.<br />
<br />
A similar epenthesis breaks up hiatuses in which the first vowel is lax when these hiatuses occur across word boundaries. In this case, it is '''h''' which is inserted to break up the hiatus, due to the fact that all non-monosyllabic words ending in a lax vowel originally ended in '''h'''. This is therefore a sandhi process similar to the English linking /r/. Indeed, just as with the English linking /r/, it has been generalised to apply to monosyllabic words that never ended in '''h''', such as the 1p nom. sg. pronoun '''be''': for example, '''be įka''' 'I laughed' is pronounced '''bˠəˈʁḭkʲa'''.<br />
<br />
'''h'''-insertion does not occur, however, before words which begin with a vowel only because they are in their [[#Transformation|transformed forms]]. When a word ending with a lax vowel precedes a transformed form, the lax vowel is generally deleted, although not always. Hence '''be opthe''' 'I (male) came' is pronounced '''bopˠˈθə''' (and may accordingly be written as '''b'opthe''').<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is not contrastive; it is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' or '''u''') in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. This rule applies to the fully-inflected word, so the addition of suffixes often results in stress alternations; for example, '''kochum<sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue' is '''kochúm''' in the nominative case but '''okchumóų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added. Function words, such as pronouns, often carry no stress in connected speech.<br />
<br />
The North Wendoth languages became strongly stress-timed and underwent heavy vowel reduction. The dialects that became Hỳng also became stress-timed, although not to quite the same extent. Other Wendoth languages are generally syllable-timed. It is uncertain what the situation in the proto-language was. The /ə/ phoneme is not evidence that it was stress-timed, because it arises not from vowel reduction, but rather from the transferral of vocalic [+front] and [+back] features to preceding consonants that took place during the development of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
=== Example pronunciations ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ [bˠə]<br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)' /kʲotsʲṳmˠ/ [kʲoˈtsʲṳːmˠ]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner (nom.)' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge (nom.)' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmˠⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳmˠˈn̪d̪ṵʔ], or, in less careful speech, probably just [ṳmˠˈd̪ṵʔ] or [ṳn̪ˠˈd̪ṵʔ]<br />
<br />
== The Wendoth substrate ==<br />
<br />
We have already mentioned that some loanwords can be identified due to the presence of consonant or clusters or non-final open tense vowels within the underlying form. Some others can be identified based on the fact that their Pre-Wendoth proto-form would have to have an unusual number of syllables. For example, '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat' would go back to '''muhItihUri''', where '''I''' is either '''i''' or '''e''' and '''U''' is either '''u''' or '''o'''&mdash;but there are no known Pre-Wendoth roots with five syllables.<br />
<br />
Apart from '''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel' and '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise, make an oath', all of these loanwords are used only as nouns. These two verbs also probably were originally borrowed as nouns, and they can still be used as nouns to mean 'the act of kneeling' and 'promise, oath' respectively. Evidently, these social rituals had some special characteristics or some additional significance for the speakers of the substrate language, and the Wendoth speakers, being influenced by the substrate speakers and perhaps taking on some of their customs with regards to these rituals, felt a need to borrow these terms.<br />
<br />
We can draw some tentative conclusions about the substrate language from these loanwords. First, none of the loanwords ends in an underlying lax vowel other than '''e''', which suggests that these words either ended in a consonant in their most unmarked in the substrate ('''e''', being a schwa, would be the natural vowel to insert to fit Wendoth morphophonological rules) or ended in an unrounded mid vowel.<br />
<br />
The loanwords lack the vowels '''į''', '''ų''', '''e''' and '''ã''', which leaves five vowels, '''i''', '''u''', '''ą''', '''o''' and '''a''' that do appear in the loanwords. These may correspond to a five-vowel system of /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ and /a/ in the substrate (considering that '''ą''' was pronounced as a front vowel).<br />
<br />
The only consonants found in the loanwords are '''m''', '''n''', '''nd''' (probably reflecting a cluster rather than a phoneme in the substrate), '''p''', '''b''', '''t''', '''d''', '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', '''k''', '''g''', '''q''', '''s''', '''x''' and '''r'''. '''nj''', '''ng''', '''ch''', '''jh''', '''f''', '''v''', '''th''', '''dh''', '''z''', '''sh''', '''zh''', '''c''', '''j''', '''h''' and '''nj''' are absent. In addition, '''k''' and '''q''' are in complementary distribution, with '''k''' appearing before '''i''' and '''ą''' and '''q''' appearing elsewhere. Interestingly, no such rule seems to be in place with '''t'''/'''d''' and '''ṭ''', '''ḍ''', which suggests that the substrate distinguished two series of alveolar stops. Perhaps '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' are the borrowed forms of retroflexes, or labialised alveolars, in the substrate.<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. But they interacted with each other in regular, predictable ways.<br />
<br />
The citation forms of morphemes in Wendoth often contain segments which are written in superscripts; c.f. '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood' and, for an extreme example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' 'elbow, knee'. The superscripts indicate that the segments contained within disappear in the most unmarked form (for example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>nge</sup>''' is '''i''' in the nominative case). Segments may also be underlined; this indicates that the segement does not disappear, but alternates depending on the surrounding morphemes.<br />
<br />
Every morpheme in Wendoth begins with an underlying consonant or a close vowel and ends in an underlying vowel, nasal ('''m''', '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng'''&mdash;not '''nd''' though) or '''h'''. The open tense vowels '''ã''' and '''ą''' appear only in morpheme-final position, outside of a couple of loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
=== Final lax vowel alternations ===<br />
<br />
Morphemes which end in an underlying lax vowel have the lax vowel elided when they occur as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Therefore, the final lax vowel in such morphemes is written in superscript in the citation form unless the morpheme never occurs as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Even in monosyllabic morphemes, an underlying final lax vowel may disappear if another morpheme precedes in the same word. For example, adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''' 'he sees (ind.)'. If a morpheme-final lax vowel is written without a superscript in the underlying form, this indicates that the morpheme is monosyllabic and never occurs after another morpheme within a single word.<br />
<br />
Morpheme-final '''e''' also disappears when a suffix is added that begins with a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''ei''', '''eų''' and '''eu''' do not appear in Wendoth. However, morpheme-final '''e''' is only written as a superscript in the citation form if it also disappears word-finally, so the underlying form of the first person singular pronoun is written '''be''', rather than '''b<sup>e</sup>''', even though adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' results in '''bį'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' is '''thind''' in the nominative but '''ithndat''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' is '''ngak''' in the nominative but '''engket''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added and '''engkų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is another alternation that affects morpheme-final lax vowels. If these lax vowels come to occur before a nasal, their quality changes, as follows:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''. For example, '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' becomes '''eshzam''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''. For example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndem''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials ('''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', but not '''w'''). It becomes '''i''' elsewhere. For example, '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' becomes '''engkum''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added, and the intransitivising prefix '''ne-''', when added to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', produces the verb '''ning<sup>e</sup>''' 'see something'.<br />
<br />
This process is called vowel mutation, and it is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
Final tense vowels (and diphthongs, which end in tense vowels) are much easier to deal with; they do not disappear word-finally, nor are they affected by mutation. For example, '''z<u>į</u>''' 'top' is '''zų''' in the nominative and '''zųų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added, and '''kechã''' 'father' is '''kechã''' in the nominative and '''kechãt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
=== Light and heavy phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The consonants of the Wendoth proto-language, together with the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', are called the weighted phonemes, because they can be organised into pairs, where in each pair one phoneme is said to be light and the other is said to be heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~h~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''ng''' after a consonant or a word boundary, '''h''' after non-close vowels and '''∅''' after close vowels and before a consonant or a word boundary.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ/r''' (the two consonants merged when heavy) is '''x''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the underlying forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable. The consonant is underlined to remind the reader that it may also appear as its heavy counterpart.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with morphemes that contain the light reflex of '''ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''ŋ''', '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* If a morpheme has the light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this light reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>nj</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>nj</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''nj'''. For example, '''woḍe<sup>nja</sup>''' 'rest' is '''woḍe''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''owḍenjaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''h'''. For example, '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure' is '''zhate''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''azhtehoq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added. <br />
** Historically, the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' also alternated when it occured at the beginning of a morpheme, being realised as '''ng''' word-initially and '''h''' when following a morpheme ending in a lax vowel, and disappearing when following a morpheme ending in a tense vowel. But this alternation has been levelled out by analogy in all morphemes, so that morpheme-initial '''<sup>ng</sup>''' has become indistinguishable from non-alternating '''ng''' (the heavy reflex of PW '''n'''). For example, '''ngįą''' 'be big' (< PW '''ŋuʔeʔ''') is '''ngįą''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''oungįą''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' (< PW '''ɣaɦu-''') is added, even though '''ɣaɦu-ŋuʔeʔ''' should have become '''*ouįą''' by regular sound change.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''g''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''g''' is written as '''<u>q</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>q</u>''' is realised as '''q'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''kų<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be to the west' is '''kųq''' in the non-past indicative but '''ųkhaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ''' or '''r''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<u>x</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>x</u>''' is realised as '''x'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' is '''rokex''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''orkeheq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme begins with the heavy reflex of PW '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', and the morpheme may follow another morpheme within the same word, or if its initial syllable may be inverted by transformation, then this heavy reflex of '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' (or possibly '''<u>q</u>''' or '''<u>x</u>''', if the morpheme consists of this single consonant followed by a final lax vowel, and the morpheme can occur as the final morpheme in the word). This '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when it follows a morpheme that ends in a lax vowel, and disappears otherwise. For example, '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį''' 'be friendly' is '''ewaį''' in the non-past indicative, and still '''ouewaį''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' is added, but '''ophewaį''' when the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is one more consonant alternation to take note of (besides weight alternations, which we will go into below): morpheme-final nasals and '''h''' disappear before consonants. Morpheme-final '''nj''' and its heavy counterpart '''h''', of course, disappear word-finally as well, so that they only actually appear before close vowels. These disappearing morpheme-final nasals are ''not'' normally written in superscript, for two reasons: first, there is a need to distinguish '''ng''', which only disappears before consonants, from '''<sup>ng</sup>''', which disappears word-finally and after close vowels as well, and, secondly, these morpheme-final nasals do not disappear if no suffixes are added, so they are generally present in the most unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
Some examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' is '''nojem''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''an'jeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
** When the solid inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added, '''nojem''' becomes '''nojemį'''. This is despite the fact '''nojem''' and '''-į''' come from Pre-Wendoth '''naɣem''' and '''-ʔe''' respectively, and '''naɣemʔe''' would regularly develop into '''nojendį'''. Historically, palatalised PW '''m''' was prevented from developing into '''nd''' word-finally (before the loss of final lax vowels, which has resulted all instances of word-final '''nd''' in Wendoth), and the '''m''' was generalised into the other forms in words like '''nojem'''. This is why no Wendoth morphemes end in '''nd''', even though it patterns as a nasal with regards to weight alternations.<br />
* '''waun''' 'lie' is '''waun''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''wauq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''sing''' '2p sg.' is '''sing''' in the nominative but '''sit''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ṭare<sup>nj</sup>''' 'sibling, cousin' is '''ṭare''' in the nominative and '''aṭret''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''aṭrenjį''' when the possessive suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' is '''ngozhebe''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''ngozhebeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''ngozhebehį''' when the countable inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth '''i''' and '''u''' became '''ɨ''' before Pre-Wendoth nasals, and later this '''ɨ''' merged with '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere. However, this change occured after the disappearance of nasals before a consonant. Therefore, in Wendoth there are some morphemes in which the vowel before the final nasal, which is a reflex of PW '''ɨ''', alternates between '''i''' and '''u''' depending on the following consonant. In all of these morphemes, the vowel follows a non-labial consonant (for if it follows a labial consonant PW '''ɨ''' is reliably realised as '''u'''). If the vowel is before '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng''', it will be '''u''' when a suffix beginning with a labial consonant is added and will be '''i''' otherwise. If the vowel is before '''m''', it will be '''i''' when a suffix beginning with a non-labial consonant is added and will be '''u''' otherwise. Either way, vowels like this are written '''ü'''. For example, '''ngü<sup>h</sup>''' (< PW '''nuŋ'''), the past-tense stem of '''nge''' 'see', is '''ngi''' in the specific indicative and '''ngup''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added. <br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has a kind of right-to-left consonant harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes to acquire the same weight as a weighted phoneme in a following syllable. However, it is somewhat limited in application. It is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''a''' to become palatalised if '''i''' or '''e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''a''' and the '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, weighted phonemes that may alternate due to weight harmony are written underlined. However, it is possible to predict which consonants will be affected by weight harmony, according to the following rules.<br />
<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''o''' is affected by weight harmony.<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''a''' is affected by weight harmony as long as the following syllable begins with a nasal consonant. (If the syllable containing the '''a''' ends with an underlying coda nasal, this does not cause the consonant to be affected by weight harmony.)<br />
<br />
The same cannot be said for close vowels; only those originating from Pre-Wendoth '''ʔa''' and '''ɦa''' are affected by weight harmony, but it is impossible to distinguish these close vowels from others from the surrounding phonemes. This is why the underlining is necessary.<br />
<br />
Alternating weighted phonemes manifest as light phonemes if the following syllable begins with a light phoneme, unless the light phoneme is itself in a position where it is affected by weight harmony (and is therefore light only due to weight harmony). Otherwise, they manifest as heavy. Syllables beginning with a light consonant that is not affected by weight harmony are said to be light, and non-light syllables are said to be heavy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍa<u>į</u>''' 'rock' is '''ḍaų''' in the nominative, but '''ḍaįt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative, but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* Adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''', but adding it to '''chį<sup>ng</sup>''' 'remember' results in '''otchį'''.<br />
<br />
Weight harmony applies before all other morphophonological rules. So, for example, '''<u>nj</u>''', '''<u>g</u>''', '''<u>j</u>''' and '''<u>r</u>''' show their usual alternations depending on which form they take.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth words alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms of the word. It is convenient to say that every word has an untransformed and transformed form, although some have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a root takes depends on both morphological and syntactic considerations. In general, it depends on morphology:<br />
<br />
* Nouns are transformed when they are in the accusative or dative case and when a postpositional clitic or noun class suffix is added to the noun.<br />
* Verbs are transformed when they are in the generic aspect or the subjunctive mood and when a noun class prefix or suffix is added to the verb.<br />
* Determiners are transformed except when they agree with nouns of superclass 2 or 3 that are in the nominative case.<br />
<br />
However, there are some exceptions to these rules, where heads that end in vowels prevent transformation of a following complement. For example, determiners may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following NP, and verbs may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following VP. When a transformed word, beginning with a vowel, follows a word that ends with a lax vowel, it is common for the final lax vowel of the preceding word to be elided in non-careful speech. The most common word this occurs with is '''be''' 'I', so, for example, '''be opyatorą''' 'I woke up' is often pronounced as '''b'opyatorą'''. Other words to which often applies include the distal demonstratives '''va''' and '''xe'''.<br />
<br />
In general, transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. (Diphthongs are counted as single Vs.) For example, the transformed form of '''kashų''' 'blood (acc.)' is '''akshų''' and the transformed form of '''noijių''' 'lip (acc.)' is '''oinjių'''. But transformation does not have any effect if the following syllable begins with a tense vowel, rather than a consonant. For example, the transformed form of '''suų''' 'person (acc.)' is '''suų'''. It also does not have any effect if the initial syllable begins with an underlying vowel (which will always be a close vowel), so, for example, the transformed form of '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)' is '''įbuų'''.<br />
<br />
However, if the initial syllable begins with underlying '''<sup>h</sup>''', this '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when the word is transformed. For example, the transformed form of '''ewaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past ind.)' is '''ehwaįq''' (the citation form is '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį'''). Since words beginning with a close vowel might have an underlying initial '''<sup>h</sup>''' too, this meant that the transformed forms of such words were unpredictable: a '''h''' might be inserted after the initial close vowel, or (more commonly) it might not be inserted. This was a highly unstable situation, so the Wendoth languages all simplified it if they preserved these alternations at all. Some of them generalised the '''h'''-insertion to apply to all words beginning with a vowel, so that the transformed form of '''įbuų''' became '''įhbuų'''. Otherwise start to only insert '''h''' in the transformed forms of words beginning with a lax vowel.<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a lax vowel to precede a nasal. For example, the transformed form of '''medųų''' 'forehead (acc.)' is '''umdųų'''. Although the reverse process probably occured in an early stage of Wendoth, where a vowel is 'un-mutated' when it comes to no longer precede an (underlying) nasal, this seems to have been levelled out by analogy, so the transformed form of '''siqį''' 'for you (sg.)' (< '''sing''' 'you (sg.)' + '''-qį''' 'for') is '''isqį''', not '''esqį'''. In fact, vowel mutation due to transformation also had a strong tendency to be levelled out by analogy in the Wendoth languages, although it does survive to some extent.<br />
<br />
The effect of transformation on prefixes is worthy of special notice. In a word with a prefix added, the initial syllable often coincides with the prefix. Therefore, transformation has the effect of reversing the prefix. For example, the transformed form of '''todhemer''' 'he moves away from (spec. ind.)', which has the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' added, is '''otdhemer'''. However, when a prefix ending in a lax vowel is added to a stem beginning with a close vowel, a diphthong will be formed and the number of syllables will be unchanged. Transformation still occurs in this case and reverses the whole initial syllable, as usual. This may result in the prefix being broken up phonologically. For example, the transformed form of '''toųmų''' 'he pushes (spec. ind.)' is '''oųtmų'''. The transformed form of '''toįdh''' 'he is imaginary (ind.)' is '''toįdh''', with no reversal, because the word is monosyllabic.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Case ====<br />
<br />
Nouns take three cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are marked by suffixes. In addition, there are seven postpositions which are generally analysed as enclitics. However, each of the possible combinations of case suffixes and postpositional enclitics can be analysed as a case in its own right, in which case there are up to eighteen different cases.<br />
<br />
In general, the nominative case is marked by adding no suffix and keeping the noun untransformed, the accusative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' and transforming the noun, and the dative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' and transforming the noun. But there are complications.<br />
<br />
First of all, nouns can be transformed in the nominative case, because adding a postpositional enclitic causes nouns to be transformed. Likewise, nouns can be untransformed in the accusative and dative cases, because preceding determiners sometimes prevent nouns from transforming.<br />
<br />
Also, there are some nouns which have two different stems. One, which is called the primary stem, is used in the nominative case; the other, which is called the secondary stem, is used in the accusative and dative cases. These nouns also sometimes take slightly different accusative and dative suffixes. Nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III, based on their behaviour in this respect. Type II and III nouns are the ones which have two stems; when introducing such a noun, we give both stems and separate them by a slash, with the primary stem preceding the secondary stem, and we write a hyphen after the secondary stem because it always has a suffix added after it. For example, '''sum''' / '''se-''' is the Wendoth word for 'person'. Note that since the secondary stem always has a suffix added to it, final lax vowels and preceding '''nj''', '''ng''' and '''h''' need not be marked with a superscript.<br />
<br />
===== Type I nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns, which comprise the majority of nouns, have a single stem which ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The accusative and dative suffixes for Type I nouns are, as said above, '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' respectively. There are no complications here apart from regular morphophonological alternations; note, in particular, that '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' induces mutation of the preceding vowel, and '''-<u>į</u>''' is realised as '''-ų''' when no suffix follows.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type I nouns. The nouns are given in their transformed forms in the accusative and dative cases, and in their untransformed forms in the nominative cases, which is what we will usually do when giving nouns in isolation; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed and nouns in the nominative case are not always untransformed. Each cell contains two forms; one is the surface form seen when no extra suffixes are added, and the other, in parentheses, is the underlying form which further suffixes are added to.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'blood'<br />
| kash<sup>e</sup><br />
| kash (kash<sup>e</sup>)<br />
| akshų (kash<u>į</u>)<br />
| akshum (kashum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'success'<br />
| sas<sup>a</sup><br />
| sas (sas<sup>a</sup>)<br />
| assaų (sasa<u>į</u>)<br />
| assem (sasem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'water'<br />
| i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup><br />
| ix (i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>)<br />
| ihoų (iho<u>į</u>)<br />
| iham (iham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'forehead'<br />
| medų<br />
| medų (medų)<br />
| umdųų (medų<u>į</u>)<br />
| umdųm (medųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type II nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have a primary stem which ends in a tense vowel. All nouns with primary stems ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of type II, but some nouns with primary stems ending in close vowels are of Type III instead.<br />
<br />
For Type II nouns, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears. <!-- and if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it will sometimes, but not always, change into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>'''. (but this need not be indicated because all suffixes are heavy) --><br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. Note that if it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant should, on the basis of etymology, become alternating in the secondary stem. But the secondary stem is always followed by a case suffix, and both case suffixes begin with a heavy syllable, so the alternation does not have any effect. There is, therefore, no need to indicate the alternation when the secondary stem is written down.<br />
<br />
The nominative and dative suffixes for Type II nouns are mostly the same as with Type I nouns, but there is a change in the accusative suffix: it is '''-<u>į</u>''', as usual, if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', it is '''-<u>i</u>'''; i.e., the voice of the vowel in the accusative suffix agrees with the voice of the final tense vowel of the primary stem.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type II nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'fire'<br />
| yį<br />
| ye-<br />
| yį (yį)<br />
| yų (yų)<br />
| yum (yum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'lip'<br />
| noiji <br />
| noije-<br />
| noiji (noiji)<br />
| oin'ju (oin'j<u>i</u>)<br />
| oin'jum (oin'jum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'milk'<br />
| dewų<br />
| dewe-<br />
| dewų (dewų)<br />
| edwų (dew<u>į</u>)<br />
| edwum (dewum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'wood'<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohe-<br />
| fohu (fohu)<br />
| ofhu (foh<u>i</sup>)<br />
| ofhum (fohum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'fall'<br />
| zashą<br />
| zasha-<br />
| zashą (zashą) <br />
| azshaų (zasha<u>į</u>)<br />
| azshem (zashem<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'father'<br />
| kechã<br />
| keche-<br />
| kechã (kechã)<br />
| ekchu (kech<u>i</u>)<br />
| ekchum (kechum<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'death'<br />
| yehą<br />
| yeho-<br />
| yehą (yehą)<br />
| eyhoų (yeho<u>į</u>)<br />
| eyham (yeham<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|-<br />
| 'clan'<br />
| cawųã<br />
| cawų-<br />
| cawųã (cawųã)<br />
| cawųu (cawų<u>i</u>)<br />
| cawųm (cawųm<sup>a</sup>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type III nouns =====<br />
<br />
All nouns with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''<sup>h</sup>''' are of Type III; the Type III nouns also include some nouns whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III nouns, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' of the primary stem is deleted, and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is '''a''', and this '''a''' is preceded by a consonant, then, in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''', this consonant becomes alternating and is written with an underline. The consonant will almost always be light, so that this alternation has an affect, but there is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one', which has the secondary stem '''mo-''' (there is no need to write '''<u>nd</u>o-''' because the stem is always followed by a heavy syllable).<br />
<br />
The nominative and accusative suffixes are the same as for Type I nouns, but there is a change in the dative suffix: it is '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''m''', '''-ng<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''n''' or '''ng''', and '''-<sup>ha</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type III nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'person'<br />
| sum<br />
| se-<br />
| sum<br />
| sų<br />
| sum<br />
|-<br />
| 'forest'<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbu-<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbuų<br />
| įbung<br />
|-<br />
| 'sand'<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųza-<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųzaų<br />
| ųzeng<br />
|-<br />
| 'heart'<br />
| taunj<br />
| tau-<br />
| tau<br />
| tauų<br />
| tau<br />
|-<br />
| 'effect'<br />
| <sup>h</sup>au<sup>h</sup><br />
| <sup>h</sup>au-<br />
| au<br />
| auų<br />
| au<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Number ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not inflect nouns for number, although it does distinguish number for human (and bovine) referents by indirect means: humans and bovines in the singular take one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifiers (depending on whether they are male or female) and humans and bovines in the plural take the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' classifier. See [[#Noun classes|Noun classes]]] for more on this.<br />
<br />
It is possible to form collectives by reduplication, but this is far from being a true plural marker; not only is it entirely optional, it is also not wholly productive. Furthermore, many collectives have somewhat more specific meanings than simply referring to a group of the usual referents of the noun; for example, '''cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eyes' and '''tetepum''' / '''tetepe-'''' 'ears' refer specifically to the pair of eyes or ears on an individual human's face; a heap of severed ears, for example, could not be referred to as '''tetepum'''.<br />
<br />
==== Postpositional enclitics ====<br />
<br />
The postpositional enclitics are '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' and '''-zh<sup>a</sup>''', the locative postpositions, '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''', the genitive postpositions, '''-shã''', the instrumental postposition, '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', the comitative postposition, and '''-qį''', the benefactive postposition. Of these postpositions, the last three have the greatest claim to being case suffixes; in particular, '''-shã''' appears to have at least gone through a stage as a case suffix in every Wendoth language. Each of these three postpositions, '''-shã''', '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', and '''-qį''', are added only after nouns in the nominative case, so no suffix comes in between them and the noun stem.<br />
<br />
The genitive postpositions, on the other hand, can be added after the accusative suffix; they take a nominative object if the possession is alienable, and an accusative object if the possession is inalienable. The difference between '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is subtle and it is to some extent unpredictable which is used; however, one generalisations which can be made is that '''-į''' is used only to indicate possession of inanimates by animates. Hence it is used to indicate possession of body parts or personal characteristics (which are inalienable), and possession of personal or social property (which is alienable). '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for other kinds of possession: possession of kin, parts of a whole (these are all examples of inalienable possession). The most common kind of alienable possession '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for is posession of an agent or patient by an action (this is not really alienable possession in semantic terms, but it is treated as such).<br />
<br />
The accusative case suffixes '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-<u>i</u>''' are irregularly realised as '''-ų''' and '''-u''' (not the expected '''į''' and '''i''') before the suffix '''-į''', even though this suffix consists of a light syllable; this is due to dissimilation.<br />
<br />
The locative postpositions can be added after both the accusative and dative suffixes. Their meanings with each kind of object are summarised in the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case of object<br />
! Meaning of t<sup>a</sup><br />
! Meaning of z<sup>a</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Nominative<br />
| Illative ('into')<br />
| Inessive or elative ('in' or 'from the inside of')<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative<br />
| Locative or allative ('at' or 'to')<br />
| Ablative ('from')<br />
|-<br />
| Dative<br />
| Inexact locative ('near')<br />
| Inexact inessive ('somewhere in')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These are the meanings when these postpositions take objects referring to physical objects. These postpositions may also take objects that refer to times, but when they do the object always takes the nominative case. In general, '''t<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to points in time and '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to periods in time. When an indefinite time is referred to, this indefinite time is thought of as a period, so '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used (unlike in English).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhthaq|<u>z</u>o-tha-q<sup>a</sup>|c4-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chechejot.|cheche<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|eyes-at}}<br />
{{glend|At some time it (the animal) will appear.}}<br />
<br />
==== Noun classes ====<br />
<br />
Nouns are classified into eleven classes (although many words can be put in different classes, with different but related senses in each class). The distinction between these classes makes no difference to noun inflection, but it does make a difference to pronoun, determiner and verb inflection. Each of the eleven noun classes is associated with a classifier affix, which may be added to a pronoun, determiner or verb for agreement purposes (although the rules on when to add these affixes are complex, and are covered in the sections on each individual kind of word the affixes can be added to). The classes are customarily referred to by reference to the associated classifier affix (e.g. &lsquo;the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;, &lsquo;the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;). Each class is also associated with a number which is used for glossing purposes: the gloss for the ''n''th class is &lsquo;c''n''&rsquo;. However, the first two classes, the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, are glossed as &lsquo;MASC&rsquo; and &lsquo;FEM&rsquo; respectively.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to male humans (and bulls). Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>acau''' 'man', '''kechã''' 'father', '''po<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Dad', '''posa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'bachelor'.<br />
# The '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to female humans (and cows). Examples: '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman', '''mund<sup>a</sup>''' 'mother', '''qo<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Mum', '''kosa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'spinster'.<br />
# The '''i''' class consists of nouns referring to foodstuffs. Examples: '''iq<sup>a</sup>''' 'meat', '''<sup>h</sup>ang<sup>a</sup>''' 'vegetables', '''geha<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'seeds'.<br />
# The '''<u>zh</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to humans of unspecified gender, groups of humans, and culturally important animals. Its members are referred to as 'strong animates'. Examples: '''sum''' 'person', '''kejazang''' 'cow, bull', '''naketh<sup>e</sup>''' 'large animal', '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog', '''<sup>h</sup>e<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'game (for hunting)'. <br />
# The '''<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to other animals, plants and other things that show some movement not caused by an external object (e.g. fire, wind). Its members are referred to as 'weak animates'. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>oich<sup>a</sup>''' 'bug', '''mop<sup>e</sup>''' 'fish', '''ųha<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tree', '''yį''' 'fire', '''ḍįj<sup>a</sup>''' 'sun', '''awe<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'moon'.<br />
# The '''cüm''' class consists of nouns referring to tools and devices. Examples: '''shexau<u>n</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'spear', '''ndewįth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sword', '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat', '''jhebou''' 'dye'.<br />
# The '''b<u>į</u>''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as mass nouns. It includes words referring to fluids, as well as many others, which are somewhat unpredictably placed in either the '''b<u>į</u>''' class or the '''į''' class. Examples: '''i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'water', '''ṭoq<sup>e</sup>''' 'drinking water', '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood', '''dok<u>u</u>''' 'earth'.<br />
# The '''į''' class consists of nouns referring to inanimates which are treated as countable nouns. Examples: '''ḍa<u>ų</u>''' 'rock', '''ug<sup>e</sup>''' 'mountain', '''ųzeng''' 'grain of sand', '''xob<sup>e</sup>''' 'speck of dust', '''zhaxang''' 'teardrop'.<br />
# The '''thą''' class consists of nouns referring to places, buildings and other things that people are typically on or inside, as well as nouns referring to periods of time. Examples: '''cecum<sup>e</sup>''' 'village', '''bodhoth<sup>e</sup>''' 'wilderness', '''seth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sky', '''įj<sup>a</sup>''' 'day'.<br />
# The '''<u>nd</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to feelings and sensory impressions, including colours and sounds. Examples: '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'anger', '''reįb<sup>e</sup>''' 'black', '''į<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'white', '''įka<u>g</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sound', '''qobeqob<sup>e</sup>''' 'thunder'.<br />
# The '''ḍa<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to ideas and other abstractions. Examples: '''sas<sup>a</sup>''' 'success', '''gaxaihi''' 'respect', '''cawųã''' 'clan', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise', '''wamer<sup>e</sup>''' 'dusk', '''jath<sup>a</sup>''' 'dawn'.<br />
<br />
Of course, nouns often do not clearly fall into in a single one of these classes. Such nouns are assigned to classes somewhat arbitrarily. For example, body part terms are mostly in the '''į''' class, but the words for the principal sensory organs ('''che<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eye', '''tepum''' 'ear', '''zhum''' 'nose', '''tegi''' 'mouth', '''kochu<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue') are in the '''<u>zh</u>o''' class. '''newaų''' 'star' is in the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, perhaps due to an association with '''nihaį''' 'night'. '''boha<sup>h</sup>''' 'field' is in the '''i''' class, probably due to the association with crops. It may also seem odd at first that '''boj<sup>e</sup>''' 'penis' is in the '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but, if you think about it, it makes sense. However, the classes are much more closely related to meaning than, say, the masculine, feminine and neuter classes of German.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, nouns can often be put in several different classes to obtain different but related meanings. However, each noun has a primary class, which it is assumed to be in if there is no classifier affix agreeing with it and explicitly stating its class. Some regular patterns can be identified with regard to these sense alternations between different classes.<br />
* Every noun which refers to a kind of human in its primary sense, whether individual or plural, can be placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class to refer to a group of humans of said kind, and can be placed in at least one of the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes to refer to a single male or female human of said kind. Any of these three classes might be the primary class of the noun. Nouns in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' can also sometimes refer to plural human referents, but only if the group of humans has a leader of known gender; this should be seen as a kind of metonymic usage where the name of the leader is used to refer to the whole group. The noun '''kejazang''' shows the same pattern as nouns referring to kinds of humans; it means 'bull' in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, 'cow' in the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and 'cattle' in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class (which is the primary one). It is the only noun that can be placed in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes which does not refer to a human. Conversely, the noun '''coįã''' 'foreigner', when it is used with a negative connotation, is placed in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class even if it refers to a single foreigner of known gender; this is related to the use of the gender markers as honorifics (see below).<br />
* Many nouns referring to animals whose primary class is the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class can also be placed in the '''i''' class to refer to the meat of that animal, consumed as food. This includes '''kejazang''', which means 'beef' in the '''i''' class.<br />
* Nouns referring to inanimates whose primary class is the '''į''' class can be put in the '''b<u>į</u>''' class when it is a group of the inanimate in question, treated as an undifferentiated mass, which is referred to.<br />
<br />
One of the circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used, then, is to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, rather than in the primary class. A brief list of the other circumstances in which the classifier affixes are used is given below.<br />
<br />
* To indicate the presence of a subject or object of a verb or determiner when there is no corresponding subject or object NP (either because it has been dropped&mdash;Wendoth is a pro-drop language&mdash;or because it is not part of the same clause (as in relative clauses) or it has been moved to an unusual syntactic position).<br />
* To indicate the gender of a human referent in the singular. The masculine and feminine classifiers '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' function as a sort of honorific. It is considered impolite to refer to a non-intimate without using the appropriate classifier to indicate their gender, although it is not grammatically required; indeed, it is common to drop the classifiers when one wishes to deliberately insult somebody, or when referring to somebody from an enemy tribe. However, with children and intimates, it is permissible to drop the classifiers without any insulting connotations (the youngest children, in fact, are seen as non-gendered; '''yandį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'baby', for example, is of the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class). During courtship, one would refer to one's lover with the appropriate classifier, but after marriage the spouse is considered an intimate, and usually the husband and wife stop needing to use the classifiers to refer to each other (although there are some marriages in which this stage is never reached). Note that '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' is always used to refer to human referents in the plural.<br />
* To disambiguate referents.<br />
* To make the sentence fit a meter, or alliterate, so that it sounds better.<br />
<br />
==== Mass and count nouns ====<br />
<br />
Nouns in classes '''i''', '''b<u>į</u>''' and '''<u>nd</u>o''' are mass nouns, and nouns in the other classes are count nouns. The distinction is generally unimportant, but the determiners '''ma<u>sh</u>-''' 'much' and '''<u>i</u><u>d</u>-''' 'many' are used with mass and count nouns respectively, and the determiners '''pa<u>j</u>-''' 'little' and '''re<u>dh</u>''' 'few' are used with mass and count nouns respectively.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with their head nouns in case and noun class. But only the nominative case is distinguished from the other cases by agreement; the accusative and dative cases take the same agreement markers. Likewise, the noun classes are grouped into four superclasses with respect to agreement, so that there are eight different agreement markers in total. The superclasses are:<br />
<br />
# gendered humans (covering the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C1')<br />
# foodstuffs, non-gendered humans and groups of humans, and non-human animates (covering the '''i''', '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C2')<br />
# concrete inanimates (covering the '''cum''', '''b<u>į</u>''', '''į''' and '''thą''' classes) (gloss 'C3')<br />
# abstract inanimates (covering the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'C4')<br />
<br />
Nouns in the first two superclasses can be collectively referred to as animate nouns, and nouns in the second two superclasses can be collectively referred to as inanimate nouns.<br />
<br />
There are also some determiners which can (optionally) take classifier suffixes to allow the exact class of a noun to be indicated. These are precisely the demonstrative and interrogative determiners, which are also the determiners which have pronominal counterparts, and show other unique syntactic behaviour. The classifier suffixes are added after the regular agreement suffixes. Other determiners cannot take classifier suffixes.<br />
<br />
The stems of determiners agreeing with nouns in the nominative always have a weighted phoneme at the end, although the weighted phoneme is followed by the lax vowel '''e''' (never any other vowel) if it is a consonant. This weighted phoneme is called the alternating part of the determiner. If the noun is animate, the weighted phoneme manifests as light. If the noun is inanimate, the weighted phoneme manifests as heavy. Determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 1 are distinguished from those agreeing with nouns in superclass 2 by having an extra suffix '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem (which causes mutation of the final '''e''' if it is present), and determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 4 are distinguished from determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 3 by having an extra suffix '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem; determiners agreeing with nouns in superclasses 2-3 do not have any suffix added after the stem. If the noun is in the accusative or dative case, the only thing that changes is that '''ą''' is inserted at the end of the stem, replacing the final lax vowel if one is present.<br />
<br />
The following table summarises the declension of determiners by giving all the possible endings that may occur (with the endings starting at and including the alternating part). '''Y''' denotes the light manifestation of the determiner's alternating part and '''W''' denotes its heavy manifestation. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Yin<sup>a</sup>, -Yn<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
| -Y<sup>e</sup>, -Y<sup>1</sup><br />
| -W<sup>e</sup>, -W<sup>1</sup><br />
| -Wedh<sup>a</sup>, -Wdh<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| -Yąn<sup>a</sup><br />
| -Yą<br />
| -Wą<br />
| -Wądh<sup>a</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The '''e''' or '''i''' in these suffixes is not present if the alternating part is a close vowel.<br />
<br />
The usual morphophonological alternations also occur.<br />
<br />
* The final lax vowels that are present in all the endings except '''-Yą''' and '''-Wą''' disappear unless a suffix is added after them. Final '''e''' disappears even if a suffix is added, if that suffix begins with a close vowel.<br />
* If the alternating part is preceded by '''o''' (if the alternating part is non-nasal) or '''a''' (if the alternating part is nasal), then the consonant before the '''o''' or '''a''' is affected by weight harmony and takes on the same weight as the alternating part. These alternating consonants are underlined in the citation forms. Close vowels preceding the alternating part may also be affected by weight harmony, but not all of them; as usual, those that are affected are underlined.<br />
<br />
Determiners are untransformed when they agree with nominative nouns in superclasses 2 or 3, unless they have an additional noun class affix added (see below). Otherwise, they are transformed.<br />
<br />
In addition, determiners, which generally occupy the initial position within an NP, prevent transformation of the following word under certain circumstances, generally when the determiner ends in a vowel. More specifically, transformation is prevented when the alternating part of the determiner is a consonant and the determiner ends in '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with an accusative/dative noun in superclass 2 or 3), or the alternating part of the determiner is a close vowel and the determiner ends in that vowel or '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with a noun in superclass 2 or 3). Note that this does not include the case where the alternating part of the determiner is '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' and this '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' disappears when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 or 3. In that case, the determiner does end in a vowel but '''h''' is inserted (as usual) to break up the hiatus produced if the following word is transformed.<br />
<br />
As the three other stems of a determiner are deducible from any given stem, there is no need to give all four stems when introducing a new determiner. Instead, we just give the common stem up to the alternating part, which is given in its light manifestation, and leave a trailing hyphen. From this, all four stems can easily be derived.<br />
<br />
Some example determiner declensions are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! re<u>dh</u>- 'few'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| erdhin<br />
| redh<br />
| rev<br />
| ervedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| erdhąn<br />
| erdhą<br />
| ervą<br />
| ervądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>i</u><u>d</u>- 'many'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| idin<br />
| id<br />
| ub <br />
| ubedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| idąn<br />
| idą<br />
| ubą<br />
| ubądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>ṭ</u>o<u>į</u>- 'this'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| choįn<br />
| choį<br />
| ṭoų <br />
| ṭoųdh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| choįąn<br />
| choįą<br />
| ṭoųą<br />
| ṭoųądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! mane<u>r</u>- 'only'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| amnerin<br />
| maner<br />
| mane<br />
| amnehedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| amnerąn<br />
| manerą<br />
| manehą<br />
| amnehądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Singular<br />
!colspan="2"| Plural<br />
|-<br />
! inclusive<br />
! exclusive<br />
|-<br />
! First-person<br />
| be<br><br />
ḍã<br />
| seb<sup>e</sup>, sub<sup>e</sup><br><br />
umḍã<br />
| <sup>h</sup>e<u>k</u><sup>o</sup><br><br />
aḍḍã<br />
|-<br />
! Second-person<br />
| süng / se-, se<br><br />
mu<br />
|colspan="2"|ni / ne-<br><br />
ummu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each personal pronoun (except the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''; see below). In each cell, the first form given is used as the stem in the nominative and dative cases, and has the usual nominative and dative case suffixes added after it, while the second form given is the full form in the accusative case; it does not have the usual accusative case suffix added after it. Accordingly, the second form has been given in its transformed form. Note, however, that the second form will not always be transformed, due to preceding determiners. The untransformed forms of '''umḍã''', '''aḍḍã''' and '''ummu''' are '''muḍã''', '''ḍaḍã''' and '''mumu''', respectively.<br />
<br />
The variants '''süng''' / '''se-''' and '''se''' are attested from different Wendoth languages; likewise with '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' and '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''. The two variations are independent; for example, there are many Wendoth languages which show reflexes of '''süng''' / '''se-''' rather than '''se''', but which also show reflexes of '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' rather than '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; noun class affixes serve their purpose in subject and object positions, and demonstratives with an appropriate noun class affix serve their purpose in other positions. There is one more personal pronoun which is not listed in the table above: the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''. This pronoun declines regularly; there is no suppletion in the accusative case as with the other pronouns. It is mainly used as an indirect object or as the object of a postpositional phrase, as the verbal reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' is used for the same purpose to indicate a reflexive object. It can be used as an direct object, along with an agreeing reflexive suffix, for emphasis.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otnevįsh|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-n<sup>e</sup>-vį-sh<sup>a</sup>|MASC-DETR-do-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|owqį.|<u>y</u>o-qį|REFL-for}}<br />
{{glend|Everything he does is for his own benefit.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|no}}<br />
{{gl|oįtwangew|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-įwang<sup>e</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-love-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|''woų''!|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>|REFL-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|No, you love ''yourself''!}}<br />
<br />
==== Demonstratives ====<br />
<br />
There are seven different demonstratives, which can be used as both pronouns and determiners.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Noun<br />
! Determiner<br />
|-<br />
| First-person<br />
| <u>ch</u>o, ṭob<sup>e</sup><br />
| <u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>, ṭob<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Second person<br />
| ṭosüng / ṭose-, ṭos<sup>e</sup><br />
| ṭosi<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>, ṭos<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Non-directed<br />
| jhã / jha-<br />
| jh<u>i</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, visible<br />
| va<br />
| va<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, invisible<br />
| xe<br />
| x<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, visible<br />
| vav<sup>a</sup><br />
| vava<u>į</u>, va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, invisible<br />
| xex<sup>e</sup><br />
| xex<u>į</u>, xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each demonstrative pronoun, along with the corresponding determiners (which are given in their citation forms). For the first-person demonstratives, two different forms are attested, one with the suffix '''-b<sup>e</sup>''' (from the first-person singular pronoun), by analogy with the second-person demonstratives, and one without. The second-person demonstrative's two variants correspond to the two variants of the second-person singular pronoun. As for the two variants of the superdistal demonstrative determiners, it is probable that '''va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup>''' and '''xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup>''' are the older forms, while '''vava<u>į</u>''' and '''xex<u>į</u>''' are formed by analogy with '''va<u>į</u>''' and '''x<u>į</u>'''.<br />
<br />
The first-person and second-person demonstratives are used to refer to objects close to the speaker and the addressee, respectively. The &lsquo;non-directed&rsquo; demonstrative '''jhã''' / '''jha-''' is used when it does not make sense to speak of the place of the object referred to. For example, it might be used to refer to the place the speaker and addressee are currently in, or it might be used to refer to a sound coming from an unknown location, or it might be used to refer to an idea or topic of conversation. It can usually be glossed as 'this'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jhã|jhã|this}}<br />
{{gl|nethoreth!|nethoreth<sup>e</sup>|be_ridiculous}}<br />
{{glend|This is ridiculous! (referring to a general situation)}}<br />
<br />
The two distal demonstratives are used for objects which are removed from both the speaker and addressee, but relatively close, while the superdistal demonstratives are used for objects which are relatively far away. '''va''' and '''vav<sup>e</sup>''' are used for visible objects and '''xe''' and '''xex<sup>e</sup>''' are used for invisible objects.<br />
<br />
Demonstrative pronouns can optionally take classifier suffixes agreeing with the noun class of their referent. This is especially common when they are used to refer to humans, <br />
<br />
The demonstratives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents in both their pronoun and determiner forms. These are added after case suffixes and agreement suffixes, but before postpositional enclitics. In particular, the demonstrative determiners can sometimes follow, rather than precede, their head noun&mdash;but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
There is a single interrogative determiner, '''nda<u>i</u>''', but there are two interrogative pronouns, '''ndai''' and '''ndau''': '''ndai''' 'who' is used to refer to humans, i.e. referents that could be referred to by a noun in the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' or '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, or, equivalently, referents that take determiners with the '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' suffix, and '''ndau''' 'what' is used to refer to non-humans. <br />
<br />
The interrogatives also function as indefinites in declarative statements; as mentioned above, there are verbal prefixes and suffixes which can be used as indefinite markers, but using the explicit pronouns has the effect of putting the focus on the indefinite element rather than away from it.<br />
<br />
Like the demonstratives, the interrogatives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents, and they can follow their head noun, but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Noun class affixes on demonstratives and interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
Although determiners agree with their head nouns with respect to class, they do not use the usual noun class affixes to do so in general. However, demonstrative and interrogative determiners, unlike all the other determiners, may take a noun class suffix, in addition to their usual agreement suffixes. The suffix follows any of the usual agreement suffixes. Likewise, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns may take a noun class suffix, which follows any case suffix. As usual, addition of these suffixes is entirely optional but it may be used to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents or for metrical / alliterative purposes. It is also possible for demonstrative and interrogative determiners to follow their complement NPs rather than precede them, as normal, in which case they always have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the complement NP.<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth do not appear to have been a very numerate people. Most of the numerals have transparent etymologies, and there appear to have been several variants of quite a few of them. Reconstructing numerals beyond 12 is impossible, and it is likely that these were formed on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<br />
<br />
The first three cardinal numbers have both nominal and determiner forms, which are used in free variation. For the numeral 1, the determiner form was the most common one, but the reverse was the situation for 2 and 3. Hardly any of the Wendoth languages preserve the determiner form of 2 in its original sense, and none of them preserve the determiner form of 3. Instead, the more common change has been for the determiner forms of 2 and 3 (sometimes just 3) to change sense and become used as ordinal numerals instead, paralleling '''i<u>r</u>-''', the ordinal numeral 1. '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''', listed here as the ordinal numeral 2, is best glossed as 'other', as it has a wider sense, more comparable to that English word than 'second'. Hence, in the languages that started to use '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' to mean 'second', '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''' often survived as 'other'.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals higher than 2 cannot be reconstructed. The Wendoth languages exhibit a wide variety of constructions for these. It is quite possible that there was simply no way of forming these ordinals in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
The following numeral forms can be reconstructed:<br />
<br />
# '''mang''' / '''<u>nd</u>o-''' (determiner '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', ordinal determiner '''i<u>r</u>-''')<br />
# '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u>-''')<br />
# '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''', '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u>-''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>-'''<br />
# '''che(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''ndache(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''chechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįqeche(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''jot(eh)ajote<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''che(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# ['''ahajabą''' / '''ahaja<u>d</u>o-'''] ('''chechetate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''chet(eh)achete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
<br />
The forms of the numeral 1 are presumably of ancient origin, as is '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'second' (which is also used in the sense of 'other'). Influence from the determiner form may be the reason why Pre-Wendoth '''man''' become '''mang''' as a noun rather than the expected '''*ndan'''. Note that in addition to '''<u>nd</u>a<u>n</u>-''', there is also a determiner '''u<u>i</u><u>y</u>''' meaning 'single, exactly one'.<br />
<br />
The cardinal numeral 2, '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''', shows no relation to '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>'''. In fact, it likely originated from a Pre-Wendoth word '''ʔeʔeku''', which was reduplicated from a root, '''ʔeku''', meaning 'finger'. We also see this root in '''nguįq<sup>e</sup>''' 'be cunning, clever' (< PW '''ŋun-ʔeku''' 'use the finger'), although no trace of it survives otherwise (the word for 'finger' in Wendoth is '''įau''', which is a compound formed from '''į-''', the secondary stem of '''įą''' 'hand', and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end'). The determiner form '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' fell out of use in most of the Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
The two forms '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' and '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' of the cardinal numeral 3 both originate from compounds of the numerals for one and two. In Pre-Wendoth, such a compound would have looked like '''man-ʔeʔeku'''. But it seems that the '''n-ʔ''' cluster was simplified to either '''n''' or '''ʔ''' in different dialects, accounting for the two forms. It seems also that the determiner form of 3 was formed in an entirely different way, by appending the '''che-''' prefix to '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>'''. Perhaps '''ch(eg)ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' was once another variant of the cardinal numeral 3, but no trace of it survives. In every Wendoth language in which the form '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' survives, it has come to be used exclusively as an ordinal.<br />
<br />
The numeral 5, '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>''' 'five', is identical with the word for 'fist' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''), and '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' The numeral 10 originates from a reduplication of the same word. Presumably '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' was once a Type II noun with the primary stem '''tatehą''', but the primary stem fell out of use and it became a Type I noun. As for the numeral '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' 'twelve', it is of unknown origin. But in some languages its meaning is 'one hundred', which suggests that 'twelve' may be a anachronistic reconstruction&mdash;it probably originally just meant 'a large quantity'.<br />
<br />
The other numerals are formed from compounds. Some of these make use of the verbs '''<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'precede' and '''ch<sup>e</sup>''' 'succeed'. These verbs in their plain forms are obselete in Wendoth, having been replaced by forms with the verb '''g<sup>e</sup>''' compounded on the end&mdash;'''jog<sup>e</sup>''' and '''cheg<sup>e</sup>'''&mdash;and many of the Wendoth languages have inserted '''-g<sup>e</sup>''' into at least some of these numerals accordingly. The secondary stem '''te<sup>ha</sup>''' for 'five' is used in these compounds (as is typical for the compounds in Wendoth of more ancient origin).<br />
<br />
In some Wendoth languages, the '''jo-''' and '''che-''' prefixes are added twice to form the numerals for 7, 8 and/or 12. This must be of recent origin, because the '''jo-''' prefix is unaffected by weight harmony: PW '''ɣaɣapepeŋo''' would result in '''*<sup>h</sup>ojotate<sup>ha</sup>''' rather than '''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>'''. Other languages have formed the forms for 8 and 12 by reduplicating the forms for 4 and 6, resulting in '''jotehajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetehachete<sup>ha</sup>''', which were then simplified to '''jotajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetachete<sup>ha</sup>''' (the loss of a sequence of the form '''Vh''' is attested in a few other compounds, such as '''kejazang''' 'cattle', which was originally '''kejazohang''' < PW '''kiɣa-zo ran''' 'kept aurochs'). More commonly, though, the numerals for 7 and 8 were simply formed as additive compounds (with the smaller numeral preceding the larger one), and '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' was used for the numeral 12.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Each verb in Wendoth has a primary stem, used in the non-past tense, and a secondary stem, used in the non-past tense. Finite verbs take additional suffixes marking for mood (indicative vs. subjunctive, subjunctive being the marked mood) and, for some verbs, aspect (specific vs. generic, generic being the marked mood). They can also, optionally, take noun class affixes to agree with their arguments (prefixes agree with subjects, suffixes agree with objects); the noun class suffixes follow the subjunctive and generic suffixes if present. Finally, there are a few verbal enclitics which follow the noun class suffixes and are used for misellaneous purposes: negation, imperatives, etc.<br />
<br />
Verbs are transformed whenever an affix is added (which might be a noun class affix or the subjunctive or generic marker), but not necessarily when an enclitic is added, or when the secondary stem is used rather than the primary stem.<br />
<br />
Verbs may be intransitive, monotransitive or ditransitive. Some monotransitive verbs take their object in the dative case, such as '''kaų<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'wash'. These dative objects can still be considered indirect objects, because it is impossible to add a noun class suffix to a verb to agree with its dative object. Noun class suffixes can only agree with objects in the accusative case.<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
<br />
Just like nouns, based on the relation between the primary and secondary stem, verbs can be classified into three kinds.<br />
<br />
===== Type I verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type I verbs, which comprise the majority of verbs, have a primary stem that ends in a lax vowel or close vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in a lax vowel are of Type I, but some verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type II.<br />
<br />
For Type I verbs, in the secondary stem, the final vowel is mutated, and either '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is usually added to the end of the stem. The secondary stem can be regularly derived from the primary stem.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''į''', '''i''' or a light consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>nj</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a heavy consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>h</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''ų''' or '''u''', then the secondary stem is exactly the same as the primary stem, so the past and present tenses are not distinguished for these verbs.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', then the secondary stem has non-alternating '''į''' or '''i''' instead and has '''<sup>nj</sup>''' added afterwards.<br />
<br />
In general, however, the distinction between which of the two consonants are added is irrelevant, because both '''<sup>nj</sup>''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappear word-finally and before consonants, leaving only the mutation of the final lax vowel to differentiate the two stems. The only time the distinction is relevant is when a suffix beginning with a close vowel (one of the noun class suffixes '''-i''' or '''-į''', the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''', or the possessive suffix '''-į''') is added to the secondary stem, in which case '''<sup>nj</sup>''' appears as '''nj''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' appears as '''h''' (or disappears, if a tense vowel precedes it).<br />
<br />
Note that if the primary stem ends in '''e''', and the consonant preceding the '''e''' is not labial, the mutation in the secondary stem turns this '''e''' into '''ü''', which is realised as '''i''' most of the time but as '''u''' if a suffix is added to the secondary stem which begins with a labial consonant, i.e. one of the noun class suffixes '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' (if they are not followed by a light syllable) and '''-b<u>į</u>''', or the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''per<sup>e</sup>''' 'be under' has the secondary stem '''perü<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''qawang<sup>e</sup>''' 'explore' has the secondary stem '''qawangü'''.<br />
* '''uzhec<sup>a</sup>''' 'travel' has the secondary stem '''uzhece<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ṭase<u>q</u>a''' 'wear' has the secondary stem '''ṭasehe<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
* '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' has the secondary stem '''veqeya<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''cuį''' 'lack' has the secondary stem '''cuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndotau''' 'be cruel' has the secondary stem '''ndotau'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>ųm<u>į</u>''' 'push' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>ųmį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type II verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type II verbs have a primary stem that ends in an underlying tense vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of Type II, but most verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type I rather than Type II. <br />
<br />
For Type II verbs, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears.<br />
** Even if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it never changes into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', because the only light syllable that can be added after the secondary stem is the past tense suffix, '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''', and although historically, some instances of '''ų''' and '''u''' did change to '''į''' and '''i''' before this suffix due to weight harmony, dissimilation resulted in them changing back into '''ų''' and '''u'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. If it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant will become alternating in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, a suffix is added to the secondary stem: '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a creaky-voiced vowel ('''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą''') and '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in a breathy-voiced vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''). This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''į''' or '''i''' to change into '''ų''' or '''u''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''megį''' 'take' has the secondary stem '''mege-''' and the past tense form '''megį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''uįqu''' 'split' has the secondary stem '''uįqe-''' and the past tense form '''uįqi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''unjã''' 'make dirty' has the secondary stem '''unja-''' and the past tense form '''unjai<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndųbą''' 'bend' has the secondary stem '''nduba-''' and the past tense form '''ndųbaį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''yehą''' 'be dead' has the secondary stem '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''yegoį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''iã''' 'be above' has the secondary stem '''i-''' and the past tense form '''ui<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ḍoųã''' 'crush, grind' has the secondary stem '''ḍoų-''' and the past tense form '''ḍoųi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''dhįuą''' 'be in pain' has the secondary stem '''dhįu-''' (historically '''dhį<u>i</u>-''') and the past tense form '''dhįuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type III verbs =====<br />
<br />
All verbs with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''h''' are of Type III; the Type III verbs also include some verbs whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''h'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III verbs, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''h''' of the primary stem is deleted (if it is present) and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem, and the preceding light phoneme becomes alternating.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''' and '''i''' in the primary stem sometimes become alternating in the secondary stem. Otherwise, they remain unchanged.<br />
* '''ų''' in the primary stem remains unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
In addition, to form the past tense, the suffix '''-u''' is added to the secondary stem. This suffix is not added to the secondary stems of verbal nouns formed from Type II verbs. Adding the suffix regularly induces preceding '''ų''' or '''u''' to change into '''į''' or '''i''' by dissimilation.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍaxendam''' 'lie down' has the secondary stem '''ḍaxe<u>nd</u>o-''' and the past tense form '''ḍaxemou'''.<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' has the secondary stem '''noja-''' and the past tense form '''nojau'''.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' has the secondary stem '''ngozheba-''' and the past tense form '''ngozhebau'.<br />
* '''gemahüng''' 'enjoy' has the secondary stem '''gemahe-''' and the past tense form '''gemahu'''.<br />
* '''shehumu''' 'bring' has the secondary stem '''shehume-''' and the past tense form '''shehumu'''.<br />
* '''chį<sup>nj</sup>''' 'remember' has the secondary stem '''chį-''' and the past tense form '''chį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'touch' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>au-''' and the past tense form '''<sup>h</sup>aiu'''.<br />
* '''cedhing''' 'lift' has the secondary stem '''cedh<u>i</u>-''' and the past tense form '''cedhiu''' (but as a verbal noun, in the accusative case, it is '''cedhuų''').<br />
<br />
==== Aspect and mood ====<br />
<br />
The subjunctive suffix is '''-q<sup>a</sup>''', and the generic suffix is '''-sh<sup>a</sup>'''. If both suffixes are added, the generic suffix precedes the subjunctive suffix. Apart from the usual morphophonological alternations (the final '''a'''s of both suffixes disappear when no extra suffix is added), there are no complications in adding these suffixes.<br />
<br />
Many verbs cannot have the generic suffix added to them. These verbs can be considered stative verbs, while the other verbs are considered dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be thought of as being generic by default. They often correspond to adjectives in English, e.g. '''rauį''' 'be red', '''faį<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be asleep'. Often, a stative verb has a dynamic counterpart with a distinct root, e.g. '''į<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sleep'. Dynamic verbs can also be derived from stative verbs using the inceptive prefix '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and the cessative prefix '''<sup>h</sup>au-'''.<br />
<br />
==== Subject and object agreement ====<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can be used as both prefixes and suffixes on verbs. When a noun class affix is prefixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's subject, and when a noun class affix is suffixed to a verb, it agrees with the verb's direct object. The addition of these affixes is mandatory when the NP they agree with follows the verb, or when the verb is the main verb of a relative clause and the affix agrees with the NP which the relative clause is attached to, or when the NP is absent altogether. Otherwise, addition of the affixes is optional.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophezecaz|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-slay-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{gl|enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Enkethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ophezeca|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezeca<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-slay-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ṭare!|ṭare|sibling}}<br />
{{glend|Our brother has slain the beast!}}<br />
<br />
In addition, the noun class affixes can be used for the purposes listed above: to indicate that a noun has the sense it takes in one of its secondary classes, to indicate the gender of a human referent, to disambiguate referents, or for metrical / alliterative purposes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|įk|įk<sup>a</sup>|laugh}}<br />
{{glend|I am laughing.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (male addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|koįk|<u>k</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|FEM-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|You are laughing (female addreessee).}}<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes can also be used to agree with an entity which does not actually have a noun referring to it in the sentence. This entity is always assumed to be a third person. The noun class affixes thus serve the function of the third-person pronouns of other languages.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįk|<u>t</u>o-įk<sup>a</sup>|MASC-laugh}}<br />
{{glend|He is laughing.}}<br />
<br />
Note that it is impossible for a noun class affix to agree with the indirect object of a verb. By &ldquo;indirect object&rdquo; here, we mean any noun in the dative. There is a class of verbs that take their single argument in the dative case; these verbs cannot have a noun class suffix added to them, because they never have a direct object. These verbs can still take noun class prefixes agreeing with their subjects.<br />
<br />
==== Special agreement suffixes ====<br />
<br />
There are a couple of additional agreement affixes, besides the classifiers.<br />
<br />
The first of these is the reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>'''. This is added to verbs to indicate that the object is the same as the subject. If the appropriate noun class suffix was used instead, this would entail that the object was different from the subject, and just of the same class.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophauųųmeqaw|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ų~ųm<sup>e</sup>-q<sup>a</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CESS-ITER~hit-SUB-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|tok!|tok|IMP}}<br />
{{glend|Stop hitting yourself!}}<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are the indefinite affixes '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' and '''m<sup>e</sup>'''. These are added to verbs to indicate that the subject or object is indefinite&mdash;'somebody' (if '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used) or 'something' (if '''m<sup>e</sup>''' is used). There are also explicit indefinite pronouns '''ndai''' and '''ndau''', as mentioned above, but the indefinite affixes are used to lend less emphasis to the indefinite argument. The effect they have is akin to a passive construction, and in fact the usual way to translate passives where the subject is not indicated in a &lsquo;by&rsquo;-phrase is using these affixes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indcindup.|nde-cindu-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-kill.PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He was killed.}}<br />
<br />
==== Derivation ====<br />
<br />
===== The verbal noun =====<br />
<br />
Every verb can also be nominalised to form a verbal noun (a noun denoting the action or state expressed by the verb). This is a fully productive process, more morphological than derivational.<br />
<br />
If the verb is of Type I, then the verbal noun is formed from its primary stem, and it is a Type I noun. Otherwise, the verbal noun takes the same type, the same primary stem and the same secondary stem as the original verb (although the secondary stem does not have the past tense suffix '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''', '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''-u''' added).<br />
<br />
The class of the nominalised verb is usually the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but sometimes it is the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, depending on the meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
The arguments of a nominalised verb can be indicated via PPs using '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' with the PP's complement noun in the nominative (if the argument is the subject of the verb) or the accusative (if the argument is the object of the verb). Remember that the complement of a PP using '''dh<sup>a</sup>''' is considered to be alienable if it is in the nominative case and inalienable if it is in the accusative case, so this means that subjects are considered to be alienably possessed by the actions they perform, while objects are considered to be inalienably possessed by the actions that are performed on them. The same method is not used to indicate dative arguments ('''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' never takes complements in the dative case); instead, these can be indicated using PPs headed by '''-qį''' 'for'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ephezac|pehez<sup>a</sup>-c<sup>e</sup>|be_satisified_with-with}}<br />
{{gl|emgįzh|megį-<sup>zh</sup><sup>o</sup>|take-c4}}<br />
{{gl|choįąn|choįą-n<sup>a</sup>|this.ACC-HUM}}<br />
{{gl|įrmų|rįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|give-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ohqajhiqį|<sup>h</sup>oqajhi-qį|family-for}}<br />
{{gl|aiyfaįdh|yaif<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|child-ACC-of}}<br />
{{glend|I accept this gift to our family of your daughter.}}<br />
<br />
===== Other nominalising suffixes =====<br />
<br />
There are also quite a few nominalising suffixes which are used for more specialised kinds of nominalisation.<br />
<br />
The most ancient of these suffixes can be identified by the fact that they attach to the secondary stem of a Type II/III verb (without its usual past suffix added), rather than the primary stem. These suffixes are fairly productive, but many formations have somewhat idiomatic, unpredictable meanings. They are:<br />
* '''-ni''' / '''-ne-''', the agentive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent in the state expressed by the verb, or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent which habitually carries out the action expressed by the verb. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the patientive-stative suffix '''-k<sup>e</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ne-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''waun''' / '''wau-''' 'lie' > '''wauni''' / '''waune-''' 'liar', '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'be angry' > '''xahesani''' / '''xahesane-''' 'raving lunatic'<br />
* '''-r<sup>e</sup>''', the causative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an animate that habitually causes, undergoes or carries out the state or action described by the verb (it is thus broader in meaning than its name would suggest). The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' > '''veqeyor<sup>e</sup>''' 'chilly breeze', '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' > '''rokeher<sup>e</sup>''' 'object that floats'<br />
* '''-k<sup>e</sup>''', the patientive-stative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that habitually undergoes the action or takes the state expressed by the verb. If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''yehą''' / '''ye<u>g</u>o-''' 'be dead' > '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse', '''dhemer<sup>e</sup>''' 'move away from' > '''dhemerek<sup>e</sup>''' 'outcast, loner', '''ṭase<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'wear' > '''ṭashehak<sup>e</sup>''' 'clothes'<br />
* '''-ką''' / '''-ka-''', the past agentive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an agent that has taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not), or, if the verb is dynamic, an agent that has carried out the action expressed by the verb before. For some intransitive verbs, generally those that express an involuntary or undesirable state, the past patientive suffix '''-f<sup>a</sup>''' is used instead. The resulting noun is of Type II; '''-ka-''' is its ending in its secondary stem.<br />
** Examples: '''cindiką''' / '''cindika-''' 'person who has made their first kill (of a human)', '''reqeyaką''' / '''reqeyaka-''' 'married person', '''xepadaką''' / '''xepadaka-''' 'person who has left' (including the meanings of 'escapee' and 'deserter')<br />
* '''-f<sup>a</sup>''', the past patientive suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object (which may be animate or inanimate) that has undergone the action or taken the state expressed by the verb (whether it is presently in the state or not). If the object is animate, it carries the implication that the action or state is involuntary or unfortunate for the animate object in question. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ṭeqahef<sup>a</sup>''' 'injured person', '''sathef<sup>a</sup>''' 'received wisdom, tradition', '''reqeyaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'unhappily married person', '''kejaf<sup>a</sup>''' 'domestic animal'<br />
<br />
There are also two suffixes of more recent origin which attach to the primary stem rather than the secondary stem.<br />
* '''-va<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''', the instrumental suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that can be used to carry out the action or maintain the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehąva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'medicine', '''cindi''' 'kill' > '''cindiva<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'weapon'<br />
* '''-į<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''', the resultative suffix, which forms a noun referring to an object that results from carrying out the action or maintaining the state expressed by the verb. The resulting noun is of Type I.<br />
** Examples: '''ḍaḍ<sup>a</sup>''' 'attack' > '''ḍaḍaį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'loot, plunder (n.)', '''<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>''' 'speak' > '''<sup>h</sup>ayį<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'message'<br />
<br />
In addition, each of these suffixes can have the morpheme '''-x<sup>e</sup>''' 'not' added after them, in which case they have the opposite of their usual meaning&mdash;they refer to a noun that fails to have the usual property. Historically, this arises from sentences of the following form:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wauni|wauni|liar}}<br />
{{gl|xe!|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I am not a liar!}}<br />
<br />
The '''wauni xe''' part of the sentence was reanalysed as a single noun, '''waunixe''', and underwent regular sound change and a slight shift in the emphasis of the meaning to become '''waunix''' 'honest person'. Only nouns derived from verbs via these derivational suffixes were reanalysed in this way, but it is a highly productive process&mdash;virtually every such noun has a 'complement' formed by adding '''-x<sup>e</sup>'''. For example, from '''yegok<sup>e</sup>''' 'corpse' we have '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' 'survivor; one who still lives'. As this example shows, the original meaning is still emphasised to some extent; '''yegokex<sup>e</sup>''' does not simply mean 'living person'. Likewise, '''xahesanix<sup>e</sup>''' does not mean 'mild-mannered person' but rather 'somebody who keeps their temper under control'.<br />
<br />
===== Inceptives and cessatives =====<br />
<br />
The rather similar prefixes '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and '''<sup>h</sup>au-''', derived from the verbs '''<sup>h</sup>ou''' 'begin' and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end', are used to indicate inceptive and cessative aspect, respectively. The resulting verb is always dynamic. These prefixes are highly productive and the change in meaning they induce is highly regular, so they could, in fact, be considered morphological rather than derivational prefixes. <br />
<br />
===== Iteratives and intensives =====<br />
<br />
Iteratives (of dynamic verbs) and intensives (of stative verbs) are formed by reduplicating the verb stem. Only the first syllable is reduplicated. There are many fossilised iterations in which the reduplicated first syllable changes, due to vowel mutation or dissimilation: for example, '''nging<sup>e</sup>''' 'be entranced by' is derived from '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', and '''ųįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be a nuisance' is derived from '''įka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'make noise'. However, more recent iterations do not show these changes, so that the reduplicated syllable is identical to the old one. For example, we also have '''įįka<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' meaning 'make noise over and over again'.<br />
<br />
===== Causatives =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ų-''' is used to form causatives. If an intransitive verb has the meaning &lsquo;to ''X''&rsquo;, then adding '''ų-''' to it gives it the new meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X''&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes a dative object, which is the causee, while its subject is the causer. The causee has to be an agent capable of volition. Similarly, if the verb is transitive, adding '''ų-''' results in the meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X'' sth./sbd. (acc.)&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes the causer as its subject, the causee as its indirect object and the object of the caused action as its direct object. However, any noun class suffix added to the derived verb agrees with the indirect object (the causee), rather than the indirect object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpning|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-ning<sup>e</sup>|MASC-CAUS-cry}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭmap.|<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-DAT-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|I made him cry.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpqahen|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-qahen<sup>a</sup>|MASC-CAUS-help}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭrem|ṭar<sup>a</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>|brother-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|mundaų.|mund<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>|mother-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I made my little brother help his mother.}}<br />
<br />
===== Intransitivisation =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ne-''' is an intransitivising prefix. It is less productive than the other derivational methods mentioned in this section, but it is still reasonably productive. Many verbs with '''ne-''' added have become independent lexical stems and drifted in meaning from the original verb; for example, we have '''thareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'annoy, bother, frustrate' but '''nethareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'be foolish, silly, ridiculous', and '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure, suffer' but '''nezhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'be suffering'. Note that both of these verbs changed from dynamic to stative when '''ne-''' was added. This does not always happen, but it is not uncommon; it is also possible for a verb to change from stative to dynamic when '''ne-''' is added. This is due to the fact that '''ne-''' has been a productive derivational suffix since before the distinction between stative and dynamic verbs evolved.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== Sentences ===<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal intransitive clause in Wendoth has a subject and a verb. There are no impersonal verbs, like &ldquo;rain&rdquo; in English; these meanings are conveyed by other means (for example, &ldquo;it is raining&rdquo; is phrased as &ldquo;rain is falling&rdquo;). It is, however, possible for the subject to be conveyed only by a subject-marking prefix, having no corresponding NP.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcendoi.|<u>t</u>o-cendoi|MASC-be brave}}<br />
{{glend|He is brave.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in intransitive clauses is SV (subject-verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham<sup>a</sup>|rain}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
Verb-subject (VS) word order is also possible, but if this word order is used, the verb must take a subject-marking prefix (in accordance with the general rule that a verb must take an affix marking an argument which follows the verb).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbzashą|b<u>į</u>-zashą|c7-fall}}<br />
{{gl|baham|baham|rain}}<br />
{{glend|It is raining.}}<br />
<br />
The two possible word orders are not associated with any difference in meaning. However, VS is much more marked, and speakers who use it frequently will be criticised for clumsy phrasing. This is in contrast to the situation with SVO vs. VSO word order in transitive clauses, where VSO is the more usual word order.<br />
<br />
==== Transitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
A minimal transitive clause in Wendoth has a subject, a verb and a direct object. However, as in intransitive clauses, the subject and direct object may be marked only by affixes on the verb.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otcindup.|<u>t</u>o-cind<sup>e</sup>-u-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-kill-PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He killed him.}}<br />
<br />
The usual word order in transitive sentences is VSO; when the verb precedes the subject and object it has to take subject-marking and object-marking prefixes agreeing with them.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ṭekaį|ṭekaį|older brother}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|My (older) brother ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
However, if the subject is a pronoun, whether personal, demonstrative or interrogative, then it is more usual for the subject to precede the verb, resulting in SVO word order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių.|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|You ate the food.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ndai|ndai|who}}<br />
{{gl|oųtnjaįuhi|<u>t</u>o-ųnjaį-u<sup>h</sup>-i|MASC-eat-PAST-c3}}<br />
{{gl|ingių?|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Who ate the food?}}<br />
<br />
Even so, word order is largely free due to case marking, and both VSO and SVO word orders are used in both situations; it is only the relative frequency of the two that differs depending on whether the subject is a pronoun. Historically, the predominant word order was SOV, and this is still sometimes used as well: fossilised proverbs and set phrases often have preserved SOV word order, and due to the influence of these it is common for people to use SOV word order when they are trying to impart some wisdom that they want people to remember. An example is the following insult, which literally means &ldquo;you lick the earth&rdquo; and is intended to humiliate the addressee by referring to their low social status.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|odkum|dok<u>i</u>-m<sup>a</sup>|earth-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|thųṭum.|thųṭum|lick}}<br />
{{glend|You're trash.}}<br />
<br />
Because of the free word order, it is difficult to say what is the usual position of indirect objects in transitive clauses. They are always in the same place as the direct object, but they may precede or follow the direct object. It is slightly more common for them to follow the direct object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aįrmeq|raįm<sup>e</sup>-<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>|give}}<br />
{{gl|ingių|ingi-<u>į</u>|food-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|süng-m<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.DAT}}<br />
{{glend|I will give you food.}}<br />
<br />
==== The copula ====<br />
<br />
Wendoth makes use of a zero copula to indicate identity between two referents.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I am your father.}}<br />
<br />
However, in order to indicate membership of a referent in a class, one must use a verb, or a verb derived from the noun referring to the class using the prefix '''u-'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|ukechã|u-kechã|be-father}}<br />
{{glend|I am a father.}}<br />
<br />
This prefix is related to the verb '''u''' 'be', which can also be used as a verbal copula to indicate that a noun is described by a prepositional phrase.<br />
<br />
{{gl|B'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh!|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I'm behind you!}}<br />
<br />
The verb '''u''' has an irregular past form '''au''' (it is actually etymologically unrelated); this form of the copula can also be used to indicate identity between nouns in the past tense.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|wa|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|kechã.|kechã|father}}<br />
{{glend|I was your father.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|wa|u|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|mudh|mu-dh<sup>a</sup>|2p.SG.ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|echgezh.|cheg<sup>e</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|back-in}}<br />
{{glend|I was behind you.}}<br />
<br />
=== Determiner phrases ===<br />
<br />
The subjects and objects of clauses are determiner phrases (DPs). DPs are headed by either a personal pronoun or a determiner (possibly a zero determiner). If a DP is headed by a personal pronoun, it consists of this single word and has no other internal structure. On the other hand, DPs headed by determiners obligatorily take a single noun phrase (NP) as a complement.<br />
<br />
In general, the complement in a determiner-headed DP (the NP) follows the head (the determiner). If the determiner ends in a vowel, transformation of the first word in the following NP is prevented where it would otherwise occur.<br />
<br />
{{gl|erdhin|redh<sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|few.NOM-C1}}<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{glend|few men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|aųpną|paųną|every.NOM.AN}}<br />
{{gl|nakethų|naketh-<u>į</u>|beast-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|every beast (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
The exceptions to this rule are the demonstrative and interrogative determiners. These determiners can follow their complement NPs, but if they do, they have to take a noun class suffix agreeing with the noun in the NP. <br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Determiner-final DPs, when allowed, are in free variation with determiner-initial DPs, and determiner-initial DPs remain the most common variant.<br />
<br />
=== Noun phrases ===<br />
<br />
Noun phrases (NPs) are headed by nouns. The head noun in an NP does not take any complements, but it can have adjuncts attached to it, which are of three kinds: postpositional phrases (PPs), appositive NPs, and relative clauses. PPs are always the closest adjuncts to the head noun, but appositive NPs and RCs can be placed in any order.<br />
<br />
==== Appositive NPs ====<br />
<br />
Appositive NPs precede their head nouns, and agree in case with them. In general, appositive constructions are uncommon in Wendoth; other languages make use them to convey adjectival meanings, but Wendoth prefers to use relative clauses for this purpose. However, the cardinal numerals are commonly used as appositives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acauų|acau-<u>į</u>|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ndanaįqų|ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|three-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|three men (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
In order to understand how a phrase like this behaves, it is helpful to think of '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' as meaning &ldquo;triple&rdquo; (as in a group of three objects) rather than &ldquo;three&rdquo;. Hence the phrase above can be taken as meaning &ldquo;a man-triple&rdquo; or &ldquo;a triple of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
It is therefore possible to multiply numbers by stacking them together:<br />
<br />
{{gl|acau|acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|tate|tate<sup>ha</sup>|three}}<br />
{{gl|tehą|tehą|five}}<br />
{{glend|fifty men (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
The meaning of this phrase can be taken as &ldquo;a 5-tuple of 10-tuples of men&rdquo;.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
PPs are headed by postpositions. As mentioned above, the postpositions form a very small closed class with just 7 members. In addition, every PP must take a single NP as a complement. The NP always precedes the postposition (otherwise, the name &ldquo;postposition&rdquo; would not be appropriate).<br />
<br />
Even though this was the state of affairs in at least an early stage of Wendoth, it is not preserved in any of the daughter languages. The situation in Wendoth as reconstructed here, where there were postpositions but there was also primary VSO word order in transitive sentences, violates a syntactic universal. It is therefore likely that it was only the situation for a very short period, if at all. Each postposition has fallen out of use or has become a case suffix or preposition in each daughter languages.<br />
<br />
In fact, it is possible that the postpositions were already case suffixes in Wendoth. It is impossible to know whether constructions such as the following, where a postpositional enclitic cliticised to the end of the NP but not to the end of the head noun of the NP, were possible in Wendoth:<br />
<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|choįnatodh|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC-of}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
But, considering the fact that the postpositional enclitics were apparently tightly bound to the words they cliticised to, it is quite likely that such constructions were impossible, and instead this would be phrased as<br />
<br />
{{gl|sidh|sum-dh<sup>a</sup>|person-of}}<br />
{{gl|choįnap|<u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-NOM.HU-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|of this person (nom.)}}<br />
<br />
Of course, if the postpositions were true case suffixes it is less plausible that they would become prepositions. In general, it is safe to say that the syntactic nature of the Wendoth adpositions was in a state of flux at the time of the language's dispersal.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== '''Kejazang ouhyehąsh''': a poem ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shuzh aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb ershem įyanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|th<sup>a</sup>-sh<sup>a</sup>|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-t<sup>a</sup>|stop-ACC-at}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųne-n<sup>a</sup>|all-NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mange-dh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|one-NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|safą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą:|yehą|be dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb<sup>e</sup>|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|ershem|rem-sh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įyanum.|į<u>y</u>o-nu-m<sup>a</sup>|be_good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== '''Ḍengedh ngįaye''': the legend of the hare ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from a Nivkh legend given in Gruzdeva (1998). This is written in more casual language, as a storyteller might tell it.<br />
<br />
''Oz'hounoixi ųm acau ųįq ąthcizh oz'hezindi todh akshewoqįdh aqwangeqį. Upazh, ozhnoixi og ndochãzh, oz'hau ceg inhaįqį įbįzh. Ozṭahesix yų, ozfau uymat, xou ḍeng įkaganj įbįzh. Eḍngųį ahyeshã, ottharethiz ekekechã eḍngų. Otchum ekeyaif, "Ophauḍa tok; ndauqį ottharethiz sing eḍngų?" Cai, oųpdhemerum chag ettepum owqųį ahyų, ekekechã įįkag chag eḍngųį ahyeshã. Eḍngųį aye dhedhecu ją, yį uuhoqeqi ją. Ekeyaif nenetahehu ją. Otginj ųm, opḍoxomou, oųppofowagubų baḍ wam uqrų woį ngįdh vįhau, xou, ndochãzh, ophoufaįra.''<br />
<br />
''Jathaįzh, įj tha chag, otyatoraį chag ekeyaif. Opngi baḍ. Yį ouhyehu, ehkekechum umngau. Shez ḍoxomou įjahauzh exzhodh oḍxomoįdh zhec. Ehkekechãdh waįdh thąt, maneh įąṭasehak wa ją. Taw oṭḍa aundqį xe ozhjhauheḍa sum eḍngįdh athrethų. Indvawum choįnazh woq ųįqadh auįdh thum Xaunezu.''<br />
<br />
Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away. On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son-in-law. They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare. The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?" But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more. The son-in-law became more and more afraid. He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.<br />
<br />
At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up. He looked around. The fire had gone out, and his father-in-law had disappeared. The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening. Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained. And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare. The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oz'hounoixi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-noixü|c4-INCP-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm|<sup>h</sup>ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ųįq|ųįq<sup>e</sup>|two}}<br />
{{gl|ąthcizh|thącüm-zh<sup>a</sup>|home-from}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hezindi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezindü<sup>nj</sup>|live.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|todh|todh|far}}<br />
{{gl|akshewoqįdh|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|relative-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aqwangeqį.|qawang<sup>e</sup>-qį|visit-for}}<br />
{{glend|Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upazh,|up<sup>a</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhnoixi|<u>zh</u>o-noixü|c4-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|og|<sup>h</sup>og|before}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hau|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au|c4-stop.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|cheg|cheg|after}}<br />
{{gl|inhaįqį|nihaį-qį|night-for}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Irin|i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|one.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã,|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|yoshin|<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|other.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son in law.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ozṭahesix|<u>zh</u>o-ṭahesü-<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-make.PAST-c5}}<br />
{{gl|yų,|ye-<u>į</u>|fire-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ozfau|<u>zh</u>o-fau|c4-sit.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|uymat,|ye-m<sup>a</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|fire-DAT-at}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeng|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>|hare}}<br />
{{gl|įkaganj|įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate.PAST-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų.|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otchum|<u>t</u>o-che-u-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-say-PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif,|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|"Ophauḍa|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-stop-c11}}<br />
{{gl|tok;|please}}<br />
{{gl|ndauqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate-c4}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų?"|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|oųpdhemerum|<u>t</u>o-ų-dhemer<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CAUS-move away from.PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ettepum|tetepe-m<sup>a</sup>|ears-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|owqųį|woq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|friend-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyų,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|speech-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|įįkaga|į~įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|ITER~cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã.|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{glend|But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aye|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>|speech}}<br />
{{gl|dhedhecu|dhe~dhece-u|ITER~grow-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją,|ją|more}}<br />
{{gl|yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|uuhoqeqi|u~uhoqeqü|ITER~burn.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ekeyaif|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|nenetahehu|ne~netahehe-u|be_afraid-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law became more and more afraid.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otginj|<u>t</u>o-gi<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-go.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm,|ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|opḍoxomou,|<u>t</u>o-ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|MASC-lie down-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|oųppofowagubų|<u>t</u>o-ų-pofowage-u-bų|MASC-CAUS-be covered with-PAST-c7}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{gl|wam|<u>y</u>o-m<sup>a</sup>|REFL-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|uqrų|qur<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|grass-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|woįdh|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|REFL-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ngįdh|nge-<sup>į</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|sight-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|vįhau,|vįhau-qį|prevention-for}}<br />
{{gl|xou,|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|ophoufaįra.|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-faįra<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-INCP-be asleep.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jathaįzh,|jath<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-zh<sup>a</sup>|dawn-ACC-in}}<br />
{{gl|įj|įj<sup>a</sup>|light}}<br />
{{gl|tha|the<sup>nj</sup>|come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag,|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|otyatoraį|<u>t</u>o-yatora-į<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-wake up-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opngi|<u>t</u>o-ngü|MASC-look}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ.|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{glend|He looked around.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehu,|<sup>h</sup>ou-ye<u>g</u>o-u|INCP-be_dead.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ehkekechum|<sup>h</sup>ekekeche-m<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|umngau.|me-nga-u|NDEF.IN-cause to disappear-PAST|}}<br />
{{glend|The fire had gone, and his father-in-law had disappeared.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shez|she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|dog}}<br />
{{gl|ḍoxomou|ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|lie-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įjahauzh|įjahau-zh<sup>a</sup>|evening-in}}<br />
{{gl|exzhodh|xe-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|that-c4-of}}<br />
{{gl|oḍxomoįdh|doxo<u>nd</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|lying-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|zhec|zhe-c<sup>e</sup>|sameness-with}}<br />
{{glend|The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ehkekechãdh|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã-dh<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-of}}<br />
{{gl|waįdh|w<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|existence-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thąt,|thą-t<sup>a</sup>|place-at}}<br />
{{gl|maneh|mane<u>h</u><sup>e</sup>|only.NOM.IN}}<br />
{{gl|įąṭasehak|įąṭasehak<sup>e</sup>|footwear}}<br />
{{gl|wa|w<sup>a</sup>|exist.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|oṭḍah|ṭo-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|this-c11}}<br />
{{gl|aundqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|ozhjhauheḍa|<u>zh</u>o-jhau<u>q</u><sup>e</sup>-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-want-c11}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngįdh|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|athrethų.|thareth<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|agitate-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indvawum|nde-vaw<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-name-c10}}<br />
{{gl|choįnazh|ṭaį-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|this.NOM.AN-HU-c4}}<br />
{{gl|woq|woq<sup>e</sup>|friend}}<br />
{{gl|ųįqadh|ųįq<sup>e</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|two-of}}<br />
{{gl|auįdh|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|stop.PAST-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thum|the-m<sup>a</sup>|place-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|Xaunezu.|Xaunezu|Xaunezu}}<br />
{{glend|The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User:Alces/DraftUser:Alces/Draft2015-05-17T10:11:03Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Sound changes from Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
∅ > ʔ / #_, [+creaky]_{[+vowel], #}<br />
∅ > ɦ / [+breathy]_{[+vowel], #}<br />
ʁ > ɦ<br />
tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, zˠ > ʈ, ɖ, ʂ, ʐ<br />
tʲ, dʲ, sʲ, zʲ, tsʲ, dzʲ > t, d, s, z, ts, dz<br />
ŋʲ, kʲ, gʲ, xʲ, ɣʲ > ɲ, tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ<br />
lʲ, lˠ > l<br />
ɲ, ŋ > ɲɟ, ŋg / _{[+approximant], [LARYNGEAL]}<br />
ɲ, ŋ > n<br />
o > ə̜<br />
∅ > j / [LARYNGEAL]_[+vowel, -open, +front]<br />
∅ > ɨ̯ / [LARYNGEAL]_[+vowel, -open, +central, -rounded]<br />
∅ > ʉ̯ / [LARYNGEAL]_[+vowel, -open, +central, +rounded]<br />
∅ > w / [LARYNGEAL]_[+vowel, -open, +back]<br />
iː, uː > ij, uw / _[+vowel]<br />
j, w > ʔj, ʔw / #_, [+plosive]_<br />
j, w > ɦj, ɦw / _[+vowel]<br />
ʔj, ʔɨ̯, ʔʉ̯, ʔw > ɟ, g, ɟʷ, gʷ<br />
hj, hɨ̯, hʉ̯, hw > ʝ, ɣ, ʝʷ, ɣʷ<br />
[+consonant, -retroflex] > [+labial] / _[+vowel, +rounded] (labials remain unchanged)<br />
ə̜ > ə<br />
∅ > ʔ / [+creaky]_ ^ _ʔ# (in syllables separated from the stressed syllable by an even number of syllables)<br />
∅ > ɦ / [+breathy]_ ^ _ɦ# (in syllables separated from the stressed syllable by an even number of syllables)<br />
[+creaky], [+breathy] > [+modal]<br />
ʔɦ > ʔʔ<br />
ɦ > h<br />
i > ə / _[-syllabic]*i, _j<br />
u > ə / _[-syllabic]*u, _w<br />
əm, ən, ər, əl > m̩, n̩, r̩, l̩<br />
əj, əw, ə > i, u, ∅ (in unstressed syllables)<br />
aj, aw, a > i, u, ∅ (in syllables separated from the stressed syllable by an odd number of syllables)<br />
əj, əw, ə > aj, aw, a (in stressed syllables)<br />
æ, ɑ > a (this occurs only in final syllables before laryngeals)<br />
æː, ɑː > ɛː, ɔː <br />
aj, aw > ɛː, ɔː<br />
[+obstruent, -voiced] > [+voiced] / _[+obstruent, +voiced]<br />
[+obstruent, +voiced] > [+voiced] / _[+obstruent, +voiced]<br />
ɟ, g, ɟʷ, gʷ > c, k, cʷ, kʷ / #_<br />
ʝ, ɣ, ʝʷ, ɣʷ > ç, x, çʷ, xʷ / #_<br />
<br />
* '''Ayewendoth''' > '''Ẋxʷndʷaθ''' [çxʷn̩dʷaθ]<br />
* '''Wendoth''' > '''Kʷndʷaθ''' [kʷn̩dʷaθ]<br />
* '''dhemer kash''' > '''dhmar ċas''' [ðmar tʃas]<br />
* '''dhemer akshų''' > '''dhmar qċsʷuq [ðmar ʔtʃsʷuʔ]<br />
* '''kaukau''' > '''ċuhċauh''' [tʃutʃʰɔːh]<br />
* '''aukkaių''' > '''qauhċċẋuq''' [ʔɔːtʃʰtʃəʝuʔ]<br />
* '''enketheshã''' > '''nċθsah''' [n̩tʃθsah]<br />
* '''okchumoų''' > '''k̇ʷċcuhmauq''' [cʷətʃtsum̥ɔːʔ]<br />
* '''iutumų''' > '''k̇ik̇utʷhmuq''' [cicutʷm̥uʔ]<br />
<br />
== Phonology == <br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
There are 61 consonants in total.<br />
<br />
m n nʷ<br />
p t tʷ ʈ c cʷ k kʷ q qʷ ʔ<br />
b d dʷ ɖ ɟ ɟʷ g gʷ<br />
ts tsʷ tʃ tʃʷ<br />
dz dzʷ dʒ dʒʷ<br />
f θ θʷ s sʷ ʃ ʃʷ ʂ ç çʷ x xʷ χ χʷ h<br />
v ð ðʷ z zʷ ʒ ʒʷ ʐ ʝ ʝʷ ɣ ɣʷ<br />
r rʷ<br />
l lʷ<br />
<br />
The distinction between voiced and voiceless palatals and velars is marginal.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
i u<br />
ɛː ɔː<br />
a<br />
<br />
The old pronunciations /aj aw/ of /ɛː ɔː/ remain in bards' speech.<br />
<br />
[ə] also appears, but is generally analysed as an epenthetic vowel.<br />
<br />
The sonorants can appear as syllable nuclei.</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-04-26T12:41:13Z<p>Alces: /* Texts */ (the Nivkh text is back!)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa.<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /mˠ/ (> /m/)<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪ʲ/ (> /<sup>n</sup>d̪/)<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/ (> /ɲ/)<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /pˠ/ (> /p/)<br />
| '''t''' /t̪ʲ/ (> /t̪/)<br />
| '''ṭ''' /tˠ/ (> /ʈ/)<br />
| '''ch''' /tsʲ/ (> /tʃ/)<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/ (> /c/)<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /bˠ/ (> /b/)<br />
| '''d''' /d̪ʲ/ (> /d̪/) <br />
| '''ḍ''' /dˠ/ (> /ɖ/)<br />
| '''jh''' /dzʲ/ (> /dʒ/)<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/ (> /ɟ/)<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /fˠ/ (> /f/)<br />
| '''th''' /xʲ/ (> /θ/)<br />
| '''s''' /sˠ/ (> /ʂ/)<br />
| '''sh''' /sʲ/ (> /ʃ/)<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/ (> /ç/)<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /vˠ/ (> /v/)<br />
| '''dh''' /ðʲ/ (> /ð/)<br />
| '''z''' /zˠ/ (> /ʐ/)<br />
| '''zh''' /zʲ/ (> /ʒ/)<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/ (> /ʝ/)<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The labials, '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', originate from Pre-Wendoth velarised labials. Their reflexes in [[Hỳng]] are velar, which suggests that they retained velarisation at the time of the proto-language, but all the other Wendoth languages do not betray any trace of the labials' former velarisation, suggesting that it was lost in the Nuclear Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials. At an early stage, they retained palatalisation, and in fact this secondary articulation was the primary feature distinguishing '''t''' and '''d''' from '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' (which were velarised alveolars; '''s''' and '''z''' were probably also velarised in parallel, although their sibilance was already sufficient to distinguish them from '''th''' and '''dh'''). Later on, these velarised alveolars (which descended from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals) became retroflexes, and the secondary articulation became unnecessary to distinguish them. However, this change did not affect the dialect which became Hỳng, and traces of the older secondary articulations remain in some Nuclear Wendoth languages (for example, '''th''' and '''dh''' are reflected as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in some of them).<br />
<br />
Similarly, '''ch''', '''jh''', '''sh''' and '''zh''', which originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, were probably pronounced as palatalised alveolars at an early stage. In the North Wendoth languages, for example, they lost their palatalisation at some stage and became pronounced as /ts dz s z/. But in most of the other Wendoth languages, they became postalveolar. '''n''' and '''r''' also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, but as they had no similar consonants to contrast with it is unlikely that their palatalisation was retained for very long.<br />
<br />
The front velars, '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars, and are transcribed as such. They were fronted further in all of the Wendoth languages except for the [[Mboroth]] languages, in which they lost their palatalisation and became plain velars.<br />
<br />
The back velars, '''ng''', '''q''', '''x''' and '''h''', originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars. Although they shifted back to velars in some daughters such as Yewedu, there is considerable evidence that they went through a stage of being pronounced as uvulars in all Wendoth languages. '''ng''' appears to have been pronounced as a uvular /ɴ/ at an early stage, but it had already been elided in many environments and shifted to /ŋ/ elsewhere before the Wendoth languages broke up. The fortition of '''ng''' to pre-nasalised /ŋg/ is a fairly widespread change in the Wendoth languages (occuring in both North Wendoth and Hỳng, for example), which suggests that this may have already been a variant in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
'''h''' had a defective distribution, appearing only medially, never before or after a pause. It was usually pronounced as an approximant, rather than a fricative, and it tended to be weakened further in daughter languages.<br />
<br />
'''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. It appears that earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in most environments, but North Wendoth has [l] as the reflex of '''y''' and '''w''' in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels, which suggests that they retained their lateral pronunciations in this environment. This is also suggested by the otherwise curious fact that in Hỳng, '''y''' and '''w''' became [ʒ] and [β], respectively, before non-close vowels but not before close vowels (what happened was that [j] and [w] underwent this change while '''y''' and '''w''' were still pronounced as [lʲ] and [lˠ] before close vowels, and then much later [lʲ] and [lˠ] shifted to [j] and [w]).<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of Wendoth, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. However, before a pause they were pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced), and were likely not as long as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, and it is convenient to do so for morphophonological purposes (for example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndaų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added). However, these diphthongs do comprise single syllable nuclei, and they are about as frequent as the close vowels in isolation.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form (C)V(C); in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form (C)V. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /nd̪ʲ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sˠʁ/ and /zˠʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
'''nj''' and '''h''' do not appear word-finally (but they can appear syllable-finally). '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (but it can appear syllable-initially even after another consonant). Apart from these exceptions, every consonant can appear word- and syllable-initially and word- and syllable-finally. As for vowels, /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries outside of certain loanwords, and /o/ never appears before nasals.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a tense vowel (including '''ą''' and '''ã'''). When a syllable beginning with a vowel follows a tense vowel, an epenthetic [ʔ] (if the tense vowel is creaky) or [ɦ] (if the tense vowel is breathy) is inserted to break up the hiatus; the same epenthesis applies across word boundaries.<br />
<br />
A similar epenthesis breaks up hiatuses in which the first vowel is lax, when these hiatuses occur across word boundaries. Historically, all words beginning with a lax vowel originally began with Pre-Wendoth '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r'''. These phonemes merged as '''h''' under certain circumstances, and this '''h''' was then elided word-initially. But in connected speech, when a word ending with a lax vowel precedes, the initial '''h''' reappears. In fact, this has been extended to words beginning with a close vowel which did not necessarily begin with a '''h''' at any point. For example, '''be įka''' 'I laughed' is pronounced '''bˠəʁḭˈkʲa'''.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is not contrastive; it is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' or '''u''') in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. This rule applies to the fully-inflected word, so the addition of suffixes often results in stress alternations; for example, '''kochum<sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue' is '''koCHUM''' in the nominative case but '''okchuMOŲ''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added. Function words, like the pronouns, often carry no stress in connected speech.<br />
<br />
The North Wendoth languages became strongly stress-timed and underwent heavy vowel reduction. The dialects that became Hỳng also became stress-timed, although not to quite the same extent. Other Wendoth languages are generally syllable-timed. It is uncertain what the situation in the proto-language was. The /ə/ phoneme is not evidence that it was stress-timed, because it arises not from vowel reduction, but rather from the transferral of vocalic [+front] and [+back] features to preceding consonants that took place during the development of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
=== Example pronunciations ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ [bə]<br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)' /kʲotʃṳm/ [kʲoˈtsʲṳːm]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner (nom.)' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge (nom.)' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳmˈn̪d̪ṵʔ] (the cluster '''mnd''' was preserved by the influence of the nominative form '''mund''', but it was likely that it, and other difficult-to-pronounce clusters, underwent ''ad hoc'' simplifications in practice).<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. But they interacted with each other in regular, predictable ways.<br />
<br />
The citation forms of morphemes in Wendoth often contain segments which are written in superscripts; c.f. '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood' and, for an extreme example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' 'elbow, knee'. The superscripts indicate that the segments contained within disappear in the most unmarked form (for example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>nge</sup>''' is '''i''' in the nominative case). Segments may also be underlined; this indicates that the segement does not disappear, but alternates depending on the surrounding morphemes.<br />
<br />
Every morpheme in Wendoth begins with an underlying consonant or a close vowel and ends in an underlying vowel, nasal ('''m''', '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng''') or '''h'''. The open tense vowels '''ã''' and '''ą''' appear only in morpheme-final position, outside of a couple of loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
=== Final lax vowel alternations ===<br />
<br />
Morphemes which end in an underlying lax vowel have the lax vowel elided when they occur as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Therefore, the final lax vowel in such morphemes is written in superscript in the citation form unless the morpheme never occurs as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Even in monosyllabic morphemes, an underlying final lax vowel may disappear if another morpheme precedes in the same word. For example, adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''' 'he sees (ind.)'. If a morpheme-final lax vowel is written without a superscript in the underlying form, this indicates that the morpheme never occurs after another morpheme within a single word.<br />
<br />
Morpheme-final '''e''' also disappears when a suffix is added that begins with a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''ei''', '''eų''' and '''eu''' do not appear in Wendoth. However, morpheme-final '''e''' is only written as a superscript in the citation form if it also disappears word-finally, so the underlying form of the first person singular pronoun is written '''be''', rather than '''b<sup>e</sup>''', even though adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' results in '''bį'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' is '''thind''' in the nominative but '''ithndat''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' is '''ngak''' in the nominative but '''engket''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added and '''engkų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is another alternation that affects morpheme-final lax vowels. If these lax vowels come to occur before a nasal, their quality changes, as follows:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''. For example, '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' becomes '''eshzam''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''. For example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndem''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials ('''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', but not '''w'''). It becomes '''i''' elsewhere. For example, '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' becomes '''engkum''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added, and the intransitivising prefix '''ne-''', when added to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', produces the verb '''ning<sup>e</sup>''' 'see something'.<br />
<br />
This process is called vowel mutation, and it is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals. <br />
<br />
Final tense vowels (and diphthongs, which end in tense vowels) are much easier to deal with; they do not disappear word-finally, nor are they affected by mutation. For example, '''z<u>į</u>''' 'top' is '''zų''' in the nominative and '''zųų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added, and '''kechã''' 'father' is '''kechã''' in the nominative and '''kechãt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
=== Light and heavy phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The consonants of the Wendoth proto-language, together with the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', are called the weighted phonemes, because they can be organised into pairs, where in each pair one phoneme is said to be light and the other is said to be heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~h~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''ng''' after a consonant or a word boundary, '''h''' after non-close vowels and '''∅''' after close vowels and before a consonant or a word boundary.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ/r''' (the two consonants merged when heavy) is '''x''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the underlying forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable. The consonant is underlined to remind the reader that it may also appear as its heavy counterpart.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with morphemes that contain the light reflex of '''ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''ŋ''', '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* If a morpheme has the light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this light reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>nj</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>nj</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''nj'''. For example, '''woḍe<sup>nja</sup>''' 'rest' is '''woḍe''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''owḍenjaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''h'''. For example, '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure' is '''zhate''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''azhtehoq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added. <br />
** Historically, the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' also alternated when it occured at the beginning of a morpheme, being realised as '''ng''' word-initially and '''h''' when following a morpheme ending in a lax vowel, and disappearing when following a morpheme ending in a tense vowel. But this alternation has been levelled out by analogy in all morphemes, so that morpheme-initial '''<sup>ng</sup>''' has become indistinguishable from non-alternating '''ng''' (the heavy reflex of PW '''n'''). For example, '''ngįą''' 'be big' (< PW '''ŋuʔeʔ''') is '''ngįą''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''oungįą''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' (< PW '''ɣaɦu-''') is added, even though '''ɣaɦu-ŋuʔeʔ''' should have become '''*ouįą''' by regular sound change.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''g''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''g''' is written as '''<u>q</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>q</u>''' is realised as '''q'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''kų<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be to the west' is '''kųq''' in the non-past indicative but '''ųkhaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ''' or '''r''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<u>x</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>x</u>''' is realised as '''x'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' is '''rokex''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''orkeheq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme begins with the heavy reflex of PW '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', and the morpheme may follow another morpheme within the same word, or if its initial syllable may be inverted by transformation, then this heavy reflex of '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' (or possibly '''<u>q</u>''' or '''<u>x</u>''', if the morpheme consists of this single consonant followed by a final lax vowel, and the morpheme can occur as the final morpheme in the word). This '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when it follows a morpheme that ends in a lax vowel, and disappears otherwise. For example, '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį''' 'be friendly' is '''ewaį''' in the non-past indicative, and still '''ouewaį''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' is added, but '''ophewaį''' when the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is one more consonant alternation to take note of (besides weight alternations, which we will go into below): morpheme-final nasals and '''h''' disappear before consonants. Morpheme-final '''nj''' and its heavy counterpart '''h''', of course, disappear word-finally as well, so that they only actually appear before close vowels. These disappearing morpheme-final nasals are ''not'' normally written in superscript, for two reasons: first, there is a need to distinguish '''ng''', which only disappears before consonants, from '''<sup>ng</sup>''', which disappears word-finally and after close vowels as well, and, secondly, these morpheme-final nasals do not disappear if no suffixes are added, so they are generally present in the most unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
Some examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' is '''nojem''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''an'jeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''waun''' 'lie' is '''waun''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''wauq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''sing''' '2p sg.' is '''sing''' in the nominative but '''sit''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ṭare<sup>nj</sup>''' 'sibling, cousin' is '''ṭare''' in the nominative and '''aṭret''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''aṭrenjį''' when the possessive suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' is '''ngozhebe''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''ngozhebeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''ngozhebehį''' when the solid inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth '''i''' and '''u''' became '''ɨ''' before Pre-Wendoth nasals, and later this '''ɨ''' merged with '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere. However, this change occured after the disappearance of nasals before a consonant. Therefore, in Wendoth '''i''' which occurs before a morpheme-final nasal sometimes becomes '''u''' when a suffix beginning with a labial consonant is added, and instances of '''i''' which show this behaviour are written as '''ü'''. For example, '''ngü<sup>h</sup>''' (< PW '''nuŋ'''), the past-tense stem of '''nge''' 'see', is '''ngi''' in the specific indicative and '''ngup''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added. But not all instances of '''i''' do this; for example, '''nį''' 'sit down' (< Pre-Wendoth '''niʔi''') is '''nį''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''nįp''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
<!-- this is an invalid example, change later --><br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has a kind of right-to-left consonant harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes to acquire the same weight as a weighted phoneme in a following syllable. However, it is somewhat limited in application. It is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''a''' to become palatalised if '''i''' or '''e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''a''' and the '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, weighted phonemes that may alternate due to weight harmony are written underlined. However, it is possible to predict which consonants will be affected by weight harmony, according to the following rules.<br />
<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''o''' is affected by weight harmony.<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''a''' is affected by weight harmony as long as the following syllable begins with a nasal consonant. (If the syllable containing the '''a''' ends with an underlying coda nasal, this does not cause the consonant to be affected by weight harmony.)<br />
<br />
The same cannot be said for close vowels; only those originating from Pre-Wendoth '''ʔa''' and '''ɦa''' are affected by weight harmony, but it is impossible to distinguish these close vowels from others from the surrounding phonemes. This is why the underlining is necessary.<br />
<br />
Alternating weighted phonemes manifest as light phonemes if the following syllable begins with a light phoneme, unless the light phoneme is itself in a position where it is affected by weight harmony (and is therefore light only due to weight harmony). Otherwise, they manifest as heavy. Syllables beginning with a light consonant that is not affected by weight harmony are said to be light, and non-light syllables are said to be heavy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍa<u>į</u>''' 'rock' is '''ḍaų''' in the nominative, but '''ḍaįt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative, but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* Adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''', but adding it to '''chį<sup>ng</sup>''' 'remember' results in '''otchį'''.<br />
<br />
Weight harmony applies before all other morphophonological rules. So, for example, '''<u>nj</u>''', '''<u>g</u>''', '''<u>j</u>''' and '''<u>r</u>''' show their usual alternations depending on which form they take.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth words alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms of the word. It is convenient to say that every word has an untransformed and transformed form, although some have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a root takes depends on both morphological and syntactic considerations. In general, it depends on morphology:<br />
<br />
* Nouns are transformed when they are in the accusative or dative case and when a postpositional clitic or noun class suffix is added to the noun.<br />
* Verbs are transformed when they are in the generic aspect or the subjunctive mood and when a noun class prefix or suffix is added to the verb.<br />
* Determiners are transformed except when they agree with nouns of superclass 2 or 3 that are in the nominative case.<br />
<br />
However, there are some exceptions to these rules, where heads that end in vowels prevent transformation of a following complement. For example, determiners may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following NP, and verbs may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following VP. When a transformed word, beginning with a vowel, follows a word that ends with a lax vowel, it is common for the final lax vowel of the preceding word to be elided in non-careful speech. The most common word this occurs with is '''be''' 'I', so, for example, '''be opyatorą''' is often pronounced as '''b'opyatorą'''.<br />
<br />
In general, transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. (Diphthongs are counted as single Vs.) For example, the transformed form of '''kashų''' 'blood (acc.)' is '''akshų''' and the transformed form of '''noijių''' 'lip (acc.)' is '''oinjių'''. But transformation does not have any effect if the following syllable begins with a tense vowel, rather than a consonant. For example, the transformed form of '''suų''' 'person (acc.)' is '''suų'''. It also does not have any effect if the initial syllable begins with an underlying vowel (which will always be a close vowel), so, for example, the transformed form of '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)' is '''įbuų'''.<br />
<br />
However, if the initial syllable begins with underlying '''<sup>h</sup>''', this '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when the word is transformed. For example, the transformed form of '''ewaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past ind.)' is '''ehwaįq''' (the citation form is '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį'''). Since words beginning with a close vowel might have an underlying initial '''<sup>h</sup>''' too, this meant that the transformed forms of such words were unpredictable: a '''h''' might be inserted after the initial close vowel, or (more commonly) it might not be inserted. This was a highly unstable situation (it is like the situation in English dialects where there is linking /r/, but not intrusive /r/), so the Wendoth languages all simplified it if they preserved these alternations at all. Some of them generalised the '''h'''-insertion to apply to all words beginning with a vowel, so that the transformed form of '''įbuų''' became '''įhbuų'''. Otherwise start to only insert '''h''' in the transformed forms of words beginning with a lax vowel.<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a lax vowel to precede a nasal. For example, the transformed form of '''medųų''' 'forehead (acc.)' is '''umdųų'''. Although the reverse process probably occured in an early stage of Wendoth, where a vowel is 'un-mutated' when it comes to no longer precede an (underlying) nasal, this seems to have been levelled out by analogy, so the transformed form of '''siqį''' 'for you (sg.)' (< '''sing''' 'you (sg.)' + '''-qį''' 'for') is '''isqį''', not '''esqį'''. In fact, vowel mutation due to transformation also had a strong tendency to be levelled out by analogy in the Wendoth languages, although it does survive to some extent.<br />
<br />
The effect of transformation on prefixes is worthy of special notice. In a word with a prefix added, the initial syllable often coincides with the prefix. Therefore, transformation has the effect of reversing the prefix. For example, the transformed form of '''todhemer''' 'he moves away from (spec. ind.)', which has the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' added, is '''otdhemer'''. However, when a prefix ending in a lax vowel is added to a stem beginning with a close vowel, a diphthong will be formed and the number of syllables will be unchanged. Transformation still occurs in this case and reverses the whole initial syllable, as usual. For example, the transformed form of '''toųmų''' 'he pushes (spec. ind.)' is '''oųtmų'''. The transformed form of '''toįdh''' 'he is imaginary (ind.)' is '''toįdh''', with no reversal, because the word is monosyllabic.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Cases ====<br />
<br />
Nouns take three cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are marked by suffixes. In addition, there are seven postpositions which are generally analysed as enclitics. However, each of the possible combinations of case suffixes and postpositional enclitics can be analysed as a case in its own right, in which case there are up to eighteen different cases.<br />
<br />
In general, the nominative case is marked by adding no suffix and keeping the noun untransformed, the accusative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' and transforming the noun, and the dative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' and transforming the noun. But there are complications.<br />
<br />
First of all, nouns can be transformed in the nominative case, because adding a postpositional enclitic causes nouns to be transformed. Likewise, nouns can be untransformed in the accusative and dative cases, because preceding determiners sometimes prevent nouns from transforming.<br />
<br />
Also, there are some nouns which have two different stems. One, which is called the primary stem, is used in the nominative case; the other, which is called the secondary stem, is used in the accusative and dative cases. These nouns also sometimes take slightly different accusative and dative suffixes. Nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III, based on their behaviour in this respect. Type II and III nouns are the ones which have two stems; when introducing such a noun, we give both stems and separate them by a slash, with the primary stem preceding the secondary stem, and we write a hyphen after the secondary stem because it always has a suffix added after it. For example, '''sum''' / '''se-''' is the Wendoth word for 'person'. Note that since the secondary stem always has a suffix added to it, final lax vowels, and preceding '''nj''', '''ng''' and '''h''', are not marked with a superscript.<br />
<br />
===== Type I nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns, which comprise the majority of nouns, have a single stem which ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The accusative and dative suffixes for Type I nouns are, as said above, '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' respectively. There are no complications here apart from regular morphophonological alternations; note, in particular, that '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' induces mutation of the preceding vowel.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type I nouns. The nouns are given in their transformed forms in the accusative and dative cases, and in their untransformed forms in the nominative cases, which is what we will usually do when giving nouns in isolation; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed and nouns in the nominative case are not always untransformed. Note that the forms given are those seen when no extra suffixes are added after the case suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'blood'<br />
| kash<sup>e</sup><br />
| kash<br />
| akshų<br />
| akshum<br />
|-<br />
| 'success'<br />
| sas<sup>a</sup><br />
| sas<br />
| assaų<br />
| assem<br />
|-<br />
| 'water'<br />
| i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup><br />
| ix<br />
| ihoų<br />
| iham<br />
|-<br />
| 'lip'<br />
| noiji<br />
| noiji<br />
| oinjių<br />
| oinjim<br />
|-<br />
| 'forehead'<br />
| medų<br />
| medų<br />
| umdų<br />
| umdųm<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type II nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have a primary stem which ends in a tense vowel. All nouns with primary stems ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of type II, but some nouns with primary stems ending in close vowels are of Type III instead.<br />
<br />
For Type II nouns, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears, and if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it will sometimes, but not always, change into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. Note that if it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant should, on the basis of etymology, become alternating in the secondary stem. But the secondary stem is always followed by a case suffix, and both case suffixes begin with a heavy syllable, so the alternation does not have any effect. There is, therefore, no need to indicate the alternation when the secondary stem is written down.<br />
<br />
The nominative and dative suffixes for Type II nouns are mostly the same as with Type I nouns, but there is a change in the accusative suffix: it is '''-<u>į</u>''', as usual, if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', it is '''-<u>i</u>'''; i.e., the voice of the vowel in the accusative suffix agrees with the voice of the final tense vowel of the primary stem.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type II nouns. The secondary stems are given in their transformed forms, because they are used in the accusative and dative cases; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'fire'<br />
| yį<br />
| ye-<br />
| yį<br />
| yų<br />
| yum<br />
|-<br />
| 'wood'<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohe-<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohų<br />
| fohum<br />
|-<br />
| 'fall'<br />
| zashą<br />
| azsha-<br />
| zashą<br />
| azshaų<br />
| azshem<br />
|-<br />
| 'father'<br />
| kechã<br />
| ekche-<br />
| kechã<br />
| ekchu<br />
| ekchum<br />
|-<br />
| 'death'<br />
| yehą<br />
| eyho-<br />
| yehą<br />
| eyhoų<br />
| eyham<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type III nouns =====<br />
<br />
All nouns with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''<sup>h</sup>''' are of Type III; the Type III nouns also include some nouns whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III nouns, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' of the primary stem is deleted, and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is '''a''', and this '''a''' is preceded by a consonant, then, in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''', this consonant becomes alternating and is written with an underline. The consonant will almost always be light, so that this alternation has an affect, but there is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one', which has the secondary stem '''mo-''' (there is no need to write '''<u>nd</u>o-''' because the stem is always followed by a heavy syllable).<br />
<br />
The nominative and accusative suffixes are the same as for Type I nouns, but there is a change in the dative suffix: it is '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''m''', '''-ng<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''n''' or '''ng''', and '''-<sup>ha</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type III nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'person'<br />
| sum<br />
| se-<br />
| sum<br />
| sų<br />
| sum<br />
|-<br />
| 'forest'<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbu-<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbuų<br />
| įbung<br />
|-<br />
| 'sand'<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųza-<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųzaų<br />
| ųzeng<br />
|-<br />
| 'heart'<br />
| taunj<br />
| tau-<br />
| tau<br />
| tauų<br />
| tau<br />
|-<br />
| 'effect'<br />
| <sup>h</sup>au<sup>h</sup><br />
| <sup>h</sup>au-<br />
| au<br />
| auų<br />
| au<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Postpositional enclitics ====<br />
<br />
The postpositional enclitics are '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' and '''-zh<sup>a</sup>''', the locative postpositions, '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''', the genitive postpositions, '''-shã''', the instrumental postposition, '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', the comitative postposition, and '''-qį''', the benefactive postposition. Of these postpositions, the last three have the greatest claim to being case suffixes; in particular, '''-shã''' appears to have at least gone through a stage as a case suffix in every Wendoth language. Each of these three postpositions, '''-shã''', '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', and '''-qį''', are added only after nouns in the nominative case, so no suffix comes in between them and the noun stem.<br />
<br />
The genitive postpositions, on the other hand, can be added after the accusative suffix; they take a nominative object if the possession is alienable, and an accusative object if the possession is inalienable. The difference between '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is subtle and it is to some extent unpredictable which is used; however, one generalisations which can be made is that '''-į''' is used only to indicate possession of inanimates by animates. Hence it is used to indicate possession of body parts or personal characteristics (which are inalienable), and possession of personal or social property (which is alienable). '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for other kinds of possession: possession of kin, parts of a whole (these are all examples of inalienable possession). The most common kind of alienable possession '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for is posession of an agent or patient by an action (this is not really alienable possession in semantic terms, but it is treated as such).<br />
<br />
The locative postpositions can be added after both the accusative and dative suffixes. Their meanings with each kind of object are summarised in the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case of object<br />
! Meaning of t<sup>a</sup><br />
! Meaning of z<sup>a</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Nominative<br />
| Illative ('into')<br />
| Inessive or elative ('in' or 'from the inside of')<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative<br />
| Locative or allative ('at' or 'to')<br />
| Ablative ('from')<br />
|-<br />
| Dative<br />
| Inexact locative ('near')<br />
| Inexact inessive ('somewhere in')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These are the meanings when these postpositions take objects referring to physical objects. These postpositions may also take objects that refer to times, but when they do the object always takes the nominative case. '''t<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to points in time and '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to periods in time.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
==== Noun classes ====<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes. Each class is associated with its own affix, and is referred to by reference to its affix (e.g. &lsquo;the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;, &lsquo;the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;). Each class is also associated with a number which is used for glossing purposes: the gloss for the ''n''th class is &lsquo;c''n''&rsquo;. However, the first two classes, the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, are glossed as &lsquo;MASC&rsquo; and 'FEM&rsquo; respectively.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to male humans. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>acau''' 'man', '''kechã''' 'father', '''po<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Dad', '''posa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'bachelor'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to female humans. Examples: '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman', '''mund<sup>a</sup>''' 'mother', '''qo<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Mum', '''kosa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'spinster'.<br />
<br />
# The '''i''' class consists of nouns referring to foodstuffs. Examples: '''iq<sup>a</sup>''' 'meat', '''<sup>h</sup>ang<sup>a</sup>''' 'vegetables', '''geha<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'seeds'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>zh</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to humans of unspecified gender and culturally important animals. Its members are referred to as 'strong animates'. Examples: '''sum''' 'person', '''kejazang''' 'cow, bull', '''naketh<sup>e</sup>''' 'large animal', '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog', '''<sup>h</sup>e<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'game (for hunting)'. <br />
<br />
# The '''<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to other animals, plants and other things that show some movement not caused by an external object (e.g. fire, wind). Its members are referred to as 'weak animates'. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>oich<sup>a</sup>''' 'bug', '''mop<sup>e</sup>''' 'fish', '''ųha<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tree', '''yį''' 'fire', '''ḍįj<sup>a</sup>''' 'sun', '''awe<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'moon'.<br />
<br />
# The '''cum''' class consists of nouns referring to tools and devices. Examples: '''shexau<u>n</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'spear', '''ndewįth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sword', '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat', '''jhebou''' 'dye'.<br />
<br />
# The '''b<u>į</u>''' class consists of nouns referring to fluid inanimates, including drinks. Examples: '''i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'water', '''ṭoq<sup>e</sup>''' 'drinking water', '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood', '''dok<u>u</u>''' 'earth'.<br />
<br />
# The '''į''' class consists of nouns referring to solid inanimates. Examples: '''ḍa<u>ų</u>''' 'rock', '''ug<sup>e</sup>''' 'mountain', '''ųzeng''' 'sand', '''xob<sup>e</sup>''' 'dust'.<br />
<br />
# The '''thą''' class consists of nouns referring to places, buildings and other things that people are typically on or inside, as well as nouns referring to periods of time. Examples: '''cecum<sup>e</sup>''' 'village', '''bodhoth<sup>e</sup>''' 'wilderness', '''seth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sky', '''įj<sup>a</sup>''' 'day'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>nd</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to feelings and sensory impressions, including colours and sounds. Examples: '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'anger', '''reįb<sup>e</sup>''' 'black', '''į<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'white', '''įka<u>g</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sound', '''qobeqob<sup>e</sup>''' 'thunder'.<br />
<br />
# The '''ḍa<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to ideas and other abstractions. Examples: '''sas<sup>a</sup>''' 'success', '''gaxaihi''' 'respect', '''cawųã''' 'clan', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise', '''wamer<sup>e</sup>''' 'dusk', '''jath<sup>a</sup>''' 'dawn'.<br />
<br />
There are some nouns which do not clearly fall in any of these classes and are somewhat arbitrarily assigned. For example, body part terms are mostly in the '''į''' class, but the words for the principal sensory organs ('''che<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eye', '''tepum''' 'ear', '''zhum''' 'nose', '''tegi''' 'mouth', '''kochu<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue') are in the '''<u>zh</u>o''' class. '''newaų''' 'star' is in the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, perhaps due to an association with '''ḍaḍez<sup>e</sup>''' 'night'. '''boha<sup>h</sup>''' 'field' is in the '''i''' class, probably due to the association with crops. It may also seem odd at first that '''boj<sup>e</sup>''' 'penis' is in the '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but, if you think about it, it makes sense.<br />
<br />
Many words which can be put in several different classes to obtain different but related meanings. For example, words for animals in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class can be put in the '''i''' class to obtain words for the meat of the animal, so that '''ḍeng<sup>e</sup>''' 'hare' can mean 'hare meat' as well.<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes are used as optional prefixes on verbs to indicate the class of the subject, and as optional suffixes on verbs, demonstratives, interrogatives and numerals to indicate the class of the object (it can be the direct object or the indirect object). The subject and object can also be dropped when these affixes are added, and in fact this is very common, so that the classifiers can be thought of as the counterparts of the third-person pronouns of other languages.<br />
<br />
==== Special classifiers ====<br />
<br />
There are a couple of additional classifiers, besides the noun class affixes, which can appear in the same positions.<br />
<br />
The first of these is the reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>'''. This is added to verbs to indicate that the object is the same as the subject. If the appropriate noun class suffix was used instead, this would entail that the object was different from the subject, and just of the same class.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophauųųmeqaw|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ų~ųm<sup>e</sup>-q<sup>a</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CESS-ITER~hit-SUB-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|tok!|tok|IMP}}<br />
{{glend|Stop hitting yourself!}}<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are the indefinite affixes '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' and '''m<sup>e</sup>'''. These are added to verbs to indicate that the subject or object is definite&mdash;'somebody' (if '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used) or 'something' (if '''m<sup>e</sup>''' is used). Note that the animacy distinction here does not cut along the lines drawn by the noun classes. '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used to refer to humans exclusively (and animals in certain contexts), not other members of the '''zh<sup>o</sup>''' class such as body parts. There are explicit indefinite pronouns '''ndai''' and '''mai''' as well, but the indefinite affixes are used to lend less emphasis to the indefinite argument. The effect they have is akin to a passive construction, and in fact the usual way to translate passives where the subject is not indicated in a &lsquo;by&rsquo;-phrase is using these affixes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indcindup.|nde-cindu-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-kill.PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He was killed.}}<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with their head nouns in case and noun class. But only the nominative case is distinguished from the other cases by agreement; the accusative and dative cases take the same agreement markers. Likewise, the noun classes are grouped into four superclasses with respect to agreement, so that there are eight different agreement markers in total. The superclasses are:<br />
<br />
# gendered humans (covering the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc1')<br />
# foodstuffs, non-gendered humans and groups of humans, and non-human animates (covering the '''i''', '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc2')<br />
# concrete inanimates (covering the '''cum''', '''b<u>į</u>''', '''į''' and '''thą''' classes) (gloss 'sc3')<br />
# abstract inanimates (covering the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc4')<br />
<br />
Nouns in the first two superclasses can be collectively referred to as animate nouns, and nouns in the second two superclasses can be collectively referred to as inanimate nouns.<br />
<br />
The stems of determiners agreeing with nouns in the nominative always have a weighted phoneme at the end, although the weighted phoneme is followed by the lax vowel '''e''' (never any other vowel) if it is a consonant. This weighted phoneme is called the alternating part of the determiner. If the noun is animate, the weighted phoneme manifests as light. If the noun is inanimate, the weighted phoneme manifests as heavy. Determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 1 are distinguished from those agreeing with nouns in superclass 2 by having an extra suffix '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem (which causes mutation of the final '''e''' if it is present), and determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 4 are distinguished from determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 3 by having an extra suffix '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem; determiners agreeing with nouns in superclasses 2-3 do not have any suffix added after the stem. If the noun is in the accusative or dative case, the only thing that changes is that '''ą''' is inserted at the end of the stem, replacing the final lax vowel if one is present.<br />
<br />
The following table summarises the declension of determiners by giving all the possible endings that may occur (with the endings starting at and including the alternating part). '''Y''' denotes the light manifestation of the determiner's alternating part and '''W''' denotes its heavy manifestation. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Yin<sup>a</sup>, -Yn<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
| -Y<sup>e</sup>, -Y<sup>1</sup><br />
| -W<sup>e</sup>, -W<sup>1</sup><br />
| -Wedh<sup>a</sup>, -Wdh<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| -Yąn<sup>a</sup><br />
| -Yą<br />
| -Wą<br />
| -Wądh<sup>a</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The '''e''' or '''i''' in these suffixes is not present if the alternating part is a close vowel.<br />
<br />
The usual morphophonological alternations also occur.<br />
<br />
* The final lax vowels that are present in all the endings except '''-Yą''' and '''-Wą''' disappear unless a suffix is added after them. Final '''e''' disappears even if a suffix is added, if that suffix begins with a close vowel.<br />
* If the alternating part is preceded by '''o''' (if the alternating part is non-nasal) or '''a''' (if the alternating part is nasal), then the consonant before the '''o''' or '''a''' is affected by weight harmony and takes on the same weight as the alternating part. These alternating consonants are underlined in the citation forms. Close vowels preceding the alternating part may also be affected by weight harmony, but not all of them; as usual, those that are affected are underlined.<br />
<br />
Determiners are untransformed when they agree with nominative nouns in superclasses 2 or 3, unless they have an additional noun class affix added (see below). Otherwise, they are transformed.<br />
<br />
In addition, determiners, which generally occupy the initial position within an NP, prevent transformation of the following word under certain circumstances, generally when the determiner ends in a vowel. More specifically, transformation is prevented when the alternating part of the determiner is a consonant and the determiner ends in '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with an accusative/dative noun in superclass 2 or 3), or the alternating part of the determiner is a close vowel and the determiner ends in that vowel or '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with a noun in superclass 2 or 3). Note that this does not include the case where the alternating part of the determiner is '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' and this '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' disappears when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 or 3. In that case, the determiner does end in a vowel but '''h''' is inserted (as usual) to break up the hiatus produced if the following word is transformed.<br />
<br />
As the three other stems of a determiner are deducible from any given stem, there is no need to give all four stems when introducing a new determiner. Instead, by convention, the stem used when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 (with the ending '''-Y<sup>e</sup>''' or '''-Y''') is given, and the alternating part is underlined.<br />
<br />
Some example determiner declensions are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! re<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup> 'few'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| erdhin<br />
| redh<br />
| rev<br />
| ervedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| erdhąn<br />
| erdhą<br />
| ervą<br />
| ervądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>i</u><u>d</u><sup>e</sup> 'many'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| idin<br />
| id<br />
| ub <br />
| ubedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| idąn<br />
| idą<br />
| ubą<br />
| ubądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>ṭ</u>o<u>į</u> 'this'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| choįn<br />
| choį<br />
| ṭoų <br />
| ṭoųdh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| choįąn<br />
| choįą<br />
| ṭoųą<br />
| ṭoųądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! mane<u>r</u><sup>e</sup> ''only'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| amnerin<br />
| maner<br />
| mane<br />
| amnehedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| amnerąn<br />
| manerą<br />
| manehą<br />
| amnehądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Singular<br />
!colspan="2"| Plural<br />
|-<br />
! inclusive<br />
! exclusive<br />
|-<br />
! First-person<br />
| be<br><br />
ḍã<br />
| seb<sup>e</sup>, sub<sup>e</sup><br><br />
umḍã<br />
| <sup>h</sup>e<u>k</u><sup>o</sup><br><br />
aḍḍã<br />
|-<br />
! Second-person<br />
| süng / se-, se<br><br />
mu<br />
|colspan="2"|ni / ne-<br><br />
ummu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each personal pronoun (except the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''; see below). In each cell, the first form given is used as the stem in the nominative and dative cases, and has the usual nominative and dative case suffixes added after it, while the second form given is the full form in the accusative case; it does not have the usual accusative case suffix added after it. Accordingly, the second form has been given in its transformed form. Note, however, that the second form will not always be transformed, due to preceding determiners. The untransformed forms of '''umḍã''', '''aḍḍã''' and '''ummu''' are '''muḍã''', '''ḍaḍã''' and '''mumu''', respectively.<br />
<br />
The variants '''süng''' / '''se-''' and '''se''' are attested from different Wendoth languages; likewise with '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' and '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''. The two variations are independent; for example, there are many Wendoth languages which show reflexes of '''süng''' / '''se-''' rather than '''se''', but which also show reflexes of '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' rather than '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; noun class affixes serve their purpose in subject and object positions, and demonstratives with an appropriate noun class affix serve their purpose in other positions. There is one more personal pronoun which is not listed in the table above: the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''. This pronoun declines regularly; there is no suppletion in the accusative case as with the other pronouns. It is mainly used as an indirect object or as the object of a postpositional phrase, as the verbal reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' is used for the same purpose to indicate a reflexive object. It can be used as an direct object, along with an agreeing reflexive suffix, for emphasis.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otnevįsh|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-n<sup>e</sup>-vį-sh<sup>a</sup>|MASC-DETR-do-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|owqį.|<u>y</u>o-qį|REFL-for}}<br />
{{glend|Everything he does is for his own benefit.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|no}}<br />
{{gl|oįtwangew|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-įwang<sup>e</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-love-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|''woų''!|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>|REFL-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|No, you love ''yourself''!}}<br />
<br />
==== Demonstratives ====<br />
<br />
There are seven different demonstratives, which can be used as both pronouns and determiners.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Noun<br />
! Determiner<br />
|-<br />
| First-person<br />
| <u>ch</u>o, ṭob<sup>e</sup><br />
| <u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>, ṭob<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Second person<br />
| ṭosüng / ṭose-, ṭos<sup>e</sup><br />
| ṭosi<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>, ṭos<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Non-directed<br />
| jhã / jha-<br />
| jh<u>i</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, visible<br />
| va<br />
| va<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, invisible<br />
| xe<br />
| x<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, visible<br />
| vav<sup>a</sup><br />
| vava<u>į</u>, va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, invisible<br />
| xex<sup>e</sup><br />
| xex<u>į</u>, xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each demonstrative pronoun, along with the corresponding determiners (which are given in their citation forms). For the first-person demonstratives, two different forms are attested, one with the suffix '''-b<sup>e</sup>''' (from the first-person singular pronoun), by analogy with the second-person demonstratives, and one without. The second-person demonstrative's two variants correspond to the two variants of the second-person singular pronoun. As for the two variants of the superdistal demonstrative determiners, it is probable that '''va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup>''' and '''xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup>''' are the older forms, while '''vava<u>į</u>''' and '''xex<u>į</u>''' are formed by analogy with '''va<u>į</u>''' and '''x<u>į</u>'''.<br />
<br />
The first-person and second-person demonstratives are used to refer to objects close to the speaker and the addressee, respectively. The &lsquo;non-directed&rsquo; demonstrative '''jhã''' / '''jha-'''' is used when it does not make sense to speak of the place of the object referred to. For example, it might be used to refer to the place the speaker and addressee are currently in, or it might be used to refer to a sound coming from an unknown location, or it might be used to refer to an idea or topic of conversation. It can usually be glossed as 'this'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jhã|jhã|this}}<br />
{{gl|nethoreth!|nethoreth<sup>e</sup>|be_ridiculous}}<br />
{{glend|This is ridiculous! (referring to a general situation)}}<br />
<br />
The two distal demonstratives are used for objects which are removed from both the speaker and addressee, but relatively close, while the superdistal demonstratives are used for objects which are relatively far away. '''va''' and '''vav<sup>e</sup>''' are used for visible objects and '''xe''' and '''xex<sup>e</sup>''' are used for invisible objects.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents. These are added after case suffixes, but before postpositional enclitics. In particular, the demonstrative determiners can sometimes follow, rather than precede, their head noun&mdash;but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
There is a single interrogative determiner, '''nda<u>i</u>''', but there are two interrogative pronouns, '''ndai''' and '''ndau''': '''ndai''' 'who' is used to refer to humans and '''ndau''' 'what' is used to refer to non-humans. The interrogatives also function as indefinites in declarative statements; as mentioned above, there are verbal prefixes and suffixes which can be used as indefinite markers, but using the explicit pronouns has the effect of putting the focus on the indefinite element rather than away from it.<br />
<br />
Like the demonstratives, the interrogatives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents.<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth do not appear to have been a very numerate people. Most of the numerals have transparent etymologies, and there appear to have been several variants of quite a few of them. Reconstructing numerals beyond 12 is impossible, and it is likely that these were formed on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<br />
<br />
The numerals are listed below, in their cardinal forms. As cardinal numbers, the numerals are mostly nouns, but the cardinal numerals 1, 2 and 3 also have determiner forms. For the first two numerals, separate ordinal determiners can also be reconstructived. The determiner form of 3 was probably also used as an ordinal. Ordinal numerals higher than 3 cannot be reconstructed.<br />
<br />
# '''mang''' / '''<u>nd</u>o-''' (determiner '''<u>m</u>a<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''', '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>-'''<br />
# '''che(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''ndache(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''chechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįqeche(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''jot(eh)ajote<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''che(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# ['''ahajabą''' / '''ahaja<u>d</u>o-'''] ('''chechetate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''chetechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
<br />
The forms of the numeral 1 are presumably of ancient origin, as is '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'second' (which is also used in the sense of 'other'). Influence from the determiner form may be the reason why Pre-Wendoth '''man''' become '''mang''' as a noun rather than the expected '''*ndan'''. <br />
<br />
The cardinal numeral 2, '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''', shows no relation to '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>'''. In fact, it likely originated from a Pre-Wendoth word '''ʔeʔeku''', which was reduplicated from a root, '''ʔeku''', meaning 'finger'. We also see this root in '''nguįq<sup>e</sup>''' 'be cunning, clever' (< PW '''ŋun-ʔeku''' 'use the finger'), although no trace of it survives otherwise (the word for 'finger' in Wendoth is '''įau''', which is a compound formed from '''į-''', the secondary stem of '''įą''' 'hand', and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end'). The determiner form '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' fell out of use in most of the Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
The two forms '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' and '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' of the cardinal numeral 3 both originate from compounds of the numerals for one and two. In Pre-Wendoth, such a compound would have looked like '''man-ʔeʔeku'''. But it seems that the '''n-ʔ''' cluster was simplified to either '''n''' or '''ʔ''' in different dialects, accounting for the two forms. It seems also that the determiner form of 3 was formed in an entirely different way, by appending the '''che-''' prefix to '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>'''. Perhaps '''ch(eg)ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' was once another variant of the cardinal numeral 3, but no trace of it survives. In every Wendoth language in which the form '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' survives, it has come to be used exclusively in the ordinal sense.<br />
<br />
The numeral 5, '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>''' 'five', is identical with the word for 'fist' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''), and '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' 'ten' seems to originate from a reduplication of the same word. Presumably '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' was once a Type II noun with the primary stem '''tatehą''', but the primary stem fell out of use and it became a Type I noun. As for the numeral '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' 'twelve', it is of unknown origin. But in some languages its meaning is 'one hundred', which suggests that 'twelve' may be a anachronistic reconstruction&mdash;it probably originally just meant 'a large quantity'.<br />
<br />
The other numerals are formed from compounds. Some of these make use of the verbs '''<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'precede' and '''ch<sup>e</sup>''' 'succeed'. These verbs in their plain forms are obselete in Wendoth, having been replaced by forms with the verb '''g<sup>e</sup>''' compounded on the end&mdash;'''jog<sup>e</sup>''' '''cheg<sup>e</sup>'''&mdash;and many of the Wendoth languages have inserted '''-g<sup>e</sup>''' into at least some of these numerals accordingly. The secondary stem '''te<sup>ha</sup>''' for 'five' is used in these compounds (as is typical for the compounds in Wendoth of more ancient origin).<br />
<br />
In some Wendoth languages, the '''jo-''' and ''che-''' prefixes are added twice to form the numerals for 7, 8 and/or 12. This must be of recent origin, because the '''jo-''' prefix is unaffected by weight harmony: PW '''ɣaɣapepeŋo''' would result in '''*<sup>h</sup>ojotate<sup>ha</sup>''' rather than '''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>'''. Other languages have formed the forms for 8 and 12 by reduplicating the forms for 4 and 6, resulting in '''jotehajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetehachete<sup>ha</sup>''', which were then simplified to '''jotajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetachete<sup>ha</sup>''' (the loss of a sequence of the form '''Vh''' is attested in a few other compounds, such as '''kejazang''' 'cattle', which was originally '''kejazohang''' < PW '''kiɣa-zo ran''' 'kept aurochs'). More commonly, though, the numerals for 7 and 8 were simply formed as additive compounds (with the smaller numeral preceding the larger one), and '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' was used for the numeral 12.<br />
<br />
Apart from the first three, the cardinal numerals are morphologically nouns, not determiners (and in most of the Wendoth languages, the determiner forms of the numerals 2 and 3 fell out of use as well). But, uniquely among nouns, numerals can be used as modifiers in NPs. When used as such, they follow their head noun (rather than preceding it, as determiners do) and take case suffixes agreeing with the head.<br />
<br />
{{gl|acauų|acau-<u>į</u>|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ndanaįqų|ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|three-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|three men (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
As the demonstratives and interrogatives were also capable of following their head noun, although they had to take an agreeing noun class suffix, we see in some of the Wendoth languages that the two classes have influenced each other, so that numerals come to require noun class suffixes agreeing with their head nouns, or demonstratives take case suffixes rather than the special determiner agreement suffixes, as if they were ordinary nouns.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Each verb in Wendoth has a primary stem, used in the non-past tense, and a secondary stem, used in the non-past tense. Finite verbs take additional suffixes marking for mood (indicative vs. subjunctive, subjunctive being the marked mood) and, for some verbs, aspect (specific vs. generic, generic being the marked mood). They can also, optionally, take noun class affixes to agree with their arguments (prefixes agree with subjects, suffixes agree with objects); the noun class suffixes follow the subjunctive and generic suffixes if present. Finally, there are a few verbal enclitics which follow the noun class suffixes and are used for misellaneous purposes: negation, imperatives, etc.<br />
<br />
Verbs are transformed whenever an affix is added (which might be a noun class affix or the subjunctive or generic marker), but not necessarily when an enclitic is added, or when the secondary stem is used rather than the primary stem.<br />
<br />
Verbs may be intransitive, monotransitive or ditransitive. Some monotransitive verbs take their object in the dative case, such as '''kaų<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'wash'. These dative objects can still be considered indirect objects, because it is impossible to add a noun class suffix to a verb to agree with its dative object. Noun class suffixes can only agree with objects in the accusative case.<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
<br />
Just like nouns, based on the relation between the primary and secondary stem, verbs can be classified into three kinds.<br />
<br />
===== Type I verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type I verbs, which comprise the majority of verbs, have a primary stem that ends in a lax vowel or close vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in a lax vowel are of Type I, but some verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type II.<br />
<br />
For Type I verbs, in the secondary stem, the final vowel is mutated, and either '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is usually added to the end of the stem. The secondary stem can be regularly derived from the primary stem.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''į''', '''i''' or a light consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>nj</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a heavy consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>h</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''ų''' or '''u''', then the secondary stem is exactly the same as the primary stem, so the past and present tenses are not distinguished for these verbs.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', then the secondary stem has non-alternating '''į''' or '''i''' instead and has '''<sup>nj</sup>''' added afterwards.<br />
<br />
In general, however, the distinction between which of the two consonants are added is irrelevant, because both '''<sup>nj</sup>''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappear word-finally and before consonants, leaving only the mutation of the final lax vowel to differentiate the two stems. The only time the distinction is relevant is when a suffix beginning with a close vowel (one of the noun class suffixes '''-i''' or '''-į''', the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''', or the possessive suffix '''-į''') is added to the secondary stem, in which case '''<sup>nj</sup>''' appears as '''nj''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' appears as '''h''' (or disappears, if a tense vowel precedes it).<br />
<br />
Note that if the primary stem ends in '''e''', and the consonant preceding the '''e''' is not labial, the mutation in the secondary stem turns this '''e''' into '''ü''', which is realised as '''i''' most of the time but as '''u''' if a suffix is added to the secondary stem which begins with a labial consonant, i.e. one of the noun class suffixes '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' (if they are not followed by a light syllable) and '''-b<u>į</u>''', or the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''per<sup>e</sup>''' 'be under' has the secondary stem '''perü<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''qawang<sup>e</sup>''' 'explore' has the secondary stem '''qawangü'''.<br />
* '''uzhec<sup>a</sup>''' 'travel' has the secondary stem '''uzhece<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ṭase<u>q</u>a''' 'wear' has the secondary stem '''ṭaseha<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
* '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' has the secondary stem '''veqeya<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''cuį''' 'lack' has the secondary stem '''cuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndotau''' 'be cruel' has the secondary stem '''ndopau'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>ųm<u>į</u>''' 'push' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>ųmį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
==== Type II verbs ====<br />
<br />
Type II verbs have a primary stem that ends in an underlying tense vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of Type II, but most verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type I rather than Type II. <br />
<br />
For Type II verbs, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems) and a suffix is added: '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''ą''' and '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''ã'''. It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel simply disappears.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears, and if the preceding close vowel is '''į''' or '''i''', it will change into '''ų''' or '''u'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. If it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant will change into its light counterpart in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''megį''' 'take' has the secondary stem '''megį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''uįqu''' 'split' has the secondary stem '''uįqi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''unjã''' 'make dirty' has the secondary stem '''unjai<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndųbą''' 'bend' has the secondary stem '''ndųbaį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''yehą''' 'be dead' has the secondary stem '''yegoį<sup>nj</sup>'''<br />
* '''iã''' 'be above' has the secondary stem '''ui<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''dhįuą''' 'be in pain' has the secondary stem '''dhįuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ḍoųã''' 'crush, grind' has the secondary stem '''ḍoųi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type III verbs =====<br />
<br />
All verbs with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''h''' are of Type III; the Type III verbs also include some verbs whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''h'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III verbs, in the secondary stem, the final nasal, '''h''' or zero of the primary stem is replaced by a suffix '''-u''', and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem and then disappears due to the following close vowel '''u'''.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal is '''a''', the preceding weighted phoneme will always be light, and in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''' and '''u''' is added after it, this weighted phoneme will change into its heavy counterpart due to weight harmony. Similarly, if the vowel before the final nasal is '''į''' or '''i''', it sometimes (but not always) changes into '''ų''' or '''u''', due to weight harmony, in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍaxendam''' 'lie down' has the secondary stem '''ḍaxemou'''.<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' has the secondary stem '''nojau'''.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' has the secondary stem '''ngozhebau'''.<br />
* '''gemahüng''' 'enjoy' has the secondary stem '''gemahu'''.<br />
* '''shehumu''' 'bring' has the secondary stem '''shehumu'''.<br />
* '''chį<sup>nj</sup>''' 'remember' has the secondary stem '''chįu'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'touch' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>auu'''.<br />
* '''cedhing''' 'lift' has the secondary stem '''cedhuu'''.<br />
<br />
==== Aspect and mood ====<br />
<br />
The subjunctive suffix is '''-q<sup>a</sup>''', and the generic suffix is '''-sh<sup>a</sup>'''. If both suffixes are added, the generic suffix precedes the subjunctive suffix. Apart from the usual morphophonological alternations (the final '''a'''s of both suffixes disappear when no extra suffix is added), there are no complications in adding these suffixes.<br />
<br />
Many verbs cannot have the generic suffix added to them. These verbs can be considered stative verbs, while the other verbs are considered dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be thought of as being generic by default. They often correspond to adjectives in English, e.g. '''rauį''' 'be red', '''faį<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be asleep'. Often, a stative verb has a dynamic counterpart with a distinct root, e.g. '''į<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sleep'. Dynamic verbs can also be derived from stative verbs using the inceptive prefix '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and the cessative prefix '''<sup>h</sup>au-'''.<br />
<br />
==== Derivation ====<br />
<br />
===== The verbal noun =====<br />
<br />
Every verb can also be nominalised to form a verbal noun by simply taking the stem and inflecting it as a noun; there is no nominalising morpheme which needs to be added. Both the primary and second stem can be used, and the subjunctive or generic suffixes may be present, so the verbal noun is inflected for tense, aspect and mood. This is a fully productive process, more morphological than derivational. The type of the verb and the verbal noun align: that is, a Type I verb nominalises as a Type I noun, a Type II verb nominalises as a Type II noun, and a Type III verb nominalises as a Type III noun.<br />
<br />
The class of the nominalised verb is usually the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but sometimes it is the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, depending on the meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
There are also quite a few nominalising suffixes which are used for more specialised kinds of nominalisation; these are listed in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
===== Inceptives and cessatives =====<br />
<br />
The rather similar prefixes '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and '''<sup>h</sup>au-''', derived from the verbs '''<sup>h</sup>ou''' 'begin' and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end', are used to indicate inceptive and cessative aspect, respectively. The resulting verb is always dynamic.<br />
<br />
===== Causatives =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ų-''' is used to form causatives. If an intransitive verb has the meaning &lsquo;to ''X''&rsquo;, then adding '''ų-''' to it gives it the new meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X''&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes a dative object, which is the causee, while its subject is the causer. The causee has to be an agent capable of volition. Similarly, if the verb is transitive, adding '''ų-''' results in the meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X'' sth./sbd. (acc.)&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes the causer as its subject, the causee as its indirect object and the object of the caused action as its direct object. However, any noun class suffix added to the derived verb agrees with the indirect object (the causee), rather than the indirect object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpning|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-ning<sup>e</sup>|MASC-CAUS-cry}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭmap.|<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-DAT-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|I made him cry.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpqahen|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-qahen<sup>a</sup>|MASC-CAUS-help}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭrem|ṭar<sup>a</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>|brother-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|mundaų.|mund<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>|mother-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I made my little brother help his mother.}}<br />
<br />
===== Intransitivisation =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ne-''' is an intransitivising prefix. It is less productive than the other derivational methods mentioned in this section, but it is still reasonably productive. Many verbs with '''ne-''' added have become independent lexical stems and drifted in meaning from the original verb; for example, we have '''thareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'annoy, bother, frustrate' but '''nethareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'be foolish, silly, ridiculous'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== '''Kejazang ouhyehąsh''': a poem ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shuzh aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb reshem įyanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|<sup>h</sup>ou-yehą-sh<sup>a</sup>|start-be dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shuzh|shu-zh<sup>a</sup>|time-in}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|th<sup>a</sup>-sh<sup>a</sup>|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-t<sup>a</sup>|stop-ACC-at}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųne-n<sup>a</sup>|all-NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mange-dh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|one-NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|safą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą:|yehą|be dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb<sup>e</sup>|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|reshem|rem-sh<sup>a</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įyanum.|į<u>y</u>o-nu-m<sup>a</sup>|be_good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== '''Ḍengedh ngįaye''': the legend of the hare ===<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from a Nivkh legend given in Gruzdeva (1998). This is written in more casual language, as a storyteller might tell it.<br />
<br />
''Oz'hounoixi ųm acau ųįq ąthcizh oz'hezindi todh akshewoqįdh aqwangeqį. Upazh, ozhnoixi og ndochãzh, oz'hau ceg inhaįqį įbįzh. Ozṭahesix, ozfau uymat, xou ḍeng įkaganj įbįzh. Eḍngųį ahyeshã, ottharethiz ekekechã eḍngų. Otchum ekeyaif, "Ophauḍa tok; ndauqį ottharethiz sing eḍngų?" Cai, oųpdhemerum chag ettepum owqųį ahyų, ekekechã įįkag chag eḍngųį ahyeshã. Eḍngųį aye dhedhecu ją, yį uuhoqeqi ją. Ekeyaif nenetahehu ją. Otginj ųm, opḍoxomou, oųppofowagubų baḍ wam uqrų woį ngįdh vįhau, xou, ndochãzh, ophoufaįra.''<br />
<br />
''Jathaįzh, įj tha chag, otyatoraį chag ekeyaif. Opngi baḍ. Yį ouhyehu, ehkekechum umngau. Shez ḍoxomou įjahauzh exzhodh oḍxomoįdh zhec. Ehkekechãdh waįdh thąt, maneh įąṭasehak wa ją. Taw oṭḍa aundqį xe ozhjhauheḍa sum eḍngįdh athrethų. Indvawum choįnazh woq ųįqadh auįdh thum Xaunezu.''<br />
<br />
Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away. On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son-in-law. They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare. The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?" But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more. The son-in-law became more and more afraid. He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.<br />
<br />
At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up. He looked around. The fire had gone out, and his father-in-law had disappeared. The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening. Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained. And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare. The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oz'hounoixi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-noixü|c4-INCP-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm|<sup>h</sup>ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ųįq|ųįq<sup>e</sup>|two}}<br />
{{gl|ąthcizh|thącüm-zh<sup>a</sup>|home-from}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hezindi|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ezindü<sup>nj</sup>|live.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|todh|todh|far}}<br />
{{gl|akshewoqįdh|kashewoq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|relative-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aqwangeqį.|qawang<sup>e</sup>-qį|visit-for}}<br />
{{glend|Two men were going away from their home to visit relatives who lived far away.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upazh,|up<sup>a</sup>-zh<sup>a</sup>|in}}<br />
{{gl|ozhnoixi|<u>zh</u>o-noixü|c4-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|og|<sup>h</sup>og|before}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|oz'hau|<u>zh</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au|c4-stop.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|cheg|cheg|after}}<br />
{{gl|inhaįqį|nihaį-qį|night-for}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|On the way, after they had been going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Irin|i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|one.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã,|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|yoshin|<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>-n<sup>a</sup>|other.NOM.AN-HU}}<br />
{{gl|acau|<sup>h</sup>acau|man}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|One of the men was the father-in-law and the other was the son in law.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ozṭahesix,|<u>zh</u>o-ṭahesü-<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-make.PAST-c5}}<br />
{{gl|ozfau|<u>zh</u>o-fau|c4-sit.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|uymat,|ye-m<sup>a</sup>-t<sup>a</sup>|fire-DAT-at}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeng|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>|hare}}<br />
{{gl|įkaganj|įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įbįzh.|įbun-zh<sup>a</sup>|forest-in}}<br />
{{glend|They laid the fire, and were sitting by the fire when a hare cried in the forest.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate.PAST-c4}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų.|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Using the hare's voice, the father-in-law agitated the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otchum|<u>t</u>o-che-u-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-say-PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif,|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|"Ophauḍa|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-stop-c11}}<br />
{{gl|tok;|please}}<br />
{{gl|ndauqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|ottharethiz|<u>t</u>o-tharethü<sup>nj</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-agitate-c4}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngų?"|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|hare-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law said, "Stop that; why are you agitating the hare?"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|oųpdhemerum|<u>t</u>o-ų-dhemer<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CAUS-move away from.PAST-c10}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ettepum|tetepe-m<sup>a</sup>|ears-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|owqųį|woq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|friend-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyų,|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|speech-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ekekechã|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã|father-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|įįkaga|į~įkaga<sup>nj</sup>|ITER~cry.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ahyeshã.|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>-shã|speech-with}}<br />
{{glend|But, ignoring what his friend was saying, the father-in-law continued to use the hare's voice.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Eḍngųį|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-į|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|aye|<sup>h</sup>ay<sup>e</sup>|speech}}<br />
{{gl|dhedhecu|dhe~dhece-u|ITER~grow-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją,|ją|more}}<br />
{{gl|yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|uuhoqeqi|u~uhoqeqü|ITER~burn.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The hare's voice became louder and louder, and the fire burned more and more.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ekeyaif|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{gl|nenetahehu|ne~netahehe-u|be_afraid-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|The son-in-law became more and more afraid.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otginj|<u>t</u>o-gi<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-go.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ųm,|ųm|away}}<br />
{{gl|opḍoxomou,|<u>t</u>o-ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|MASC-lie down-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|oųppofowagubų|<u>t</u>o-ų-pofowage-u-bų|MASC-CAUS-be covered with-PAST-c7}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{gl|wam|<u>y</u>o-m<sup>a</sup>|REFL-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|uqrų|qur<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|grass-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|woįdh|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|REFL-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|ngįdh|nge-<sup>į</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|sight-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|vįhau,|vįhau-qį|prevention-for}}<br />
{{gl|xou,|xou|and then}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãzh,|ndochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|while-in}}<br />
{{gl|ophoufaįra.|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>ou-faįra<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-INCP-be asleep.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|He went away, lay down, covered himself up with grass to hide himself and, after a while, fell asleep.}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jathaįzh,|jath<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-zh<sup>a</sup>|dawn-ACC-in}}<br />
{{gl|įj|įj<sup>a</sup>|light}}<br />
{{gl|tha|the<sup>nj</sup>|come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag,|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|otyatoraį|<u>t</u>o-yatora-į<sup>nj</sup>|MASC-wake up-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|chag|chag|as}}<br />
{{gl|ekeyaif.|<sup>h</sup>ekeyaif<sup>a</sup>|child-in-law}}<br />
{{glend|At dawn, when it was light, the son-in-law woke up.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opngi|<u>t</u>o-ngü|MASC-look}}<br />
{{gl|baḍ.|baḍ|around}}<br />
{{glend|He looked around.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yį|yį|fire}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehu,|<sup>h</sup>ou-ye<u>g</u>o-u|INCP-be_dead.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ehkekechum|<sup>h</sup>ekekeche-m<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|umngau.|me-nga-u|NDEF.IN-cause to disappear-PAST|}}<br />
{{glend|The fire had gone, and his father-in-law had disappeared.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shez|she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|dog}}<br />
{{gl|ḍoxomou|ḍoxo<u>nd</u>o-u|lie-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įjahauzh|įjahau-zh<sup>a</sup>|evening-in}}<br />
{{gl|exzhodh|xe-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|that-c4-of}}<br />
{{gl|oḍxomoįdh|doxo<u>nd</u>o-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|lying-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|zhec|zhe-c<sup>e</sup>|sameness-with}}<br />
{{glend|The dogs lay as they had laid in the evening.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ehkekechãdh|<sup>h</sup>ekekechã-dh<sup>a</sup>|father-in-law-of}}<br />
{{gl|waįdh|w<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|existence-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thąt,|thą-t<sup>a</sup>|place-at}}<br />
{{gl|maneh|mane<u>h</u><sup>e</sup>|only.NOM.IN}}<br />
{{gl|įąṭasehak|įąṭasehak<sup>e</sup>|footwear}}<br />
{{gl|wa|w<sup>a</sup>|exist.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ją.|ją|more}}<br />
{{glend|Where his father-in-law had been, only the footwear remained.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|oṭḍah|ṭo-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|this-c11}}<br />
{{gl|aundqį|ndau-qį|what-for}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|ozhjhauheḍa|<u>zh</u>o-jhau<u>q</u><sup>e</sup>-ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>|c4-want-c11}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum|person}}<br />
{{gl|eḍngįdh|ḍeng<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|hare-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|athrethų.|thareth<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|agitate-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|And that is why people do not want to agitate the hare.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indvawum|nde-vaw<sup>e</sup>-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-name-c10}}<br />
{{gl|choįnazh|ṭaį-n<sup>a</sup>-<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>|this.NOM.AN-HU-c4}}<br />
{{gl|woq|woq<sup>e</sup>|friend}}<br />
{{gl|ųįqadh|ųįq<sup>e</sup>-dh<sup>a</sup>|two-of}}<br />
{{gl|auįdh|<sup>h</sup>au-<u>į</u>-dh<sup>a</sup>|stop.PAST-ACC-of}}<br />
{{gl|thum|the-m<sup>a</sup>|place-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|Xaunezu.|Xaunezu|Xaunezu}}<br />
{{glend|The place where these two friends passed the night is called Xaunezu.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%B3ngHỳng2015-04-20T16:46:47Z<p>Alces: sketch of a Wendoth descendant</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Hỳng<br />
| date = c. -200 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = [[Wendoth languages|Wendoth]]<br />
| word-or = VOS<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Hỳng''' language is a descendant of [[Wendoth]] spoken in west Tuysáfa, close to the area where [[Wihəs]] is spoken. It is noted among the Wendoth languages for its unusual consonant correspondances; for example, '''Hỳng''', which is the self-appelation of the '''Hỳng''' speakers, is the reflex of Wendoth '''sum''' 'person'. It is also one of the more archaic Wendoth languages, and it is generally supposed that all the Wendoth languages besides Hỳng can be grouped into a sub-family called Nuclear Wendoth.<br />
<br />
== Historical phonology ==<br />
<br />
# '''r''' became palatalised '''rʲ''' (or was perhaps inherited with this pronunciation).<br />
# '''n''' became dental, and '''tsʲ''' and '''dzʲ''' became non-palatalised dental affricates '''tθ''' and '''dð''' respectively.<br />
# Before palatalised consonants, all unstressed lax vowels merged as '''ɪ''', and before unstressed velarised consonants, all lax vowels merged as '''ʊ'''.<br />
# '''ŋ''' was elided unconditionally, with resulting sequences of non-close vowel + close vowel merging to form diphthongs.<br />
# '''sˠ''' and '''sʲ''' merged as '''ʃ''' before consonants and word boundaries and merged as '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
# '''zˠ''' and '''zʲ''' merged with '''lˠ''' and '''lʲ''', respectively.<br />
# Palatalised velar consonants became palatalised alveolars: '''ŋʲ''' became ''''nʲ''', '''kʲ''' and '''gʲ''' became affricates '''tsʲ''' and '''dzʲ''', respectively, and '''xʲ''' and '''ɣʲ''' became fricatives '''sʲ''' and '''zʲ''', respectively.<br />
# Velarised labial consonants became velars: '''mˠ''', '''pˠ''', '''bˠ''', '''fˠ''' and '''vˠ''' became '''ŋ''', '''k''', '''g''', '''x''' and '''ɣ''', respectively.<br />
# '''tˠ''' and '''dˠ''' became '''p''' and '''b''', probably via '''tʷ''' and '''dʷ'''.<br />
# '''tθ''' and '''dð''' merged with '''θ''' and '''ð''', respectively, before consonants and word boundaries. Elsewhere, they are re-analysed as clusters.<br />
# '''θ''' and '''ð''' became '''f''' and '''v''', respectively.<br />
# '''rʲ''' became '''ʃ'''.<br />
# '''j''' and '''w''' fortified to '''gj''' and '''gw''', respectively, before stressed vowels.<br />
# After monophthongs, '''j''' and '''w''' were re-analysed as the off-glides of diphthongs (or deleted after '''i''' and '''u''' respectively). The vowel sequences '''ui''' and '''iu''' also became diphthongs '''ʊi̯''' and '''ɪu̯''' when both vowels were unstressed, while the vowel sequences '''ii''' and '''uu''' became '''i''' and '''u'''. (these changes propagated from right to left)<br />
# Before palatalised consonants, stressed monophthongs other than '''ḭ''' and '''i̤''' acquired a '''i̯''' off-glide.<br />
# '''nʲ''', '''tʲ''', '''dʲ''', '''tsʲ''', '''dzʲ''', '''sʲ''' and '''zʲ''' lost their palatalisation.<br />
# '''nd''' merged with '''d''' after consonants and word boundaries.<br />
# '''ṳ''' and '''ṵ''' became '''y̰''' and '''y̤''', respectively.<br />
# '''æ̰''' and '''ɑ̤''' became '''a̰''' and '''o̤''', respectively.<br />
# All vowels acquired modal voice in unstressed syllables.<br />
# Stressed '''ə''' became '''y̰''' before plosives and affricates and '''y̤''' elsewhere.<br />
# Stressed '''a''' and '''o''' became '''a̤''' and '''o̰''', respectively, unless followed by a close vowel, in which case they made the same shift in quality but took the close vowel's phonation.<br />
# Unstressed '''i''' merged into '''ɪ''' (although '''i''' remained as '''i''' as a diphthong off-glide).<br />
# Unstressed '''y''' and '''ə''' merged as '''ʏ''' (although '''y''' remained as '''y''' as a diphthong off-glide).<br />
# Unstressed '''o''' merged into '''ʊ'''.<br />
# '''lˠ''' and '''lʲ''' merged with '''j''' and '''w''', respectively.<br />
# '''w''' merged with '''f''' after voiceless consonants and '''v''' after voiced consonants.<br />
# '''q''' became '''ʔ'''.<br />
<br />
Incomplete changes:<br />
# '''ts''' and '''dz''' have merged with '''s''' and '''z''' in most dialects.<br />
# '''w''' has merged with '''v''' in some dialects.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|<br />
! Labial<br />
! Coronal<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| (m)<br />
| n<br />
|<br />
| ŋ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Plosive<br />
! voiceless<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
| <br />
| ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! voiced<br />
| b<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
| g<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Affricate<br />
! voiceless<br />
|<br />
| (ts)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! voiced<br />
|<br />
| (dz)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Fricative<br />
! voiceless<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| ʃ<br />
| x<br />
| χ<br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
! voiced<br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
|<br />
| ɣ<br />
| ʁ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Approximant<br />
| (w)<br />
|<br />
| j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''w''' is merged with '''v''' in some dialects. In all dialects, [w] does not occur after consonants, but [f] is written '''w''' after voiceless consonants and [v] is written '''w''' after voiced consonants. The clusters '''tw''' and '''dw''' occur in syllable onsets, '''nd''' occurs across syllable codas, and '''gj''' and '''gw''' occur before stressed vowels. Other clusters occur due to transformation and loanwords.<br />
<br />
'''m''' is rare and appears only in loanwords and sound-symbolic words.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!colspan="2"| Front<br />
!rowspan="2"| Central<br />
!rowspan="2"| Back<br />
|-<br />
! unrounded<br />
! rounded<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| ḭ, i̤ (ɪ)<br />
| y̰, y̤ (ʏ)<br />
| <br />
| (ʊ)<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| o̰, o̤<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| a̰, a̤ (a)<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowels in the brackets are the unstressed allophones, which are always modally-voiced. All stressed vowels are either creaky- or breathy-voiced; breathy-voice is indicated by the grave accent and creaky-voice is indicated by the acute accent.<br />
<br />
There are also some diphthongs, including /ɪi/ '''ei''' and /ʏy/ '''ey'''.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
Cases: nominative, accusative (-m), dative / allative (-út), genitive / ablative (-úw), inalienable genitive (-eí), instrumental (-hò), illative (-t), elative (-w).<br />
<br />
All monotransitive verbs came to take a dative object, hence '''-m''' has become the new accusative case ending, and agreement with objects no longer occurs. Ditransitive verbs have all become monotransitives indicating the recipient in the allative case.</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-04-20T01:02:44Z<p>Alces: Morphology mostly done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa.<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /mˠ/ (> /m/)<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪ʲ/ (> /<sup>n</sup>d̪/)<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/ (> /ɲ/)<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /pˠ/ (> /p/)<br />
| '''t''' /t̪ʲ/ (> /t̪/)<br />
| '''ṭ''' /tˠ/ (> /ʈ/)<br />
| '''ch''' /tsʲ/ (> /tʃ/)<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/ (> /c/)<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /bˠ/ (> /b/)<br />
| '''d''' /d̪ʲ/ (> /d̪/) <br />
| '''ḍ''' /dˠ/ (> /ɖ/)<br />
| '''jh''' /dzʲ/ (> /dʒ/)<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/ (> /ɟ/)<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /fˠ/ (> /f/)<br />
| '''th''' /xʲ/ (> /θ/)<br />
| '''s''' /sˠ/ (> /ʂ/)<br />
| '''sh''' /sʲ/ (> /ʃ/)<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/ (> /ç/)<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /vˠ/ (> /v/)<br />
| '''dh''' /ðʲ/ (> /ð/)<br />
| '''z''' /zˠ/ (> /ʐ/)<br />
| '''zh''' /zʲ/ (> /ʒ/)<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/ (> /ʝ/)<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The labials, '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', originate from Pre-Wendoth velarised labials. Their reflexes in [[Hỳng]] are velar, which suggests that they retained velarisation at the time of the proto-language, but all the other Wendoth languages do not betray any trace of the labials' former velarisation, suggesting that it was lost in the Nuclear Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials. At an early stage, they retained palatalisation, and in fact this secondary articulation was the primary feature distinguishing '''t''' and '''d''' from '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' (which were velarised alveolars; '''s''' and '''z''' were probably also velarised in parallel, although their sibilance was already sufficient to distinguish them from '''th''' and '''dh'''). Later on, these velarised alveolars (which descended from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals) became retroflexes, and the secondary articulation became unnecessary to distinguish them. However, this change did not affect the dialect which became Hỳng, and traces of the older secondary articulations remain in some Nuclear Wendoth languages (for example, '''th''' and '''dh''' are reflected as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in some of them).<br />
<br />
Similarly, '''ch''', '''jh''', '''sh''' and '''zh''', which originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, were probably pronounced as palatalised alveolars at an early stage. In the North Wendoth languages, for example, they lost their palatalisation at some stage and became pronounced as /ts dz s z/. But in most of the other Wendoth languages, they became postalveolar. '''n''' and '''r''' also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals, but as they had no similar consonants to contrast with it is unlikely that their palatalisation was retained for very long.<br />
<br />
The front velars, '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars, and are transcribed as such. They were fronted further in all of the Wendoth languages except for the [[Mboroth]] languages, in which they lost their palatalisation and became plain velars.<br />
<br />
The back velars, '''ng''', '''q''', '''x''' and '''h''', originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars. Although they shifted back to velars in some daughters such as Yewedu, there is considerable evidence that they went through a stage of being pronounced as uvulars in all Wendoth languages. '''ng''' appears to have been pronounced as a uvular /ɴ/ at an early stage, but it had already been elided in many environments and shifted to /ŋ/ elsewhere before the Wendoth languages broke up. The fortition of '''ng''' to pre-nasalised /ŋg/ is a fairly widespread change in the Wendoth languages (occuring in both North Wendoth and Hỳng, for example), which suggests that this may have already been a variant in the proto-language.<br />
<br />
'''h''' had a defective distribution, appearing only medially, never before or after a pause. It was usually pronounced as an approximant, rather than a fricative, and it tended to be weakened further in daughter languages.<br />
<br />
'''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. It appears that earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in most environments, but North Wendoth has [l] as the reflex of '''y''' and '''w''' in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels, which suggests that they retained their lateral pronunciations in this environment. This is also suggested by the otherwise curious fact that in Hỳng, '''y''' and '''w''' became [ʒ] and [β], respectively, before non-close vowels but not before close vowels (what happened was that [j] and [w] underwent this change while '''y''' and '''w''' were still pronounced as [lʲ] and [lˠ] before close vowels, and then much later [lʲ] and [lˠ] shifted to [j] and [w]).<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of Wendoth, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. However, before a pause they were pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced), and were likely not as long as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, and it is convenient to do so for morphophonological purposes (for example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndaų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added). However, these diphthongs do comprise single syllable nuclei, and they are about as frequent as the close vowels in isolation.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form (C)V(C); in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form (C)V. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqat<sup>e</sup>''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /nd̪ʲ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sˠʁ/ and /zˠʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
'''nj''' and '''h''' do not appear word-finally (but they can appear syllable-finally). '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (but it can appear syllable-initially even after another consonant). Apart from these exceptions, every consonant can appear word- and syllable-initially and word- and syllable-finally. As for vowels, /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries outside of certain loanwords, and /o/ never appears before nasals.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a tense vowel (including '''ą''' and '''ã'''). When a syllable beginning with a vowel follows a tense vowel, an epenthetic [ʔ] (if the tense vowel is creaky) or [ɦ] (if the tense vowel is breathy) is inserted to break up the hiatus; the same epenthesis applies across word boundaries.<br />
<br />
A similar epenthesis breaks up hiatuses in which the first vowel is lax, when these hiatuses occur across word boundaries. Historically, all words beginning with a lax vowel originally began with Pre-Wendoth '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r'''. These phonemes merged as '''h''' under certain circumstances, and this '''h''' was then elided word-initially. But in connected speech, when a word ending with a lax vowel precedes, the initial '''h''' reappears. In fact, this has been extended to words beginning with a close vowel which did not necessarily begin with a '''h''' at any point. For example, '''be įka''' 'I laughed' is pronounced '''bˠəʁḭˈkʲa'''.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is not contrastive; it is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''į''', '''i''', '''ų''' or '''u''') in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. This rule applies to the fully-inflected word, so the addition of suffixes often results in stress alternations; for example, '''kochum<sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue' is '''koCHUM''' in the nominative case but '''okchuMOŲ''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added. Function words, like the pronouns, often carry no stress in connected speech.<br />
<br />
The North Wendoth languages became strongly stress-timed and underwent heavy vowel reduction. The dialects that became Hỳng also became stress-timed, although not to quite the same extent. Other Wendoth languages are generally syllable-timed. It is uncertain what the situation in the proto-language was. The /ə/ phoneme is not evidence that it was stress-timed, because it arises not from vowel reduction, but rather from the transferral of vocalic [+front] and [+back] features to preceding consonants that took place during the development of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
=== Example pronunciations ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ [bə]<br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)' /kʲotʃṳm/ [kʲoˈtsʲṳːm]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner (nom.)' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge (nom.)' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳmˈn̪d̪ṵʔ] (the cluster '''mnd''' was preserved by the influence of the nominative form '''mund''', but it was likely that it, and other difficult-to-pronounce clusters, underwent ''ad hoc'' simplifications in practice).<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. But they interacted with each other in regular, predictable ways.<br />
<br />
The citation forms of morphemes in Wendoth often contain segments which are written in superscripts; c.f. '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood' and, for an extreme example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>he</sup>''' 'elbow, knee'. The superscripts indicate that the segments contained within disappear in the most unmarked form (for example, '''<sup>h</sup>i<sup>nge</sup>''' is '''i''' in the nominative case). Segments may also be underlined; this indicates that the segement does not disappear, but alternates depending on the surrounding morphemes.<br />
<br />
Every morpheme in Wendoth begins with an underlying consonant or a close vowel and ends in an underlying vowel, nasal ('''m''', '''n''', '''nj''' or '''ng''') or '''h'''. The open tense vowels '''ã''' and '''ą''' appear only in morpheme-final position, outside of a couple of loanwords such as '''pąri''' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
=== Final lax vowel alternations ===<br />
<br />
Morphemes which end in an underlying lax vowel have the lax vowel elided when they occur as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Therefore, the final lax vowel in such morphemes is written in superscript in the citation form unless the morpheme never occurs as the final morpheme in a non-monosyllabic word. Even in monosyllabic morphemes, an underlying final lax vowel may disappear if another morpheme precedes in the same word. For example, adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''' 'he sees (ind.)'. If a morpheme-final lax vowel is written without a superscript in the underlying form, this indicates that the morpheme never occurs after another morpheme within a single word.<br />
<br />
Morpheme-final '''e''' also disappears when a suffix is added that begins with a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''ei''', '''eų''' and '''eu''' do not appear in Wendoth. However, morpheme-final '''e''' is only written as a superscript in the citation form if it also disappears word-finally, so the underlying form of the first person singular pronoun is written '''be''', rather than '''b<sup>e</sup>''', even though adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' results in '''bį'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' is '''thind''' in the nominative but '''ithndat''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' is '''ngak''' in the nominative but '''engket''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added and '''engkų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is another alternation that affects morpheme-final lax vowels. If these lax vowels come to occur before a nasal, their quality changes, as follows:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''. For example, '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' becomes '''eshzam''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''. For example, '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman' becomes '''ithndem''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials ('''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''', but not '''w'''). It becomes '''i''' elsewhere. For example, '''ngak<sup>e</sup>''' 'head' becomes '''engkum''' when the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' is added, and the intransitivising prefix '''ne-''', when added to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see', produces the verb '''ning<sup>e</sup>''' 'see something'.<br />
<br />
This process is called vowel mutation, and it is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals. <br />
<br />
Final tense vowels (and diphthongs, which end in tense vowels) are much easier to deal with; they do not disappear word-finally, nor are they affected by mutation. For example, '''z<u>į</u>''' 'top' is '''zų''' in the nominative and '''zųų''' when the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' is added, and '''kechã''' 'father' is '''kechã''' in the nominative and '''kechãt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
=== Light and heavy phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The consonants of the Wendoth proto-language, together with the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', are called the weighted phonemes, because they can be organised into pairs, where in each pair one phoneme is said to be light and the other is said to be heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~h~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' is '''ng''' after a consonant or a word boundary, '''h''' after non-close vowels and '''∅''' after close vowels and before a consonant or a word boundary.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
# The heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ/r''' (the two consonants merged when heavy) is '''x''' word-finally, '''h''' after a consonant or a tense vowel and '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the underlying forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable. The consonant is underlined to remind the reader that it may also appear as its heavy counterpart.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with morphemes that contain the light reflex of '''ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''ŋ''', '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* If a morpheme has the light reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this light reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>nj</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>nj</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''nj'''. For example, '''woḍe<sup>nja</sup>''' 'rest' is '''woḍe''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''owḍenjaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ŋ''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappears; otherwise, it is realised as '''h'''. For example, '''zhate<sup><u>nj</u>o</sup>''' 'endure' is '''zhate''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''azhtehoq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added. <br />
** Historically, the heavy reflex of PW '''ŋ''' also alternated when it occured at the beginning of a morpheme, being realised as '''ng''' word-initially and '''h''' when following a morpheme ending in a lax vowel, and disappearing when following a morpheme ending in a tense vowel. But this alternation has been levelled out by analogy in all morphemes, so that morpheme-initial '''<sup>ng</sup>''' has become indistinguishable from non-alternating '''ng''' (the heavy reflex of PW '''n'''). For example, '''ngįą''' 'be big' (< PW '''ŋuʔeʔ''') is '''ngįą''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''oungįą''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' (< PW '''ɣaɦu-''') is added, even though '''ɣaɦu-ŋuʔeʔ''' should have become '''*ouįą''' by regular sound change.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''g''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''g''' is written as '''<u>q</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>q</u>''' is realised as '''q'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''kų<u>q</u><sup>a</sup>''' 'be to the west' is '''kųq''' in the non-past indicative but '''ųkhaq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme has the heavy reflex of PW '''ɣ''' or '''r''' before its final lax vowel, and the morpheme may occur as the final morpheme in a word, then this heavy reflex of '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<u>x</u>''' in the citation form. When the morpheme is the final morpheme in a word, the '''<u>x</u>''' is realised as '''x'''; otherwise, it is realised as '''h''' after consonants and lax vowels and disappears after close vowels. For example, '''roke<u>x</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'float' is '''rokex''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''orkeheq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* If a morpheme begins with the heavy reflex of PW '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''', and the morpheme may follow another morpheme within the same word, or if its initial syllable may be inverted by transformation, then this heavy reflex of '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' is written as '''<sup>h</sup>''' (or possibly '''<u>q</u>''' or '''<u>x</u>''', if the morpheme consists of this single consonant followed by a final lax vowel, and the morpheme can occur as the final morpheme in the word). This '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when it follows a morpheme that ends in a lax vowel, and disappears otherwise. For example, '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį''' 'be friendly' is '''ewaį''' in the non-past indicative, and still '''ouewaį''' when the inchoative prefix '''ou-''' is added, but '''ophewaį''' when the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' is added.<br />
<br />
There is one more consonant alternation to take note of (besides weight alternations, which we will go into below): morpheme-final nasals and '''h''' disappear before consonants. Morpheme-final '''nj''' and its heavy counterpart '''h''', of course, disappear word-finally as well, so that they only actually appear before close vowels. These disappearing morpheme-final nasals are ''not'' normally written in superscript, for two reasons: first, there is a need to distinguish '''ng''', which only disappears before consonants, from '''<sup>ng</sup>''', which disappears word-finally and after close vowels as well, and, secondly, these morpheme-final nasals do not disappear if no suffixes are added, so they are generally present in the most unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
Some examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' is '''nojem''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''an'jeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''waun''' 'lie' is '''waun''' in the non-past specific indicative but '''wauq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''sing''' '2p sg.' is '''sing''' in the nominative but '''sit''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''ṭare<sup>nj</sup>''' 'sibling, cousin' is '''ṭare''' in the nominative and '''aṭret''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''aṭrenjį''' when the possessive suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' is '''ngozhebe''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''ngozhebeq''' when the subjunctive suffix '''-q<sup>a</sup>''' is added, but '''ngozhebehį''' when the solid inanimate suffix '''-į''' is added.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth '''i''' and '''u''' became '''ɨ''' before Pre-Wendoth nasals, and later this '''ɨ''' merged with '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere. However, this change occured after the disappearance of nasals before a consonant. Therefore, in Wendoth '''i''' which occurs before a morpheme-final nasal sometimes becomes '''u''' when a suffix beginning with a labial consonant is added, and instances of '''i''' which show this behaviour are written as '''ü'''. For example, '''ngü<sup>h</sup>''' (< PW '''nuŋ'''), the past-tense stem of '''nge''' 'see', is '''ngi''' in the specific indicative and '''ngup''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added. But not all instances of '''i''' do this; for example, '''nį''' 'sit down' (< Pre-Wendoth '''niʔi''') is '''nį''' in the non-past specific indicative and '''nįp''' when the masculine suffix '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' is added.<br />
<br />
<!-- this is an invalid example, change later --><br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has a kind of right-to-left consonant harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes to acquire the same weight as a weighted phoneme in a following syllable. However, it is somewhat limited in application. It is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''a''' to become palatalised if '''i''' or '''e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''a''' and the '''i''' or '''e'''.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, weighted phonemes that may alternate due to weight harmony are written underlined. However, it is possible to predict which consonants will be affected by weight harmony, according to the following rules.<br />
<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''o''' is affected by weight harmony.<br />
* Every consonant that precedes '''a''' is affected by weight harmony as long as the following syllable begins with a nasal consonant. (If the syllable containing the '''a''' ends with an underlying coda nasal, this does not cause the consonant to be affected by weight harmony.)<br />
<br />
The same cannot be said for close vowels; only those originating from Pre-Wendoth '''ʔa''' and '''ɦa''' are affected by weight harmony, but it is impossible to distinguish these close vowels from others from the surrounding phonemes. This is why the underlining is necessary.<br />
<br />
Alternating weighted phonemes manifest as light phonemes if the following syllable begins with a light phoneme, unless the light phoneme is itself in a position where it is affected by weight harmony (and is therefore light only due to weight harmony). Otherwise, they manifest as heavy. Syllables beginning with a light consonant that is not affected by weight harmony are said to be light, and non-light syllables are said to be heavy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍa<u>į</u>''' 'rock' is '''ḍaų''' in the nominative, but '''ḍaįt''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog' is '''shez''' in the nominative, but '''eshzhot''' when the illative suffix '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' is added.<br />
* Adding the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' to '''ng<sup>e</sup>''' 'see' results in '''pong''', but adding it to '''chį<sup>ng</sup>''' 'remember' results in '''otchį'''.<br />
<br />
Weight harmony applies before all other morphophonological rules. So, for example, '''<u>nj</u>''', '''<u>g</u>''', '''<u>j</u>''' and '''<u>r</u>''' show their usual alternations depending on which form they take.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth words alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms of the word. It is convenient to say that every word has an untransformed and transformed form, although some have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a root takes depends on both morphological and syntactic considerations. In general, it depends on morphology:<br />
<br />
* Nouns are transformed when they are in the accusative or dative case and when a postpositional clitic or noun class suffix is added to the noun.<br />
* Verbs are transformed when they are in the generic aspect or the subjunctive mood and when a noun class prefix or suffix is added to the verb.<br />
* Determiners are transformed except when they agree with nouns of superclass 2 or 3 that are in the nominative case.<br />
<br />
However, there are some exceptions to these rules, where heads that end in vowels prevent transformation of a following complement. For example, determiners may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following NP, and verbs may prevent transformation of the initial word in the following VP. When a transformed word, beginning with a vowel, follows a word that ends with a lax vowel, it is common for the final lax vowel of the preceding word to be elided in non-careful speech. The most common word this occurs with is '''be''' 'I', so, for example, '''be opyatorą''' is often pronounced as '''b'opyatorą'''.<br />
<br />
In general, transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. (Diphthongs are counted as single Vs.) For example, the transformed form of '''kashų''' 'blood (acc.)' is '''akshų''' and the transformed form of '''noijių''' 'lip (acc.)' is '''oinjių'''. But transformation does not have any effect if the following syllable begins with a tense vowel, rather than a consonant. For example, the transformed form of '''suų''' 'person (acc.)' is '''suų'''. It also does not have any effect if the initial syllable begins with an underlying vowel (which will always be a close vowel), so, for example, the transformed form of '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)' is '''įbuų'''.<br />
<br />
However, if the initial syllable begins with underlying '''<sup>h</sup>''', this '''<sup>h</sup>''' is realised as '''h''' when the word is transformed. For example, the transformed form of '''ewaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past ind.)' is '''ehwaįq''' (the citation form is '''<sup>h</sup>ewaį'''). Since words beginning with a close vowel might have an underlying initial '''<sup>h</sup>''' too, this meant that the transformed forms of such words were unpredictable: a '''h''' might be inserted after the initial close vowel, or (more commonly) it might not be inserted. This was a highly unstable situation (it is like the situation in English dialects where there is linking /r/, but not intrusive /r/), so the Wendoth languages all simplified it if they preserved these alternations at all. Some of them generalised the '''h'''-insertion to apply to all words beginning with a vowel, so that the transformed form of '''įbuų''' became '''įhbuų'''. Otherwise start to only insert '''h''' in the transformed forms of words beginning with a lax vowel.<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a lax vowel to precede a nasal. For example, the transformed form of '''medųų''' 'forehead (acc.)' is '''umdųų'''. Although the reverse process probably occured in an early stage of Wendoth, where a vowel is 'un-mutated' when it comes to no longer precede an (underlying) nasal, this seems to have been levelled out by analogy, so the transformed form of '''siqį''' 'for you (sg.)' (< '''sing''' 'you (sg.)' + '''-qį''' 'for') is '''isqį''', not '''esqį'''. In fact, vowel mutation due to transformation also had a strong tendency to be levelled out by analogy in the Wendoth languages, although it does survive to some extent.<br />
<br />
The effect of transformation on prefixes is worthy of special notice. In a word with a prefix added, the initial syllable often coincides with the prefix. Therefore, transformation has the effect of reversing the prefix. For example, the transformed form of '''todhemer''' 'he moves away from (spec. ind.)', which has the masculine prefix '''<u>t</u>o-''' added, is '''otdhemer'''. However, when a prefix ending in a lax vowel is added to a stem beginning with a close vowel, a diphthong will be formed and the number of syllables will be unchanged. Transformation still occurs in this case and reverses the whole initial syllable, as usual. For example, the transformed form of '''toųmų''' 'he pushes (spec. ind.)' is '''oųtmų'''. The transformed form of '''toįdh''' 'he is imaginary (ind.)' is '''toįdh''', with no reversal, because the word is monosyllabic.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Cases ====<br />
<br />
Nouns take three cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are marked by suffixes. In addition, there are seven postpositions which are generally analysed as enclitics. However, each of the possible combinations of case suffixes and postpositional enclitics can be analysed as a case in its own right, in which case there are up to eighteen different cases.<br />
<br />
In general, the nominative case is marked by adding no suffix and keeping the noun untransformed, the accusative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' and transforming the noun, and the dative case is marked by adding the suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' and transforming the noun. But there are complications.<br />
<br />
First of all, nouns can be transformed in the nominative case, because adding a postpositional enclitic causes nouns to be transformed. Likewise, nouns can be untransformed in the accusative and dative cases, because preceding determiners sometimes prevent nouns from transforming.<br />
<br />
Also, there are some nouns which have two different stems. One, which is called the primary stem, is used in the nominative case; the other, which is called the secondary stem, is used in the accusative and dative cases. These nouns also sometimes take slightly different accusative and dative suffixes. Nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III, based on their behaviour in this respect. Type II and III nouns are the ones which have two stems; when introducing such a noun, we give both stems and separate them by a slash, with the primary stem preceding the secondary stem, and we write a hyphen after the secondary stem because it always has a suffix added after it. For example, '''sum''' / '''se-''' is the Wendoth word for 'person'. Note that since the secondary stem always has a suffix added to it, final lax vowels, and preceding '''nj''', '''ng''' and '''h''', are not marked with a superscript.<br />
<br />
===== Type I nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns, which comprise the majority of nouns, have a single stem which ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The accusative and dative suffixes for Type I nouns are, as said above, '''-<u>į</u>''' and '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' respectively. There are no complications here apart from regular morphophonological alternations; note, in particular, that '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' induces mutation of the preceding vowel.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type I nouns. The nouns are given in their transformed forms in the accusative and dative cases, and in their untransformed forms in the nominative cases, which is what we will usually do when giving nouns in isolation; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed and nouns in the nominative case are not always untransformed. Note that the forms given are those seen when no extra suffixes are added after the case suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'blood'<br />
| kash<sup>e</sup><br />
| kash<br />
| akshų<br />
| akshum<br />
|-<br />
| 'success'<br />
| sas<sup>a</sup><br />
| sas<br />
| assaų<br />
| assem<br />
|-<br />
| 'water'<br />
| i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup><br />
| ix<br />
| ihoų<br />
| iham<br />
|-<br />
| 'lip'<br />
| noiji<br />
| noiji<br />
| oinjių<br />
| oinjim<br />
|-<br />
| 'forehead'<br />
| medų<br />
| medų<br />
| umdų<br />
| umdųm<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type II nouns =====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have a primary stem which ends in a tense vowel. All nouns with primary stems ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of type II, but some nouns with primary stems ending in close vowels are of Type III instead.<br />
<br />
For Type II nouns, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems). It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel is replaced by '''e'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears, and if the preceding close vowel is '''ų''' or '''u''', it will sometimes, but not always, change into '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. Note that if it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant should, on the basis of etymology, become alternating in the secondary stem. But the secondary stem is always followed by a case suffix, and both case suffixes begin with a heavy syllable, so the alternation does not have any effect. There is, therefore, no need to indicate the alternation when the secondary stem is written down.<br />
<br />
The nominative and dative suffixes for Type II nouns are mostly the same as with Type I nouns, but there is a change in the accusative suffix: it is '''-<u>į</u>''', as usual, if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', it is '''-<u>i</u>'''; i.e., the voice of the vowel in the accusative suffix agrees with the voice of the final tense vowel of the primary stem.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type II nouns. The secondary stems are given in their transformed forms, because they are used in the accusative and dative cases; remember, though, that nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'fire'<br />
| yį<br />
| ye-<br />
| yį<br />
| yų<br />
| yum<br />
|-<br />
| 'wood'<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohe-<br />
| fohu<br />
| fohų<br />
| fohum<br />
|-<br />
| 'fall'<br />
| zashą<br />
| azsha-<br />
| zashą<br />
| azshaų<br />
| azshem<br />
|-<br />
| 'father'<br />
| kechã<br />
| ekche-<br />
| kechã<br />
| ekchu<br />
| ekchum<br />
|-<br />
| 'death'<br />
| yehą<br />
| eyho-<br />
| yehą<br />
| eyhoų<br />
| eyham<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Type III nouns =====<br />
<br />
All nouns with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''<sup>h</sup>''' are of Type III; the Type III nouns also include some nouns whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III nouns, in the secondary stem, the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' of the primary stem is deleted, and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is '''a''', and this '''a''' is preceded by a consonant, then, in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''', this consonant becomes alternating and is written with an underline. The consonant will almost always be light, so that this alternation has an affect, but there is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one', which has the secondary stem '''mo-''' (there is no need to write '''<u>nd</u>o-''' because the stem is always followed by a heavy syllable).<br />
<br />
The nominative and accusative suffixes are the same as for Type I nouns, but there is a change in the dative suffix: it is '''-m<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''m''', '''-ng<sup>a</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''n''' or '''ng''', and '''-<sup>ha</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
The following table gives some representative declensions of Type III nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Primary stem<br />
! Secondary stem<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
|-<br />
| 'person'<br />
| sum<br />
| se-<br />
| sum<br />
| sų<br />
| sum<br />
|-<br />
| 'forest'<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbu-<br />
| įbun<br />
| įbuų<br />
| įbung<br />
|-<br />
| 'sand'<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųza-<br />
| ųzeng<br />
| ųzaų<br />
| ųzeng<br />
|-<br />
| 'heart'<br />
| taunj<br />
| tau-<br />
| tau<br />
| tauų<br />
| tau<br />
|-<br />
| 'effect'<br />
| <sup>h</sup>au<sup>h</sup><br />
| <sup>h</sup>au-<br />
| au<br />
| auų<br />
| au<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Postpositional enclitics ====<br />
<br />
The postpositional enclitics are '''-t<sup>a</sup>''' and '''-zh<sup>a</sup>''', the locative postpositions, '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''', the genitive postpositions, '''-shã''', the instrumental postposition, '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', the comitative postposition, and '''-qį''', the benefactive postposition. Of these postpositions, the last three have the greatest claim to being case suffixes; in particular, '''-shã''' appears to have at least gone through a stage as a case suffix in every Wendoth language. Each of these three postpositions, '''-shã''', '''-c<sup>e</sup>''', and '''-qį''', are added only after nouns in the nominative case, so no suffix comes in between them and the noun stem.<br />
<br />
The genitive postpositions, on the other hand, can be added after the accusative suffix; they take a nominative object if the possession is alienable, and an accusative object if the possession is inalienable. The difference between '''-į''' and '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is subtle and it is to some extent unpredictable which is used; however, one generalisations which can be made is that '''-į''' is used only to indicate possession of inanimates by animates. Hence it is used to indicate possession of body parts or personal characteristics (which are inalienable), and possession of personal or social property (which is alienable). '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for other kinds of possession: possession of kin, parts of a whole (these are all examples of inalienable possession). The most common kind of alienable possession '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' is used for is posession of an agent or patient by an action (this is not really alienable possession in semantic terms, but it is treated as such).<br />
<br />
The locative postpositions can be added after both the accusative and dative suffixes. Their meanings with each kind of object are summarised in the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Case of object<br />
! Meaning of t<sup>a</sup><br />
! Meaning of z<sup>a</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Nominative<br />
| Illative ('into')<br />
| Inessive or elative ('in' or 'from the inside of')<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative<br />
| Locative or allative ('at' or 'to')<br />
| Ablative ('from')<br />
|-<br />
| Dative<br />
| Inexact locative ('near')<br />
| Inexact inessive ('somewhere in')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These are the meanings when these postpositions take objects referring to physical objects. These postpositions may also take objects that refer to times, but when they do the object always takes the nominative case. '''t<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to points in time and '''zh<sup>a</sup>''' is used to refer to periods in time.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
==== Noun classes ====<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes. Each class is associated with its own affix, and is referred to by reference to its affix (e.g. &lsquo;the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;, &lsquo;the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class&rsquo;). Each class is also associated with a number which is used for glossing purposes: the gloss for the ''n''th class is &lsquo;c''n''&rsquo;. However, the first two classes, the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class and the '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, are glossed as &lsquo;MASC&rsquo; and 'FEM&rsquo; respectively.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to male humans. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>acau''' 'man', '''kechã''' 'father', '''po<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Dad', '''posa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'bachelor'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' class consists of nouns referring to female humans. Examples: '''thind<sup>a</sup>''' 'woman', '''mund<sup>a</sup>''' 'mother', '''qo<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'Mum', '''kosa<sup>ha</sup>''' 'spinster'.<br />
<br />
# The '''i''' class consists of nouns referring to foodstuffs. Examples: '''iq<sup>a</sup>''' 'meat', '''<sup>h</sup>ang<sup>a</sup>''' 'vegetables', '''geha<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'seeds'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>zh</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to humans of unspecified gender and culturally important animals. Its members are referred to as 'strong animates'. Examples: '''sum''' 'person', '''kejazang''' 'cow, bull', '''naketh<sup>e</sup>''' 'large animal', '''she<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'dog', '''<sup>h</sup>e<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'game (for hunting)'. <br />
<br />
# The '''<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to other animals, plants and other things that show some movement not caused by an external object (e.g. fire, wind). Its members are referred to as 'weak animates'. Examples: '''<sup>h</sup>oich<sup>a</sup>''' 'bug', '''mop<sup>e</sup>''' 'fish', '''ųha<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tree', '''yį''' 'fire', '''ḍįj<sup>a</sup>''' 'sun', '''awe<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'moon'.<br />
<br />
# The '''cum''' class consists of nouns referring to tools and devices. Examples: '''shexau<u>n</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'spear', '''ndewįth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sword', '''mitur<sup>e</sup>''' 'boat', '''jhebou''' 'dye'.<br />
<br />
# The '''b<u>į</u>''' class consists of nouns referring to fluid inanimates, including drinks. Examples: '''i<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'water', '''ṭoq<sup>e</sup>''' 'drinking water', '''kash<sup>e</sup>''' 'blood', '''dok<u>u</u>''' 'earth'.<br />
<br />
# The '''į''' class consists of nouns referring to solid inanimates. Examples: '''ḍa<u>ų</u>''' 'rock', '''ug<sup>e</sup>''' 'mountain', '''ųzeng''' 'sand', '''xob<sup>e</sup>''' 'dust'.<br />
<br />
# The '''thą''' class consists of nouns referring to places, buildings and other things that people are typically on or inside, as well as nouns referring to periods of time. Examples: '''cecum<sup>e</sup>''' 'village', '''bodhoth<sup>e</sup>''' 'wilderness', '''seth<sup>e</sup>''' 'sky', '''įj<sup>a</sup>''' 'day'.<br />
<br />
# The '''<u>nd</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to feelings and sensory impressions, including colours and sounds. Examples: '''xahes<sup>a</sup>''' 'anger', '''reįb<sup>e</sup>''' 'black', '''į<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'white', '''įka<u>g</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sound', '''qobeqob<sup>e</sup>''' 'thunder'.<br />
<br />
# The '''ḍa<u>r</u>o''' class consists of nouns referring to ideas and other abstractions. Examples: '''sas<sup>a</sup>''' 'success', '''gaxaihi''' 'respect', '''cawųã''' 'clan', '''xurs<sup>e</sup>''' 'promise', '''wamer<sup>e</sup>''' 'dusk', '''jath<sup>a</sup>''' 'dawn'.<br />
<br />
There are some nouns which do not clearly fall in any of these classes and are somewhat arbitrarily assigned. For example, body part terms are mostly in the '''į''' class, but the words for the principal sensory organs ('''che<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'eye', '''tepum''' 'ear', '''zhum''' 'nose', '''tegi''' 'mouth', '''kochu<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'tongue') are in the '''<u>zh</u>o''' class. '''newaų''' 'star' is in the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, perhaps due to an association with '''ḍaḍez<sup>e</sup>''' 'night'. '''boha<sup>h</sup>''' 'field' is in the '''i''' class, probably due to the association with crops. It may also seem odd at first that '''boj<sup>e</sup>''' 'penis' is in the '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but, if you think about it, it makes sense.<br />
<br />
Many words which can be put in several different classes to obtain different but related meanings. For example, words for animals in the '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' class can be put in the '''i''' class to obtain words for the meat of the animal, so that '''ḍeng<sup>e</sup>''' 'hare' can mean 'hare meat' as well.<br />
<br />
The noun class affixes are used as optional prefixes on verbs to indicate the class of the subject, and as optional suffixes on verbs, demonstratives, interrogatives and numerals to indicate the class of the object (it can be the direct object or the indirect object). The subject and object can also be dropped when these affixes are added, and in fact this is very common, so that the classifiers can be thought of as the counterparts of the third-person pronouns of other languages.<br />
<br />
==== Special classifiers ====<br />
<br />
There are a couple of additional classifiers, besides the noun class affixes, which can appear in the same positions.<br />
<br />
The first of these is the reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>'''. This is added to verbs to indicate that the object is the same as the subject. If the appropriate noun class suffix was used instead, this would entail that the object was different from the subject, and just of the same class.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ophauųųmeqaw|<u>t</u>o-<sup>h</sup>au-ų~ųm<sup>e</sup>-q<sup>a</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-CESS-ITER~hit-SUB-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|tok!|tok|IMP}}<br />
{{glend|Stop hitting yourself!}}<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are the indefinite affixes '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' and '''m<sup>e</sup>'''. These are added to verbs to indicate that the subject or object is definite&mdash;'somebody' (if '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used) or 'something' (if '''m<sup>e</sup>''' is used). Note that the animacy distinction here does not cut along the lines drawn by the noun classes. '''nd<sup>e</sup>''' is used to refer to humans exclusively (and animals in certain contexts), not other members of the '''zh<sup>o</sup>''' class such as body parts. There are explicit indefinite pronouns '''ndai''' and '''mai''' as well, but the indefinite affixes are used to lend less emphasis to the indefinite argument. The effect they have is akin to a passive construction, and in fact the usual way to translate passives where the subject is not indicated in a &lsquo;by&rsquo;-phrase is using these affixes.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Indcindup.|nde-cindu-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|NDEF.AN-kill.PAST-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|He was killed.}}<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with their head nouns in case and noun class. But only the nominative case is distinguished from the other cases by agreement; the accusative and dative cases take the same agreement markers. Likewise, the noun classes are grouped into four superclasses with respect to agreement, so that there are eight different agreement markers in total. The superclasses are:<br />
<br />
# gendered humans (covering the '''<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>k</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc1')<br />
# foodstuffs, non-gendered humans and groups of humans, and non-human animates (covering the '''i''', '''<u>zh</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc2')<br />
# concrete inanimates (covering the '''cum''', '''b<u>į</u>''', '''į''' and '''thą''' classes) (gloss 'sc3')<br />
# abstract inanimates (covering the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' classes) (gloss 'sc4')<br />
<br />
Nouns in the first two superclasses can be collectively referred to as animate nouns, and nouns in the second two superclasses can be collectively referred to as inanimate nouns.<br />
<br />
The stems of determiners agreeing with nouns in the nominative always have a weighted phoneme at the end, although the weighted phoneme is followed by the lax vowel '''e''' (never any other vowel) if it is a consonant. This weighted phoneme is called the alternating part of the determiner. If the noun is animate, the weighted phoneme manifests as light. If the noun is inanimate, the weighted phoneme manifests as heavy. Determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 1 are distinguished from those agreeing with nouns in superclass 2 by having an extra suffix '''-n<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem (which causes mutation of the final '''e''' if it is present), and determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 4 are distinguished from determiners agreeing with nouns in superclass 3 by having an extra suffix '''-dh<sup>a</sup>''' added after the stem; determiners agreeing with nouns in superclasses 2-3 do not have any suffix added after the stem. If the noun is in the accusative or dative case, the only thing that changes is that '''ą''' is inserted at the end of the stem, replacing the final lax vowel if one is present.<br />
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The following table summarises the declension of determiners by giving all the possible endings that may occur (with the endings starting at and including the alternating part). '''Y''' denotes the light manifestation of the determiner's alternating part and '''W''' denotes its heavy manifestation. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Yin<sup>a</sup>, -Yn<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
| -Y<sup>e</sup>, -Y<sup>1</sup><br />
| -W<sup>e</sup>, -W<sup>1</sup><br />
| -Wedh<sup>a</sup>, -Wdh<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| -Yąn<sup>a</sup><br />
| -Yą<br />
| -Wą<br />
| -Wądh<sup>a</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The '''e''' or '''i''' in these suffixes is not present if the alternating part is a close vowel.<br />
<br />
The usual morphophonological alternations also occur.<br />
<br />
* The final lax vowels that are present in all the endings except '''-Yą''' and '''-Wą''' disappear unless a suffix is added after them. Final '''e''' disappears even if a suffix is added, if that suffix begins with a close vowel.<br />
* If the alternating part is preceded by '''o''' (if the alternating part is non-nasal) or '''a''' (if the alternating part is nasal), then the consonant before the '''o''' or '''a''' is affected by weight harmony and takes on the same weight as the alternating part. These alternating consonants are underlined in the citation forms. Close vowels preceding the alternating part may also be affected by weight harmony, but not all of them; as usual, those that are affected are underlined.<br />
<br />
Determiners are untransformed when they agree with nominative nouns in superclasses 2 or 3, unless they have an additional noun class affix added (see below). Otherwise, they are transformed.<br />
<br />
In addition, determiners, which generally occupy the initial position within an NP, prevent transformation of the following word under certain circumstances, generally when the determiner ends in a vowel. More specifically, transformation is prevented when the alternating part of the determiner is a consonant and the determiner ends in '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with an accusative/dative noun in superclass 2 or 3), or the alternating part of the determiner is a close vowel and the determiner ends in that vowel or '''ą''' (i.e. it agrees with a noun in superclass 2 or 3). Note that this does not include the case where the alternating part of the determiner is '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' and this '''<sup><u>nj</u></sup>''' disappears when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 or 3. In that case, the determiner does end in a vowel but '''h''' is inserted (as usual) to break up the hiatus produced if the following word is transformed.<br />
<br />
As the three other stems of a determiner are deducible from any given stem, there is no need to give all four stems when introducing a new determiner. Instead, by convention, the stem used when the determiner agrees with a nominative noun in superclass 2 (with the ending '''-Y<sup>e</sup>''' or '''-Y''') is given, and the alternating part is underlined.<br />
<br />
Some example determiner declensions are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! re<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup> 'few'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| erdhin<br />
| redh<br />
| rev<br />
| ervedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| erdhąn<br />
| erdhą<br />
| ervą<br />
| ervądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>i</u><u>d</u><sup>e</sup> 'many'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| idin<br />
| id<br />
| ub <br />
| ubedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| idąn<br />
| idą<br />
| ubą<br />
| ubądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <u>ṭ</u>o<u>į</u> 'this'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| choįn<br />
| choį<br />
| ṭoų <br />
| ṭoųdh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| choįąn<br />
| choįą<br />
| ṭoųą<br />
| ṭoųądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! mane<u>r</u><sup>e</sup> ''only'<br />
! Superclass 1<br />
! Superclass 2<br />
! Superclass 3<br />
! Superclass 4<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| amnerin<br />
| maner<br />
| mane<br />
| amnehedh<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
| amnerąn<br />
| manerą<br />
| manehą<br />
| amnehądh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Singular<br />
!colspan="2"| Plural<br />
|-<br />
! inclusive<br />
! exclusive<br />
|-<br />
! First-person<br />
| be<br><br />
ḍã<br />
| seb<sup>e</sup>, sub<sup>e</sup><br><br />
umḍã<br />
| <sup>h</sup>e<u>k</u><sup>o</sup><br><br />
aḍḍã<br />
|-<br />
! Second-person<br />
| süng / se-, se<br><br />
mu<br />
|colspan="2"|ni / ne-<br><br />
ummu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each personal pronoun (except the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''; see below). In each cell, the first form given is used as the stem in the nominative and dative cases, and has the usual nominative and dative case suffixes added after it, while the second form given is the full form in the accusative case; it does not have the usual accusative case suffix added after it. Accordingly, the second form has been given in its transformed form. Note, however, that the second form will not always be transformed, due to preceding determiners. The untransformed forms of '''umḍã''', '''aḍḍã''' and '''ummu''' are '''muḍã''', '''ḍaḍã''' and '''mumu''', respectively.<br />
<br />
The variants '''süng''' / '''se-''' and '''se''' are attested from different Wendoth languages; likewise with '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' and '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''. The two variations are independent; for example, there are many Wendoth languages which show reflexes of '''süng''' / '''se-''' rather than '''se''', but which also show reflexes of '''seb<sup>e</sup>''' rather than '''sub<sup>e</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; noun class affixes serve their purpose in subject and object positions, and demonstratives with an appropriate noun class affix serve their purpose in other positions. There is one more personal pronoun which is not listed in the table above: the reflexive pronoun '''<u>y</u>o'''. This pronoun declines regularly; there is no suppletion in the accusative case as with the other pronouns. It is mainly used as an indirect object or as the object of a postpositional phrase, as the verbal reflexive suffix '''-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' is used for the same purpose to indicate a reflexive object. It can be used as an direct object, along with an agreeing reflexive suffix, for emphasis.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Otnevįsh|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-n<sup>e</sup>-vį-sh<sup>a</sup>|MASC-DETR-do-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zh<sup>a</sup>|eternity-in}}<br />
{{gl|owqį.|<u>y</u>o-qį|REFL-for}}<br />
{{glend|Everything he does is for his own benefit.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Cai,|cai|no}}<br />
{{gl|oįtwangew|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-įwang<sup>e</sup>-<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>|MASC-love-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sing|süng|2p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|''woų''!|<u>y</u>o-<u>į</u>|REFL-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|No, you love ''yourself''!}}<br />
<br />
==== Demonstratives ====<br />
<br />
There are seven different demonstratives, which can be used as both pronouns and determiners.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Noun<br />
! Determiner<br />
|-<br />
| First-person<br />
| <u>ch</u>o, ṭob<sup>e</sup><br />
| <u>ch</u>o<u>į</u>, ṭob<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Second person<br />
| ṭosüng / ṭose-, ṭos<sup>e</sup><br />
| ṭosi<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>, ṭos<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Non-directed<br />
| jhã / jha-<br />
| jh<u>i</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, visible<br />
| va<br />
| va<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Distal, invisible<br />
| xe<br />
| x<u>į</u><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, visible<br />
| vav<sup>a</sup><br />
| vava<u>į</u>, va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|-<br />
| Superdistal, invisible<br />
| xex<sup>e</sup><br />
| xex<u>į</u>, xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The table above gives the underlying forms of each demonstrative pronoun, along with the corresponding determiners (which are given in their citation forms). For the first-person demonstratives, two different forms are attested, one with the suffix '''-b<sup>e</sup>''' (from the first-person singular pronoun), by analogy with the second-person demonstratives, and one without. The second-person demonstrative's two variants correspond to the two variants of the second-person singular pronoun. As for the two variants of the superdistal demonstrative determiners, it is probable that '''va<u>dh</u><sup>e</sup>''' and '''xe<u>c</u><sup>e</sup>''' are the older forms, while '''vava<u>į</u>''' and '''xex<u>į</u>''' are formed by analogy with '''va<u>į</u>''' and '''x<u>į</u>'''.<br />
<br />
The first-person and second-person demonstratives are used to refer to objects close to the speaker and the addressee, respectively. The &lsquo;non-directed&rsquo; demonstrative '''jhã''' / '''jha-'''' is used when it does not make sense to speak of the place of the object referred to. For example, it might be used to refer to the place the speaker and addressee are currently in, or it might be used to refer to a sound coming from an unknown location, or it might be used to refer to an idea or topic of conversation. It can usually be glossed as 'this'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Jhã|jhã|this}}<br />
{{gl|nethoreth!|nethoreth<sup>e</sup>|be_ridiculous}}<br />
{{glend|This is ridiculous! (referring to a general situation)}}<br />
<br />
The two distal demonstratives are used for objects which are removed from both the speaker and addressee, but relatively close, while the superdistal demonstratives are used for objects which are relatively far away. '''va''' and '''vav<sup>e</sup>''' are used for visible objects and '''xe''' and '''xex<sup>e</sup>''' are used for invisible objects.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents. These are added after case suffixes, but before postpositional enclitics. In particular, the demonstrative determiners can sometimes follow, rather than precede, their head noun&mdash;but when they do, they have to take an agreeing noun class suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Interrogatives ====<br />
<br />
There is a single interrogative determiner, '''nda<u>i</u>''', but there are two interrogative pronouns, '''ndai''' and '''ndau''': '''ndai''' 'who' is used to refer to humans and '''ndau''' 'what' is used to refer to non-humans. The interrogatives also function as indefinites in declarative statements; as mentioned above, there are verbal prefixes and suffixes which can be used as indefinite markers, but using the explicit pronouns has the effect of putting the focus on the indefinite element rather than away from it.<br />
<br />
Like the demonstratives, the interrogatives may take noun class suffixes agreeing with their referents.<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth do not appear to have been a very numerate people. Most of the numerals have transparent etymologies, and there appear to have been several variants of quite a few of them. Reconstructing numerals beyond 12 is impossible, and it is likely that these were formed on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<br />
<br />
The numerals are listed below, in their cardinal forms. As cardinal numbers, the numerals are mostly nouns, but the cardinal numerals 1, 2 and 3 also have determiner forms. For the first two numerals, separate ordinal determiners can also be reconstructived. The determiner form of 3 was probably also used as an ordinal. Ordinal numerals higher than 3 cannot be reconstructed.<br />
<br />
# '''mang''' / '''<u>nd</u>o-''' (determiner '''<u>m</u>a<u>n</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''i<u>r</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''', ordinal determiner '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''', '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' (determiner '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>-'''<br />
# '''che(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''ndache(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''chechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''ųįqeche(ge)te<sup>ha</sup>''' ('''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''jot(eh)ajote<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
# '''jo(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# '''che(ge)tate<sup>ha</sup>'''<br />
# ['''ahajabą''' / '''ahaja<u>d</u>o-'''] ('''chechetate<sup>ha</sup>''', '''chetechete<sup>ha</sup>''')<br />
<br />
The forms of the numeral 1 are presumably of ancient origin, as is '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>''' 'second' (which is also used in the sense of 'other'). Influence from the determiner form may be the reason why Pre-Wendoth '''man''' become '''mang''' as a noun rather than the expected '''*ndan'''. <br />
<br />
The cardinal numeral 2, '''ųįq<sup>e</sup>''', shows no relation to '''<u>y</u>o<u>sh</u><sup>e</sup>'''. In fact, it likely originated from a Pre-Wendoth word '''ʔeʔeku''', which was reduplicated from a root, '''ʔeku''', meaning 'finger'. We also see this root in '''nguįq<sup>e</sup>''' 'be cunning, clever' (< PW '''ŋun-ʔeku''' 'use the finger'), although no trace of it survives otherwise (the word for 'finger' in Wendoth is '''įau''', which is a compound formed from '''į-''', the secondary stem of '''įą''' 'hand', and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end'). The determiner form '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' fell out of use in most of the Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
The two forms '''ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>''' and '''ndoųįq<sup>e</sup>''' of the cardinal numeral 3 both originate from compounds of the numerals for one and two. In Pre-Wendoth, such a compound would have looked like '''man-ʔeʔeku'''. But it seems that the '''n-ʔ''' cluster was simplified to either '''n''' or '''ʔ''' in different dialects, accounting for the two forms. It seems also that the determiner form of 3 was formed in an entirely different way, by appending the '''che-''' prefix to '''ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>'''. Perhaps '''ch(eg)ųįq<sup>e</sup>''' was once another variant of the cardinal numeral 3, but no trace of it survives. In every Wendoth language in which the form '''ch(eg)ųį<u>k</u><sup>e</sup>''' survives, it has come to be used exclusively in the ordinal sense.<br />
<br />
The numeral 5, '''tehą / te<sup>ha</sup>''' 'five', is identical with the word for 'fist' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''), and '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' 'ten' seems to originate from a reduplication of the same word. Presumably '''tate<sup>ha</sup>''' was once a Type II noun with the primary stem '''tatehą''', but the primary stem fell out of use and it became a Type I noun. As for the numeral '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' 'twelve', it is of unknown origin. But in some languages its meaning is 'one hundred', which suggests that 'twelve' may be a anachronistic reconstruction&mdash;it probably originally just meant 'a large quantity'.<br />
<br />
The other numerals are formed from compounds. Some of these make use of the verbs '''<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'precede' and '''ch<sup>e</sup>''' 'succeed'. These verbs in their plain forms are obselete in Wendoth, having been replaced by forms with the verb '''g<sup>e</sup>''' compounded on the end&mdash;'''jog<sup>e</sup>''' '''cheg<sup>e</sup>'''&mdash;and many of the Wendoth languages have inserted '''-g<sup>e</sup>''' into at least some of these numerals accordingly. The secondary stem '''te<sup>ha</sup>''' for 'five' is used in these compounds (as is typical for the compounds in Wendoth of more ancient origin).<br />
<br />
In some Wendoth languages, the '''jo-''' and ''che-''' prefixes are added twice to form the numerals for 7, 8 and/or 12. This must be of recent origin, because the '''jo-''' prefix is unaffected by weight harmony: PW '''ɣaɣapepeŋo''' would result in '''*<sup>h</sup>ojotate<sup>ha</sup>''' rather than '''jojotate<sup>ha</sup>'''. Other languages have formed the forms for 8 and 12 by reduplicating the forms for 4 and 6, resulting in '''jotehajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetehachete<sup>ha</sup>''', which were then simplified to '''jotajote<sup>ha</sup>''' and '''chetachete<sup>ha</sup>''' (the loss of a sequence of the form '''Vh''' is attested in a few other compounds, such as '''kejazang''' 'cattle', which was originally '''kejazohang''' < PW '''kiɣa-zo ran''' 'kept aurochs'). More commonly, though, the numerals for 7 and 8 were simply formed as additive compounds (with the smaller numeral preceding the larger one), and '''<sup>h</sup>ahajabą''' was used for the numeral 12.<br />
<br />
Apart from the first three, the cardinal numerals are morphologically nouns, not determiners (and in most of the Wendoth languages, the determiner forms of the numerals 2 and 3 fell out of use as well). But, uniquely among nouns, numerals can be used as modifiers in NPs. When used as such, they follow their head noun (rather than preceding it, as determiners do) and take case suffixes agreeing with the head.<br />
<br />
{{gl|acauų|acau-<u>į</u>|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ndanaįqų|ndanaįq<sup>e</sup>-<u>į</u>|three-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|three men (acc.)}}<br />
<br />
As the demonstratives and interrogatives were also capable of following their head noun, although they had to take an agreeing noun class suffix, we see in some of the Wendoth languages that the two classes have influenced each other, so that numerals come to require noun class suffixes agreeing with their head nouns, or demonstratives take case suffixes rather than the special determiner agreement suffixes, as if they were ordinary nouns.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Each verb in Wendoth has a primary stem, used in the non-past tense, and a secondary stem, used in the non-past tense. Finite verbs take additional suffixes marking for mood (indicative vs. subjunctive, subjunctive being the marked mood) and, for some verbs, aspect (specific vs. generic, generic being the marked mood). They can also, optionally, take noun class affixes to agree with their arguments (prefixes agree with subjects, suffixes agree with objects); the noun class suffixes follow the subjunctive and generic suffixes if present. Finally, there are a few verbal enclitics which follow the noun class suffixes and are used for misellaneous purposes: negation, imperatives, etc.<br />
<br />
Verbs are transformed whenever an affix is added (which might be a noun class affix or the subjunctive or generic marker), but not necessarily when an enclitic is added, or when the secondary stem is used rather than the primary stem.<br />
<br />
Verbs may be intransitive, monotransitive or ditransitive. Some monotransitive verbs take their object in the dative case, such as '''kaų<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'wash'. These dative objects can still be considered indirect objects, because it is impossible to add a noun class suffix to a verb to agree with its dative object. Noun class suffixes can only agree with objects in the accusative case.<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
<br />
Just like nouns, based on the relation between the primary and secondary stem, verbs can be classified into three kinds.<br />
<br />
===== Type I verbs =====<br />
<br />
Type I verbs, which comprise the majority of verbs, have a primary stem that ends in a lax vowel or close vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in a lax vowel are of Type I, but some verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type II.<br />
<br />
For Type I verbs, in the secondary stem, the final vowel is mutated, and either '''<sup>nj</sup>''' or '''<sup>h</sup>''' is usually added to the end of the stem. The secondary stem can be regularly derived from the primary stem.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''į''', '''i''' or a light consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>nj</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a heavy consonant followed by a lax vowel, then '''<sup>h</sup>''' is added to the end in the secondary stem (and the final lax vowel, if present, is mutated).<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''ų''' or '''u''', then the secondary stem is exactly the same as the primary stem, so the past and present tenses are not distinguished for these verbs.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in '''<u>į</u>''' or '''<u>i</u>''', then the secondary stem has non-alternating '''į''' or '''i''' instead and has '''<sup>nj</sup>''' added afterwards.<br />
<br />
In general, however, the distinction between which of the two consonants are added is irrelevant, because both '''<sup>nj</sup>''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' disappear word-finally and before consonants, leaving only the mutation of the final lax vowel to differentiate the two stems. The only time the distinction is relevant is when a suffix beginning with a close vowel (one of the noun class suffixes '''-i''' or '''-į''', the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''', or the possessive suffix '''-į''') is added to the secondary stem, in which case '''<sup>nj</sup>''' appears as '''nj''' and '''<sup>h</sup>''' appears as '''h''' (or disappears, if a tense vowel precedes it).<br />
<br />
Note that if the primary stem ends in '''e''', and the consonant preceding the '''e''' is not labial, the mutation in the secondary stem turns this '''e''' into '''ü''', which is realised as '''i''' most of the time but as '''u''' if a suffix is added to the secondary stem which begins with a labial consonant, i.e. one of the noun class suffixes '''-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>''' and '''-<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' (if they are not followed by a light syllable) and '''-b<u>į</u>''', or the dative suffix '''-m<sup>a</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''per<sup>e</sup>''' 'be under' has the secondary stem '''perü<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''qawang<sup>e</sup>''' 'explore' has the secondary stem '''qawangü'''.<br />
* '''uzhec<sup>a</sup>''' 'travel' has the secondary stem '''uzhece<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ṭase<u>q</u>a''' 'wear' has the secondary stem '''ṭaseha<sup>h</sup>'''.<br />
* '''veqe<u>y</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be cold' has the secondary stem '''veqeya<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''cuį''' 'lack' has the secondary stem '''cuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndotau''' 'be cruel' has the secondary stem '''ndopau'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>ųm<u>į</u>''' 'push' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>ųmį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
==== Type II verbs ====<br />
<br />
Type II verbs have a primary stem that ends in an underlying tense vowel. All verbs with a primary stem ending in '''ą''' or '''ã''' are of Type II, but most verbs with a primary stem ending in a close vowel are of Type I rather than Type II. <br />
<br />
For Type II verbs, in the secondary stem, the final tense vowel of the primary stem is replaced with a different vowel (whose quality is usually unpredictable, so that it is necessary to memorise both stems) and a suffix is added: '''-į<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''ą''' and '''-i<sup>nj</sup>''' if the primary stem ends in '''ã'''. It is possible to make some generalisations about which vowel will replace the final tense vowel.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel, this final close vowel simply disappears.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a close vowel followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel disappears, and if the preceding close vowel is '''į''' or '''i''', it will change into '''ų''' or '''u'''.<br />
* If the primary stem ends in a consonant followed by an open tense vowel, the final open tense vowel is replaced by a lax vowel, which is always either '''a''' or '''o'''. It is always replaced by '''a''' if the preceding consonant is light, but if the preceding consonant is heavy it may be replaced by either. If it is replaced by '''o''', then the preceding heavy consonant will change into its light counterpart in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''megį''' 'take' has the secondary stem '''megį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''uįqu''' 'split' has the secondary stem '''uįqi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''unjã''' 'make dirty' has the secondary stem '''unjai<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ndųbą''' 'bend' has the secondary stem '''ndųbaį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''yehą''' 'be dead' has the secondary stem '''yegoį<sup>nj</sup>'''<br />
* '''iã''' 'be above' has the secondary stem '''ui<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''dhįuą''' 'be in pain' has the secondary stem '''dhįuį<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
* '''ḍoųã''' 'crush, grind' has the secondary stem '''ḍoųi<sup>nj</sup>'''.<br />
<br />
===== Type III verbs =====<br />
<br />
All verbs with primary stems that end in underlying nasals or '''h''' are of Type III; the Type III verbs also include some verbs whose primary stems end in close vowels which originally ended in '''h'''.<br />
<br />
For Type III verbs, in the secondary stem, the final nasal, '''h''' or zero of the primary stem is replaced by a suffix '''-u''', and the preceding vowel is &lsquo;un-mutated&rsquo;:<br />
* '''a''' in the primary stem becomes '''o''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''e''' in the primary stem becomes '''a''' in the secondary stem.<br />
* '''ü''' in the primary stem becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem and then disappears due to the following close vowel '''u'''.<br />
* '''u''' in the primary stem sometimes becomes '''e''' in the secondary stem, too, but it is also possible for it to remain unchanged in the secondary stem. It always remains unchanged in the secondary stem if it is not preceded by a labial consonant.<br />
* '''į''', '''i''' and '''ų''' in the primary stem remain unchanged in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
If the vowel before the final nasal is '''a''', the preceding weighted phoneme will always be light, and in the secondary stem, when the vowel is changed to '''o''' and '''u''' is added after it, this weighted phoneme will change into its heavy counterpart due to weight harmony. Similarly, if the vowel before the final nasal is '''į''' or '''i''', it sometimes (but not always) changes into '''ų''' or '''u''', due to weight harmony, in the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ḍaxendam''' 'lie down' has the secondary stem '''ḍaxemou'''.<br />
* '''nojem''' 'suck' has the secondary stem '''nojau'''.<br />
* '''ngozhebe<sup>h</sup>''' 'squeeze' has the secondary stem '''ngozhebau'''.<br />
* '''gemahüng''' 'enjoy' has the secondary stem '''gemahu'''.<br />
* '''shehumu''' 'bring' has the secondary stem '''shehumu'''.<br />
* '''chį<sup>nj</sup>''' 'remember' has the secondary stem '''chįu'''.<br />
* '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'touch' has the secondary stem '''<sup>h</sup>auu'''.<br />
* '''cedhing''' 'lift' has the secondary stem '''cedhuu'''.<br />
<br />
==== Aspect and mood ====<br />
<br />
The subjunctive suffix is '''-q<sup>a</sup>''', and the generic suffix is '''-sh<sup>a</sup>'''. If both suffixes are added, the generic suffix precedes the subjunctive suffix. Apart from the usual morphophonological alternations (the final '''a'''s of both suffixes disappear when no extra suffix is added), there are no complications in adding these suffixes.<br />
<br />
Many verbs cannot have the generic suffix added to them. These verbs can be considered stative verbs, while the other verbs are considered dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be thought of as being generic by default. They often correspond to adjectives in English, e.g. '''rauį''' 'be red', '''faį<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'be asleep'. Often, a stative verb has a dynamic counterpart with a distinct root, e.g. '''į<u>j</u><sup>o</sup>''' 'sleep'. Dynamic verbs can also be derived from stative verbs using the inceptive prefix '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and the cessative prefix '''<sup>h</sup>au-'''.<br />
<br />
==== Derivation ====<br />
<br />
===== The verbal noun =====<br />
<br />
Every verb can also be nominalised to form a verbal noun by simply taking the stem and inflecting it as a noun; there is no nominalising morpheme which needs to be added. Both the primary and second stem can be used, and the subjunctive or generic suffixes may be present, so the verbal noun is inflected for tense, aspect and mood. This is a fully productive process, more morphological than derivational. The type of the verb and the verbal noun align: that is, a Type I verb nominalises as a Type I noun, a Type II verb nominalises as a Type II noun, and a Type III verb nominalises as a Type III noun.<br />
<br />
The class of the nominalised verb is usually the '''ḍa<u>r</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, but sometimes it is the '''<u>nd</u><sup>o</sup>''' class, depending on the meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
There are also quite a few nominalising suffixes which are used for more specialised kinds of nominalisation; these are listed in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
===== Inceptives and cessatives =====<br />
<br />
The rather similar prefixes '''<sup>h</sup>ou-''' and '''<sup>h</sup>au-''', derived from the verbs '''<sup>h</sup>ou''' 'begin' and '''<sup>h</sup>au''' 'end', are used to indicate inceptive and cessative aspect, respectively. The resulting verb is always dynamic.<br />
<br />
===== Causatives =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ų-''' is used to form causatives. If an intransitive verb has the meaning &lsquo;to ''X''&rsquo;, then adding '''ų-''' to it gives it the new meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X''&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes a dative object, which is the causee, while its subject is the causer. The causee has to be an agent capable of volition. Similarly, if the verb is transitive, adding '''ų-''' results in the meaning &lsquo;to make sbd. (dat.) ''X'' sth./sbd. (acc.)&rsquo;. That is, the derived causative verb takes the causer as its subject, the causee as its indirect object and the object of the caused action as its direct object. However, any noun class suffix added to the derived verb agrees with the indirect object (the causee), rather than the indirect object.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpning|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-ning<sup>e</sup>|MASC-CAUS-cry}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭmap.|<u>ch</u><sup>o</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>-<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>|this-DAT-MASC}}<br />
{{glend|I made him cry.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oųpqahen|<u>t</u><sup>o</sup>-ų-qahen<sup>a</sup>|MASC-CAUS-help}}<br />
{{gl|b'|be|1p.SG}}<br />
{{gl|aṭrem|ṭar<sup>a</sup>-m<sup>a</sup>|brother-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|mundaų.|mund<sup>a</sup>-<u>į</u>|mother-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I made my little brother help his mother.}}<br />
<br />
===== Intransitivisation =====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''ne-''' is an intransitivising prefix. It is less productive than the other derivational methods mentioned in this section, but it is still reasonably productive. Many verbs with '''ne-''' added have become independent lexical stems and drifted in meaning from the original verb; for example, we have '''thareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'annoy, bother, frustrate' but '''nethareth<sup>e</sup>''' 'be foolish, silly, ridiculous'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shu aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb reshem įwanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|hou-yehą-sha|start-be_dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|hou-yehą-sha|start-be_dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shu|shu|time}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|tha-sha|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|au-Į-ta|stop-ACC-to}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųnina|all.NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mangedha-mo|one.NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|asfą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zha|eternity-from}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą|yehą|be_dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|reshem|rem-sha-mo|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įwanum|įwe-nu-ma|good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/Historical_phonologyWendoth/Historical phonology2015-04-18T12:57:52Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>The sound changes that [[Pre-Wendoth]] underwent during the development into [[Wendoth]] are listed below.<br />
<br />
== Palatalisation and velarisation ==<br />
<br />
Cconsonants before front vowels, or in a syllable coda following a front vowel, were allophonically palatalised, and consonants before back vowels, or in a syllable coda following a back vowel, were allophonically velarised (except for those which were already velar). Before '''a''', or in the syllable coda after '''a''', a consonant was either palatalised or velarised, depending on what came after the '''a'''.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a single consonant, which was in turn followed by a front vowel, then the consonant was palatalised.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a word boundary, or a single consonant followed by a back vowel or a word boundary, then the consonant was velarised.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a coda nasal, the consonant before it and the coda nasal were both generally palatalised; c.f. '''tau<sup>nj</sup>''' 'heart' (< PW '''pehaŋ'''). There is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one' (< PW '''man''').<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a coda laryngeal, the consonant before it was velarised. Presumably the coda laryngeal was velarised along with it, but coda laryngeals did not differ in their Wendoth reflexes depending on whether they were palatalised or velarised, so the distinction is irrelevant.<br />
<br />
Following this change, the contrast between front and back vowels became redundant, so '''i''' and '''u''' merged as '''ɨ''' and '''e''' and '''o''' merged as '''ə'''.<br />
<br />
This change would have left the language with a highly unusual vowel system. It is therefore likely that it co-occured with the vocalisation of the palatalised and velarised laryngeals (themselves highly unusual and unstable segments), which introduced four new close vowels '''ḭ''', '''i̤''', '''ṵ''' and '''ṳ''' into the language. These four vowels were the reflexes of palatalised '''ʔ''', palatalised '''ɦ''', velarised '''ʔ''' and velarised '''ɦ''' respectively in syllable onsets. That is, palatalised laryngeals became front vowels and velarised laryngeals became back vowels, and reflexes of '''ʔ''' were creaky-voiced and reflexes of '''ɦ''' were breathy-voiced. Vowels following laryngeals in syllable onsets were also deleted. It is quite likely that this deletion occured simultaneously with the vocalisation of the laryngeals, so that what really happened was a coalescence of laryngeals with the following vowel.<br />
<br />
Laryngeals in syllable codas after '''i''' and '''u''' (as long as another laryngeal did not precede the '''i''' or '''u''') developed in pretty much the same way: '''iʔ''', '''iɦ''', '''uʔ''', and '''uɦ''' became '''ḭ''', '''i̤''', '''ṵ''' and '''ṳ''', respectively. However, in syllable codas after '''e''', '''o''' and '''a''', as well as '''i''' and '''u''' when they were preceded by laryngeals, a quite different development took place: the syllable rhymes '''iʔ''', '''uʔ''', '''eʔ''', '''oʔ''' and '''aʔ''' merged as '''a̰''' and the syllable rhymes '''iɦ''', '''uɦ''', '''eɦ''', '''oɦ''' and '''aɦ''' merged as '''a̤'''. When the onset of the syllable was a laryngeal, the laryngeal vocalised to a high vowel as well, without deleting the following '''a̰''' or '''a̤'''; c.f. '''įą''' 'hand, foot, arm, leg' (< PW '''ʔiʔ'''). It is possible that the laryngeals had pharyngeal allophones in syllable codas, which would account for this lowering of '''e''' and '''o'''. <br />
<br />
The close vowels introduced by onset laryngeal vocalisation often occured after vowels. In fact, they always did except in the case where they were word-initial. It was therefore natural for preceding '''ɨ''' to be deleted. After lax vowels, they formed diphthongs, '''əḭ''', '''əi̤''', '''əṵ''', '''əṳ''', '''aḭ''', '''ai̤''', '''aṵ''' and '''aṳ''', which were pronounced as single syllables. The initial segment in each of these diphthongs acquired the same phonation as the final segment, although it is not written in these transcriptions. After other tense vowels, they did not form diphthongs; the two vowels were pronounced in hiatus, and belonged to separate syllables. This was the case even when the preceding vowel was '''a̰''' or '''a̤'''. Often, '''ʔ''' (after creaky-voiced vowels) and '''ɦ''' (after breathy-voiced vowels) were re-inserted to break up these hiatuses. Where two intramorphemic vowels in hiatus were identical in quality, the initial one was often backed or fronted to dissimilate it: c.f. '''iuk<sup>a</sup>''' 'crack' (< PW '''ɦuɦoke'''). But this did not occur across morpheme boundaries (or it was levelled out by analogy); for example, adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' (< PW '''-ʔe''') after the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' (< PW '''-ʔa''') produces the seqence '''-įį''', rather than '''-ųį'''.<br />
<br />
== Nasalisation ==<br />
<br />
Now that the coda laryngeals were gone, the coda nasals were also deleted, although only before consonants, not word-finally. Their former presence was, however, betrayed by nasalisation of the preceding vowel. Vowels before non-deleted nasals were also nasalised. Tense vowels (i.e. vowels with creaky or breathy voice) were probably nasalised too, but they did not develop in any distinctive way and their nasalisation was eventually lost, so it is possible that they escaped nasalisation. The nasalisation did not extend to the initial segements of diphthongs; only the final segment was nasalised, if it was nasalised at all.<br />
<br />
Over time, the nasalised and non-nasalised lax vowels (i.e. vowels with modal voice) started to acquire different qualities. First, nasalised '''ã''' became front '''æ̃''' and non-nasalised '''a''' became back '''ɑ'''. '''a̰''' or '''a̤''' were unaffected; it is likely that before this change occured, these two vowels had already differentiated in quality, becoming '''æ̰''' and '''ɑ̤''', respectively.<br />
<br />
Following the differentiation of the open vowels, non-nasalised '''ə''' moved into the empty space for an open central vowel, becoming '''a'''. In turn, non-nasalised '''ɨ''' became '''ə'''. These two vowels retained their original pronunciations when nasalised.<br />
<br />
The contrast between '''a''' and '''ɑ''' was uncomfortably close, so, not long after this change, '''ɑ''' started to be raised and rounded, eventually acquiring its final pronunciation as '''o'''. In turn, '''æ̃''' returned to its old pronunciation as '''ã''' and was denasalised, merging with '''a''' resulting from former non-nasalised '''ə'''. Likewise, '''ə̃''' was denasalised, merging with '''ə''' resulting from former non-nasalised '''ɨ'''. As for '''ɨ̃''', it ended up merging with '''ṳ''' adjacent to ''velarised'' PW labials (i.e. Wendoth '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''') and '''i̤''' elsewhere. Nasalised tense vowels must also have been de-nasalised, if they were nasalised at any time.<br />
<br />
Due to the fact that '''ɨ̃''' merged with '''ṳ''' only adjacent to the velarised PW labials, the palatalised PW labials must have already developed into dentals before this final change occured. In fact, the differentiation in quality of the nasalised and non-nasalised vowels probably followed the loss of word-final vowels, due to the fact that the effects of the vowel shift is seen in transformed forms.<br />
<br />
== Early consonant shifts ==<br />
<br />
The shift of the palatalised labials into palatalised dentals most likely occured due to the development of the palatal secondary articulation into a fully-articulated '''j''' after labials, which later assimilated to the preceding consonant. The shift of '''pj''' and '''bj''' to '''pt̪ʲ''' and '''bd̪ʲ''' is attested from Greek, although the shift of '''fj''' and ''vj''' to '''fʲθ''' and '''vʲð'' may be less plausible. But once these shifts occured, it would have been natural for the initial elements of these clusters to be dropped. This explanation has the advantage of explaining the pecularities in the development of '''m'''. First, word-final palatalised PW '''m''' seems to have developed into Wendoth '''m''', as if it were velarised PW '''m'''. C.f. the noun class suffix '''-cum''' (< PW '''xim'''). This is easily explained: word-final '''j''' would have been deleted, or never developed, after a consonant. Secondly, when not word-final, '''mʲ''' did not develop into '''n̪ʲ'''; instead, it developed into a prenasalised stop '''n̪d̪ʲ'''. What seems to have happened here is that the cluster '''mj''' underwent a natural epenthesis and became '''mbj''', and then developed as usual into '''md̪ʲ''', with the nasal then assimilating to the following '''d̪ʲ'''.<br />
<br />
However the shift occured, earlier '''tʲ''' and '''dʲ''', originating from palatalised PW '''t''' and '''d''', must have become affricates '''tsʲ''' and '''dzʲ''' some time before it was completed, so that they remained distinct from palatalised PW '''p''' and '''b'''.<br />
<br />
At some point, the non-palatalised velar obstruents acquired uvular pronunciations. '''rˠ''' also merged with '''ʁ''', probably via '''ʀ''' for a short time, while '''rʲ''' lost its palatalisation. '''ŋ''' may also have shifted to '''ɴ''', but, since '''ɴ''' is a very uncommon sound, it was probably not long before this '''ɴ''' was elided after vowels (leaving nasalisation behind) and turned back to '''ŋ''' elsewhere. However, it seems that the changes that produced the process of transformation occured before elision of '''ɴ'''.<br />
<br />
== Word-final vowel loss ==<br />
<br />
The lax vowels, '''ɨ''', '''ə''' and '''a''', disappeared word-finally when unstressed (i.e. when not the only vowel in a word). This was a fairly drastic change in the syllable structure for a language which had almost exclusively CV syllables up to this point. For some time, word-final lax vowels remained in the underlying representations of words, and resurfaced as sandhi in connected speech when a word beginning with a consonant followed. There were, of course, some words which had always had a nasal at the end, like '''sɨ̃nˠ''' 'thou' (< PW '''sun'''). The sandhi was generalised to apply to these words as well; as there was no vowel in the underlying representation to choose to append after these words, the vowel in the initial syllable of the following syllable was chosen (if it was a diphthong, the full diphthong was used). So, for example, when '''sɨ̃nˠ''' was put before the word '''lˠəṳnˠ''' 'lie' (< PW '''pa-loɦun''') the resulting sentence meaning 'thou liest' was pronounced '''sɨ̃nˠəṳlˠəṳnˠ'''.<br />
<br />
As speakers started to forget the underlying word-final lax vowels, this pattern was eventually generalised to apply all words ending in a consonant, so that whenever a word ending in a consonant preceded a connected word beginning with a consonant, the initial vowel of the latter word was inserted between the two words. But some time afterwards, another syncope took place which deleted vowels in initial unstressed syllables when there were single consonants adjacent to vowels on either side of them. The result was that words with two or more syllables, in which the first two were of the form CVCV (i.e. all non-monosyllabic words except for those beginning with close vowels, and loanwords like '''nordan''' 'bow'), when they occured after a connected word ending in a consonant, had their initial syllable metathesised to one of the form CV. For example putting '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴ''' 'she is young' in front of '''θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲaṵ''' 'woman (acc.)' produced a phrase 'young woman (acc.)' pronounced '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴi̤θn̪ʲd̪ʲaṵ'''. As the rule was reinterpreted as one of metathesis rather than epenthesis, the insertion of vowels before monosyllabic words stopped taking place, so that 'young woman (nom.)' was again pronounced '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴθi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ''' rather than '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴi̤θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ'''.<br />
<br />
For monosyllabic words like '''θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ''' 'woman', the result was that the initial syllable of the word was usually metathesised when a suffix was added, making the word non-monosyllabic, but not metathesised in the unmarked form where no suffix was added. In the end, this came to be generalised to apply to non-monosyllabic roots, and the phonological conditioning of the change changed to a mostly morphological one. This was the origin of the process of [[Wendoth#Transformation|transformation]] in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
By these changes, all Wendoth words had come to bear their stress on the final syllable. Sometime afterwards, the stress was shifted to the first preceding tense vowel if it was originally on a lax vowel, resulting in the stress assignment pattern observed in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
== Later consonant shifts ==<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, '''ɴ''' was elided after vowels and turned into '''ŋ''' after consonants and word boundaries. '''ŋʲ''' also seems to have been elided, but only word-finally. The other uvulars were also reduced in distribution. The voiced uvular obstruents '''ɢ''' and '''ʁ''' were devoiced word-finally (this occured after the loss of word-final lax vowels). Elsewhere, they merged as '''ʁ''', and '''ʁ''' was then deleted word-initially and after close vowels. In the end, only three uvular consonants, '''q''', '''χ''' and '''ʁ''', remained, with '''ʁ''' only occuring intervocalically after non-close vowels and adjacent to consonants.<br />
<br />
'''ʁ''' was also inserted to break up hiatuses which had resulted from the loss of '''ɴ''' in which the first vowel was lax; c.f. '''tehą''' 'five' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''). In fact, it was also inserted to break up these hiatuses when they occured across word boundaries, too, even when the second word began with a close vowel and had never historically began with '''ʁ'''. Note that hiatuses consising of an open tense vowel followed by another vowel were still permitted.<br />
<br />
Sometime after the elision of '''ɴ''' and '''ŋʲ''', '''nˠ''' merged with '''ŋ''', so that '''ŋ''' once again occured after vowels. This must have occured after the elisions, because it would be unusual for '''ŋʲ''' and '''ɴ''' to be elided but not '''ŋ'''.<br />
<br />
Finally, at some time (it could have been at any time) '''lʲ''' and '''lˠ''' became semivowels '''j''' and '''w''', respectively, in syllable onsets when not adjacent to a close vowel.</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/Historical_phonologyWendoth/Historical phonology2015-04-18T12:38:39Z<p>Alces: Created page with "The sound changes that Pre-Wendoth underwent during the development into Wendoth are listed below. == Palatalisation and velarisation == Cconsonants before front vow..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The sound changes that [[Pre-Wendoth]] underwent during the development into [[Wendoth]] are listed below.<br />
<br />
== Palatalisation and velarisation ==<br />
<br />
Cconsonants before front vowels, or in a syllable coda following a front vowel, were allophonically palatalised, and consonants before back vowels, or in a syllable coda following a back vowel, were allophonically velarised (except for those which were already velar). Before '''a''', or in the syllable coda after '''a''', a consonant was either palatalised or velarised, depending on what came after the '''a'''.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a single consonant, which was in turn followed by a front vowel, then the consonant was palatalised.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a word boundary, or a single consonant followed by a back vowel or a word boundary, then the consonant was velarised.<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a coda nasal, the consonant before it and the coda nasal were both generally palatalised; c.f. '''tau<sup>nj</sup>''' 'heart' (< PW '''pehaŋ'''). There is a single exception: '''mang''' 'one' (< PW '''man''').<br />
* If the '''a''' was followed by a coda laryngeal, the consonant before it was velarised. Presumably the coda laryngeal was velarised along with it, but coda laryngeals did not differ in their Wendoth reflexes depending on whether they were palatalised or velarised, so the distinction is irrelevant.<br />
<br />
Following this change, the contrast between front and back vowels became redundant, so '''i''' and '''u''' merged as '''ɨ''' and '''e''' and '''o''' merged as '''ə'''.<br />
<br />
This change would have left the language with a highly unusual vowel system. It is therefore likely that it co-occured with the vocalisation of the palatalised and velarised laryngeals (themselves highly unusual and unstable segments), which introduced four new close vowels '''ḭ''', '''i̤''', '''ṵ''' and '''ṳ''' into the language. These four vowels were the reflexes of palatalised '''ʔ''', palatalised '''ɦ''', velarised '''ʔ''' and velarised '''ɦ''' respectively in syllable onsets. That is, palatalised laryngeals became front vowels and velarised laryngeals became back vowels, and reflexes of '''ʔ''' were creaky-voiced and reflexes of '''ɦ''' were breathy-voiced. Vowels following laryngeals in syllable onsets were also deleted. It is quite likely that this deletion occured simultaneously with the vocalisation of the laryngeals, so that what really happened was a coalescence of laryngeals with the following vowel.<br />
<br />
Laryngeals in syllable codas after '''i''' and '''u''' (as long as another laryngeal did not precede the '''i''' or '''u''') developed in pretty much the same way: '''iʔ''', '''iɦ''', '''uʔ''', and '''uɦ''' became '''ḭ''', '''i̤''', '''ṵ''' and '''ṳ''', respectively. However, in syllable codas after '''e''', '''o''' and '''a''', as well as '''i''' and '''u''' when they were preceded by laryngeals, a quite different development took place: the syllable rhymes '''iʔ''', '''uʔ''', '''eʔ''', '''oʔ''' and '''aʔ''' merged as '''a̰''' and the syllable rhymes '''iɦ''', '''uɦ''', '''eɦ''', '''oɦ''' and '''aɦ''' merged as '''a̤'''. When the onset of the syllable was a laryngeal, the laryngeal vocalised to a high vowel as well, without deleting the following '''a̰''' or '''a̤'''; c.f. '''įą''' 'hand, foot, arm, leg' (< PW '''ʔiʔ'''). It is possible that the laryngeals had pharyngeal allophones in syllable codas, which would account for this lowering of '''e''' and '''o'''. <br />
<br />
The close vowels introduced by onset laryngeal vocalisation often occured after vowels. In fact, they always did except in the case where they were word-initial. It was therefore natural for preceding '''ɨ''' to be deleted. After lax vowels, they formed diphthongs, '''əḭ''', '''əi̤''', '''əṵ''', '''əṳ''', '''aḭ''', '''ai̤''', '''aṵ''' and '''aṳ''', which were pronounced as single syllables. The initial segment in each of these diphthongs acquired the same phonation as the final segment, although it is not written in these transcriptions. After other tense vowels, they did not form diphthongs; the two vowels were pronounced in hiatus, and belonged to separate syllables. This was the case even when the preceding vowel was '''a̰''' or '''a̤'''. Often, '''ʔ''' (after creaky-voiced vowels) and '''ɦ''' (after breathy-voiced vowels) were re-inserted to break up these hiatuses. Where two intramorphemic vowels in hiatus were identical in quality, the initial one was often backed or fronted to dissimilate it: c.f. '''iuk<sup>a</sup>''' 'crack' (< PW '''ɦuɦoke'''). But this did not occur across morpheme boundaries (or it was levelled out by analogy); for example, adding the possessive suffix '''-į''' (< PW '''-ʔe''') after the accusative suffix '''-<u>į</u>''' (< PW '''-ʔa''') produces the seqence '''-įį''', rather than '''-ųį'''.<br />
<br />
== Nasalisation ==<br />
<br />
Now that the coda laryngeals were gone, the coda nasals were also deleted, although only before consonants, not word-finally. Their former presence was, however, betrayed by nasalisation of the preceding vowel. Vowels before non-deleted nasals were also nasalised. Tense vowels (i.e. vowels with creaky or breathy voice) were probably nasalised too, but they did not develop in any distinctive way and their nasalisation was eventually lost, so it is possible that they escaped nasalisation. The nasalisation did not extend to the initial segements of diphthongs; only the final segment was nasalised, if it was nasalised at all.<br />
<br />
Over time, the nasalised and non-nasalised lax vowels (i.e. vowels with modal voice) started to acquire different qualities. First, nasalised '''ã''' became front '''æ̃''' and non-nasalised '''a''' became back '''ɑ'''. '''a̰''' or '''a̤''' were unaffected; it is likely that before this change occured, these two vowels had already differentiated in quality, becoming '''æ̰''' and '''ɑ̤''', respectively.<br />
<br />
Following the differentiation of the open vowels, non-nasalised '''ə''' moved into the empty space for an open central vowel, becoming '''a'''. In turn, non-nasalised '''ɨ''' became '''ə'''. These two vowels retained their original pronunciations when nasalised.<br />
<br />
The contrast between '''a''' and '''ɑ''' was uncomfortably close, so, not long after this change, '''ɑ''' started to be raised and rounded, eventually acquiring its final pronunciation as '''o'''. In turn, '''æ̃''' returned to its old pronunciation as '''ã''' and was denasalised, merging with '''a''' resulting from former non-nasalised '''ə'''. Likewise, '''ə̃''' was denasalised, merging with '''ə''' resulting from former non-nasalised '''ɨ'''. As for '''ɨ̃''', it ended up merging with '''ṳ''' adjacent to ''velarised'' PW labials (i.e. Wendoth '''m''', '''p''', '''b''', '''f''' and '''v''') and '''i̤''' elsewhere. Nasalised tense vowels must also have been de-nasalised, if they were nasalised at any time.<br />
<br />
Due to the fact that '''ɨ̃''' merged with '''ṳ''' only adjacent to the velarised PW labials, the palatalised PW labials must have already developed into dentals before this final change occured. In fact, the differentiation in quality of the nasalised and non-nasalised vowels probably followed the loss of word-final vowels, due to the fact that the effects of the vowel shift is seen in transformed forms.<br />
<br />
== Early consonant shifts ==<br />
<br />
The shift of the palatalised labials into palatalised dentals most likely occured due to the development of the palatal secondary articulation into a fully-articulated '''j''' after labials, which later assimilated to the preceding consonant. The shift of '''pj''' and '''bj''' to '''pt̪ʲ''' and '''bd̪ʲ''' is attested from Greek, although the shift of '''fj''' and ''vj''' to '''fʲθ''' and '''vʲð'' may be less plausible. But once these shifts occured, it would have been natural for the initial elements of these clusters to be dropped. This explanation has the advantage of explaining the pecularities in the development of '''m'''. First, word-final palatalised PW '''m''' seems to have developed into Wendoth '''m''', as if it were velarised PW '''m'''. C.f. the noun class suffix '''-cum''' (< PW '''xim'''). This is easily explained: word-final '''j''' would have been deleted, or never developed, after a consonant. Secondly, when not word-final, '''mʲ''' did not develop into '''n̪ʲ'''; instead, it developed into a prenasalised stop '''n̪d̪ʲ'''. What seems to have happened here is that the cluster '''mj''' underwent a natural epenthesis and became '''mbj''', and then developed as usual into '''md̪ʲ''', with the nasal then assimilating to the following '''d̪ʲ'''.<br />
<br />
However the shift occured, earlier '''tʲ''' and '''dʲ''', originating from palatalised PW '''t''' and '''d''', must have become affricates '''tsʲ''' and '''dzʲ''' some time before it was completed, so that they remained distinct from palatalised PW '''p''' and '''b'''.<br />
<br />
At some point, the non-palatalised velar obstruents acquired uvular pronunciations. '''rˠ''' also merged with '''ʁ''', probably via '''ʀ''' for a short time, while '''rʲ''' lost its palatalisation. '''ŋ''' may also have shifted to '''ɴ''', but, since '''ɴ''' is a very uncommon sound, it was probably not long before this '''ɴ''' was elided after vowels (leaving nasalisation behind) and turned back to '''ŋ''' elsewhere. However, it seems that the changes that produced the process of transformation occured before elision of '''ɴ'''.<br />
<br />
== Word-final vowel loss ==<br />
<br />
The lax vowels, '''ɨ''', '''ə''' and '''a''', disappeared word-finally when unstressed (i.e. when not the only vowel in a word). This was a fairly drastic change in the syllable structure for a language which had almost exclusively CV syllables up to this point. For some time, word-final lax vowels remained in the underlying representations of words, and resurfaced as sandhi in connected speech when a word beginning with a consonant followed. There were, of course, some words which had always had a nasal at the end, like '''sɨ̃nˠ''' 'thou' (< PW '''sun'''). The sandhi was generalised to apply to these words as well; as there was no vowel in the underlying representation to choose to append after these words, the vowel in the initial syllable of the following syllable was chosen (if it was a diphthong, the full diphthong was used). So, for example, when '''sɨ̃nˠ''' was put before the word '''lˠəṳnˠ''' 'lie' (< PW '''pa-loɦun''') the resulting sentence meaning 'thou liest' was pronounced '''sɨ̃nˠəṳlˠəṳnˠ'''.<br />
<br />
As speakers started to forget the underlying word-final lax vowels, this pattern was eventually generalised to apply all words ending in a consonant, so that whenever a word ending in a consonant preceded a connected word beginning with a consonant, the initial vowel of the latter word was inserted between the two words. But some time afterwards, another syncope took place which deleted vowels in initial unstressed syllables when there were single consonants adjacent to vowels on either side of them. The result was that words with two or more syllables, in which the first two were of the form CVCV (i.e. all non-monosyllabic words except for those beginning with close vowels, and loanwords like '''nordan''' 'bow'), when they occured after a connected word ending in a consonant, had their initial syllable metathesised to one of the form CV. For example putting '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴ''' 'she is young' in front of '''θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲaṵ''' 'woman (acc.)' produced a phrase 'young woman (acc.)' pronounced '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴi̤θn̪ʲd̪ʲaṵ'''. As the rule was reinterpreted as one of metathesis rather than epenthesis, the insertion of vowels before monosyllabic words stopped taking place, so that 'young woman (nom.)' was again pronounced '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴθi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ''' rather than '''qaṳsˠə̃ɴi̤θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ'''.<br />
<br />
For monosyllabic words like '''θi̤n̪ʲd̪ʲ''' 'woman', the result was that the initial syllable of the word was usually metathesised when a suffix was added, making the word non-monosyllabic, but not metathesised in the unmarked form where no suffix was added. In the end, this came to be generalised to apply to non-monosyllabic roots, and the phonological conditioning of the change changed to a mostly morphological one. This was the origin of the process of [[Wendoth#Transformation|transformation]] in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
By these changes, all Wendoth words had come to bear their stress on the final syllable. Sometime afterwards, the stress was shifted to the first preceding tense vowel if it was originally on a lax vowel, resulting in the stress assignment pattern observed in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
== Later consonant shifts ==<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, '''ɴ''' was elided after vowels and turned into '''ŋ''' after consonants and word boundaries. '''ŋʲ''' also seems to have been elided, but only word-finally. The other uvulars were also reduced in distribution. The voiced uvular obstruents '''ɢ''' and '''ʁ''' were devoiced word-finally (this occured after the loss of word-final lax vowels). Elsewhere, they merged as '''ʁ''', and '''ʁ''' was then deleted word-initially and after close vowels. In the end, only three uvular consonants, '''q''', '''χ''' and '''ʁ''', remained, with '''ʁ''' only occuring intervocalically after non-close vowels and adjacent to consonants.<br />
<br />
'''ʁ''' was also inserted to break up hiatuses which had resulted from the loss of '''ɴ''' in which the first vowel was non-close; c.f. '''tehą''' 'five' (< PW '''peŋoʔ'''). In fact, it was also inserted to break up these hiatuses when they occured across word boundaries, too, even when the second word began with a close vowel and had never historically began with '''ʁ'''.<br />
<br />
Sometime after the elision of '''ɴ''' and '''ŋʲ''', '''nˠ''' merged with '''ŋ''', so that '''ŋ''' once again occured after vowels. This must have occured after the elisions, because it would be unusual for '''ŋʲ''' and '''ɴ''' to be elided but not '''ŋ'''.<br />
<br />
Finally, at some time (it could have been at any time) '''lʲ''' and '''lˠ''' became semivowels '''j''' and '''w''', respectively, in syllable onsets when not adjacent to a close vowel.</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-04-07T21:37:30Z<p>Alces: /* Texts */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa. <br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''bd''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The precise phonetic values of these consonants are somewhat uncertain.<br />
<br />
* The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials (the velarised Pre-Wendoth labials developed into the labials of the Wendoth proto-language). The nature of the contrast between these consonants and the apical posterior coronals is not entirely certain. '''th''' and '''dh''' definitely contrasted with '''s''' and '''z''' in that the latter two consonants were sibilants. However, the contrast may have been augmented by retroflexion or velarisation on '''s''' and '''z''' and/or palatalisation on '''th''' and '''dh'''. Likewise, '''nd''', '''t''' and '''d''' may have been palatalised, especially if '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' were velarised alveolars rather than retroflex consonants.<br />
<br />
* The apical posterior coronal obstruents originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals. It is possible that they were simply velarised alveolar consonants, considering their historical origin (and '''s''' and '''z''' may have been entirely ordinary alveolar consonants, contrasting with '''th''' and '''dh''' only by sibilance) but they have become retroflexes in the majority of the daughter languages.<br />
<br />
* The laminal posterior coronal obstruents originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals. '''ch''' and '''jh''' were affricates, although it is uncertain whether they were merely palatalised alveolars [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] or laminal postalveolars [tʃ] and [dʒ]. '''sh''' and '''zh''', likewise, may have been palatalised alveolars [sʲ] and [zʲ]. '''n''' and '''r''', although it is not certain whether they were apical or laminal, also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*r''' respectively and may have been pronounced with some degree of palatalisation.<br />
<br />
* The front velars (apart from '''y''') originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars. It seems more likely that they were palatalised velars rather than full palatals, as they are reflected as velars in some of the Wendoth languages; however, the transcriptions /ɲ/, /c/, /ɟ/, /ç/ and /ʝ/ are commonly seen for '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j'''.<br />
<br />
* Most of the back velars originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars, and were pronounced as uvulars in the Wendoth proto-language. The exceptions are '''ng''', which originates from the velarised forms of both Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*ŋ''' (although the latter became ∅ rather than '''ng''' after close vowels and word-finally), and '''w'''.<br />
<br />
** '''ng''' may have in fact been a prenasalised stop /ŋg/, like '''nd''', as many Wendoth languages have /ŋg/ as a reflex of it in at least some environments.<br />
<br />
** Velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*g''', '''*ɣ''' and '''*r''' all merged into '''h''' in the Wendoth proto-language. '''h''' was probably pronounced as an approximant rather than a fricative most of the time. In the Wendoth languages, it often debuccalised to [ɦ] or disappeared.<br />
<br />
* '''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. In many of the Wendoth languages, the reflexes of '''y''' and '''w''' are still lateral in certain environments: in syllable codas, or adjacent to close vowels. It is therefore supposed that in the proto-language, earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in many environments, but retained their lateral pronunciation in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels. Thus '''ųįy''' 'often' was probably pronounced something like [ṵː'ḭːlʲ] and '''zow''' 'play' was probably pronounced something like ['zolˠ].<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of the Wendoth proto-language, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful for morphophonological purposes to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the Wendoth proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels, at least when not word-final; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. Word-finally, they were likely pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced). /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries, although exceptions might be made for loanwords.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, but they comprise single syllable nuclei.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form CVC; in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form CV. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqat''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
'''nj''' and '''h''' do not appear word-finally. '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (although it does appear word-initially as a morphophoneme). These are the only restrictions on which consonants can appear adjacent to word boundaries. Also, '''o''' does not appear before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /ndˠ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sʁ/ and /zʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a close vowel. Historically, all syllables beginning with a vowel originally began with Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋ''', '''*g''', '''*ɣ''' or '''*r''', which were elided in these environments when velarised.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts) in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. There is some evidence that loanwords like '''barqat''' might have been stressed differently, in the same way as the source language, by at least some speakers.<br />
<br />
Function words, like the pronouns, often carry no stress.<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ <br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue' /kʲotʃṳm/ [kʲoˈtʃṳːm]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳˈn̪d̪ṵʔ] (the cluster '''mnd''' was preserved by the influence of the unmarked form '''mund''', but it was likely that it, and other difficult-to-pronounce clusters, underwent ''ad hoc'' simplifications in practice).<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just somewhat obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. In this section, a comprehensive explanation of these interactions is given.<br />
<br />
=== Weighted phonemes ===<br />
<br />
It is possible to analyse the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', as consonant phonemes /j̰/, /w̰/, /j̤/ and /w̤/ respectively. Indeed, due to the lack of the diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/, any occurences of close vowels as syllabic nuclei can be analysed as occurences of these diphthongs, with a rule applying that deletes the initial /ə/ of a diphthong and makes the off-glide syllabic. However, to avoid confusion we will not refer to the close vowels as consonants, but we will call them, together with the consonants, the weighted phonemes. The reason for this is that all weighted phonemes can be organised into pairs. In each pair one phoneme is said to be light, the other heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| h~∅<sup>5</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of '''*ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and after close vowels and '''ng''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially, and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*ɣ''' is '''x''' word-finally, '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially, and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*r''' is '''∅''' word-initially, word-finally and after close vowels and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the citation forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with stems that containing the light reflex of '''*ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''*ŋ''', '''*g''' or '''*ɣ''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* '''nj''' disappears in word-final position.<br />
* Some (but not all) instances of '''ng''' disappear in word-final position and after close vowels; to distinguish disappearing '''ng''' from non-disappearing '''ng''' in positions where it may become word-final when an affix is added, we write it as '''NG'''.<br />
* Some instances of '''h''' fortify to '''q''' or '''x''' in word-final position; the other instances of '''h''' disappear in word-final position. However, all instances of '''h''' disappear in word-initial position and after close vowels. To distinguish the three kinds of '''h''' from each other in positions where they may become word-final when an affix is added, we write '''h''' that fortifies to '''q''' as '''Q''', we write '''h''' that fortifies to '''x''' as '''X''', and we reserve '''h''' for disappearing '''h'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''hewaį-''' 'be friendly', '''ewaį''' 'be friendly (spe. npa. ind.)', '''afhewaį''' 'be friendly (spe. npa. ind.) [informal variant]', '''ouewaį''' 'start being friendly (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auewaį''' 'stop being friendly (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
* '''hųmĮ-''' 'push', '''ųmų''' 'push (spe. npa. ind.)', '''inhųmų''' 'push something (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ouųmų''' 'start pushing (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auųmų''' 'stop pushing (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
There are actually no morphemes that begin with an underlying lax vowel, although there are morphemes that begin with underlying tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''įke-''' 'bite', '''įk''' 'bite (spe. npa. ind.)', '''nįk''' 'bite somethng (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
There is one more alternation that occurs in nasals that were present in syllable codas in Pre-Wendoth. In word-final position, these nasals have remained in the Wendoth proto-language, and are written in the citation form of the morpheme. However, if a morpheme follows that begins with a consonant, the nasal disappears.<br />
<br />
=== Unweighted phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The lax vowels, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', and the open tense vowels, '''ą''' and '''ã''', comprise the unweighted phonemes. There are some alternations that occur with these phonemes, as well.<br />
<br />
Underlying central vowels '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' undergo a process called mutation when they come to occur before an underlying nasal, which results in the following changes:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere.<br />
<br />
This is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals. Note that diphthongs are unaffected by this process; the lax vowel has to directly precede the nasal.<br />
<br />
Underlying central vowels also disappear when they come to occur word-finally. And '''e''' disappears, as well, when it comes to occur before a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''eų''', '''ei''' and '''eu''' do not appear.<br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth proto-language has a kind of harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes in adjacent syllables to have the same weight. However, it only affects close vowels that precede another weighted phoneme and consonants that are separated from the following weighted phoneme by the vowel '''o''', or '''a''' if the following weighted phoneme is a nasal consonant. And it does not propagate: if there are more than two syllables in a sequence which could all be affected by weight harmony, it only affects the rightmost two weighted phonemes. Weight harmony is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''*a''' to become palatalised if '''*i''' or '''*e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''*a''' and the '''*i''' or '''*e'''.<br />
<br />
In practice, weight harmony has quite different effects when it affects different kinds of morphemes: it can affect prefixes, athematic stems, thematic stems and suffixes, and there are different things you have to keep in mind in each of these cases. The same can be said for the other morphophonological alternations. See the section on [[#Stem varieties|stem varieties]] for an examination of each kind of morpheme individually. First, there is one final morphophonological process to take note of.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
All stems alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms, although some stems have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a stem takes depends on which suffix is added; some suffixes cause transformation, and some do not.<br />
<br />
Transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. It applies before elision of initial '''Q''', '''X''' and '''h''', so that these consonants end up manifesting in the transformed form (as '''h''') even though they do not manifest in the untransformed form. However, transformation only produces this change if the initial syllable is followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant. Otherwise, and if the initial syllable has no underlying onset consonant, transformation produces no change in the stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''kashe-''' 'blood', '''kash''' 'blood (nom.)', '''akshų''' 'blood (acc.)', '''akshum''' 'blood (dat.)'<br />
* ''hewaį-''' 'be friendly', '''ewaį''' 'be friendly (non-past indicative)', '''ehwaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past subjunctive)'<br />
* '''sum-''' 'human', '''sum''' 'human (nom.)', '''sų''' 'human (acc.)', '''sum''' 'human (dat.)' (no transformation because all the words are monosyllabic)<br />
* '''įbun-''' 'forest', '''įbun''' 'forest (nom.)', '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)', '''įbung''' 'forest (dat.)' (no transformation because there is no word-initial consonant)<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a central vowel to precede a nasal. Although one might expect the reverse process to occur, where a vowel un-mutates when transformation causes it to no longer precede a nasal, this appears to have been universally levelled out by analogy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''noiji-''' 'lip', '''noiji''' 'lip (nom.)', '''ainjių''' 'lip (acc.)', '''ainjim''' 'lip (dat.)'<br />
* '''medų-''' 'forehead', '''medų''' 'forehead (nom.)', '''umdų''' 'forehead (acc.)', '''umdųm''' 'forehead (dat.)'<br />
<br />
As well as roots, prefixes can be transformed. When a prefix is added to a stem, the prefix is transformed whenver possible.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''to-''' 'masc.', '''toįdh''' 'be imaginary (spe. npa. ind. masc.)', '''otdhemer''' 'move away from (spe. npa. ind. masc.)'<br />
<br />
=== Stem varieties ===<br />
<br />
There are two kinds of morphemes in the Wendoth proto-language, thematic morphemes (morphemes that end in a syllable rhyme) and athematic morphemes (morphemes that end in a syllable onset). The only athematic morphemes are determiner roots. These roots always end in a weighted phoneme which alternates in weight depending on the following suffix. Some suffixes are said to be light; adding these to the stem causes the final phoneme to manifest as light. And some suffixes are said to be heavy; adding these to the stem causes the final phoneme to manifest as heavy. In fact, the only athematic stems are determiner roots, so the only suffixes that are added to them are agreement suffixes, and it turns out that the agreement suffixes for animate nouns are light and the agreement suffixes for inanimate nouns are heavy. This is, most likely, a convenient coincidence.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''redh-''' 'few', '''redh''' 'few (nom. animate)', '''rev''' 'few (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''toį-''' 'this', '''toį''' 'this (nom. animate)', '''toų''' 'this (nom. inanimate)'<br />
<br />
If the final weighted phoneme is preceded by the vowel '''o''', or '''a''' if the final phoneme is a nasal consonant, then weight harmony will cause the consonant before this vowel to have the same weight as the final phoneme, too. A close vowel preceding the final weighted phoneme may also be affected by weight harmony, but not always; we write close vowels which are affected as '''Į''' (if creaky-voiced) or '''I''' (if breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''id-''' 'many', '''id''' 'many (nom. animate), '''ub''' 'many (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''ndan-''' 'one', '''ndan''' 'one (nom. animate)', '''mang''' 'one (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''yosh-''' 'other', '''yosh''' 'other (nom. animate)', '''wos''' 'other (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''Iį-''' 'some', '''iį''' 'some (nom. animate)', '''uų''' 'some (nom. inanimate)'<br />
<br />
As for thematic morphemes, these can be sub-classified into three kinds: tense morphemes, nasal morphemes and lax morphemes, in order of least to most complicated to deal with.<br />
<br />
Tense morphes are those that end in a tense vowel. These morphemes are invariant; additional morphemes can be directly appended to their ends.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ingi-''' 'food', '''ingi''' 'food (nom.)', '''ingių''' 'food (acc.)', '''ingim''' 'food (dat.)'<br />
* '''ngįą-''' 'be big', '''ngįą''' 'be big (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ngįąq''' 'be big (spe. npa. sub.)'<br />
* '''au-''' 'cessative', '''autha''' 'stop coming (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auįw''' 'stop being white (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
Nasal morphemes are those that end in an underlying nasal. For these morphemes, the final nasal disappears if a morpheme that begins with a consonant follows. <br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ndan-''' 'one', '''ndan''' 'one (nom.)', '''ndat''' 'one (ill.)', '''ndanį''' 'one (pos.)'<br />
* '''ngeyend-''' 'be ill', '''ngeyend''' 'be ill (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ngeyeq''' 'be ill (spe. npa. sub.)'<br />
<br />
Morphemes ending in a close vowel can be analysed as nasal morphemes with a final '''NG''' following the close vowel; due to the preceding close vowel, this '''NG''' always disappears. But it is simpler to analyse these morphemes as tense morphemes, and we will do so in general. The only exception is with nominal stems; some apparent tense nominal stems ending in a close vowel are of declension Type III (c), like nasal stems ending in '''NG''', and unlike tense stems, so these stems are considered to have underlying final '''NG'''.<br />
<br />
Lax morphemes are those that end in a lax vowel. If no morpheme follows after a lax morpheme, the final lax vowel is deleted. Final '''e''' also disappears if a morpheme beginning with a close vowel follows. And, if a morpheme beginning with a nasal follows, the final lax vowel mutates.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''hahezhe-''' 'fog', '''ahezh''' 'fog (nom.)', '''ahhezhų''' 'fog (acc.)', '''ahhezhum''' 'fog (dat.)'<br />
* '''sasa-''' 'success', '''sas''' 'success (nom.)', '''assaų''' 'success (acc.)', '''assem''' 'success (dat.)'<br />
* '''kochundo-''' 'tongue', '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)', ''''okchumoų''' 'tongue (acc.)', '''okchumam''' 'tongue (dat.)'<br />
<br />
Some morphemes show alternations in the final weighted phoneme due to weight harmony. These are called alternating morphemes, and they include all lax morphemes ending in '''o''', some of the tense morphemes ending in close vowels but not all of them (as with the determiner roots, we write a final close vowel that alternates in weight as '''Į''' or '''I'''), and no other morphemes.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''heko-''' '1p excl. pl', '''eq''' '1p. excl. pl. (nom.)', '''ehkoshã''' '1p excl. pl. (ins.)'<br />
* '''ijo-''' 'water', '''ix''' 'water (nom.)', '''ihoshã''' 'water (ins.)'<br />
* '''hųmĮ-''' 'hit', '''ųmų''' 'hit (non-past indicative)', '''ųhmįsh''' 'hit (habitual non-past indicative)'<br />
* '''to-''' 'masc.', '''ottho''' 'came (past indicative masc.), '''opngi''' 'saw (past indicative masc.)'<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Noun declension ===<br />
<br />
Nouns take three complement-marking cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are primarily used to mark subjects, direct objects and indirect objects, respectively. The dative case is also used to mark the direct objects of certain monotransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
Nominal stems are, in general, transformed in the accusative and dative cases if possible, but not in the nominative case. For this reason, the citation forms of nouns stems in the nominative case are untransformed and the citation forms of noun stems in the accusative and dative cases are transformed. However, when a determiner precedes a noun the noun may be prevented from transforming. See the section on [[#Determiners|determiners]] for more information on this. So nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed. Likewise, adding derivational suffixes and postpositional clitics can result in nouns in the nominative case being transformed. <br />
<br />
For the purposes of declension, nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III.<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type I nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns are the simplest. They have a single stem, which is used in all three cases, and it always ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The suffixes are as follows:<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-'''<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-'''<br />
<br />
Apart from the regular morphophonological alternations, there are no complications here. <br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''kashe-''' 'blood', '''kash''' 'blood (nom.)', '''akshų''' 'blood (acc.)', '''akshum''' 'blood (dat.)'<br />
* '''sasa-''' 'success', '''sas''' 'success (nom.)', '''assaų''' 'success (acc.)', '''assem''' 'success (dat.)'<br />
* '''ijo-''' 'water', '''ix''' 'water (nom.)', '''ihoų''' 'water (acc.)', '''iham''' 'water (dat.)'<br />
* '''noiji-''' 'lip', '''noiji''' 'lip (nom.)', '''ainjių''' 'lip (acc.)', '''ainjim''' 'lip (dat.)'<br />
* '''medų-''' 'forehead', '''medų''' 'forehead (nom.)', '''umdų''' 'forehead (acc.)', '''medųm''' 'forehead (dat.)'<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type II nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have two stems, one which is used in the nominative case and called the primary stem, and one which is used in the other two cases and called the secondary stem. In Type II nouns, the primary stem ends in an open tense vowel, '''-ą''' or '''-ã''', while the secondary stem is like a Type I stem and ends in a close vowel or a lax vowel. Apart from the endings, the two stems are the same.<br />
<br />
The suffixes are exactly the same as with Type I nouns if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', there is a minor change: the accusative suffix is '''-I-''' rather than '''-Į-'''. We can therefore classify Type II nouns as Type II (a) (if their primary stem ends in '''-ą''') or Type II (b) (if their primary stem ends in '''-ã'''), and the two types have very slightly different declensions.<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-''' (subtype [a]), '''-I-''' (subtype [b])<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-'''<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''zashą-''' / '''zasha-''' 'fall', '''zashą''' 'fall (nom.)', '''azshaų''' 'fall (acc.)', '''azshem''' 'fall (dat.)'<br />
* '''kechã-''' / '''keche-''' 'father', '''kechã''' 'father (nom.)', '''ekchų''' 'father (acc.)', '''ekchum''' 'father (dat.)'<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type III nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type III nouns also have two stems, one which is used in the nominative case and called the primary stem, and one which is used in the other two cases and called the secondary stem. And, as with Type II nouns, the secondary stem is like a Type I stem and ends in a close vowel or a lax vowel. The difference with Type III nouns is that the primary stem generally ends in a nasal: either '''nd''', '''m''', '''n''', '''ng''', '''nj''' or '''NG''. There are also a few Type III nouns that end in tense vowels, which can be seen as having an underlying final '''NG'' (as '''NG'' disappears after tense vowels). The vowel which precedes the nasal is always the mutated form of the vowel that ends the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
There are three subtypes of Type III nouns, which use slightly different dative suffixes. Type III (a) nouns end in '''nd''' or '''m''' and have the dative suffix '''-ma-''' (as usual). Type III (b) nouns end in '''n''' or '''ng''' and have the dative suffix '''-nga-'''. And Type III (c) nouns end in underlying '''nj''' or '''NG''' and have the dative suffix '''-NGa-''' (the '''NG''' disappears after tense vowels). Note that in each case, the initial consonant of the dative suffix is the heavy counterpart of the final nasal.<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-'''<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-''' (subtype [a]), '''-nga-''' (subtype [b]), '''-NGa-''' (subtype [c])<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''sum-''' / '''se-''' 'human', '''sum''' 'human (nom.)', '''sų''' 'human (acc.)', '''sum''' 'human (dat.)'<br />
* '''įbun-''' / '''įbu-''' 'forest', '''įbun''' 'forest (nom.)', '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)', '''įbung''' 'forest (dat.)'<br />
* '''taunj-''' / '''tau-''' 'heart', '''tau''' 'heart (nom.)', '''tauų''' 'heart (acc.)', '''tau''' 'heart (acc.)'<br />
<br />
==== Adjunct-marking cases ====<br />
<br />
In addition to the three complement-marking cases, the Wendoth proto-language can be analysed as having thirteen additional adjunct-marking cases. Alternatively, it can be analysed as having seven clitic postpositions (with some of them having different meanings when their object noun has a different case). Neither analysis is much more correct than the other, although the analysis as clitic postpositions is arguably more simple.<br />
<br />
The clitic postpositions are:<br />
* '''-ta-''' 'to', the locative / allative / illative postposition (locative / allative with an accusative object, illative with a nominative object; also proximate allative / illative with a dative object)<br />
* '''-zha-''', the inessive / elative / ablative postposition (inessive / elative with a nominative object, ablative with a nominative object; also proximate elative / ablative with a dative object)<br />
* '''-į-''' 'of', the possessive postposition (inalienable possessive with an accusative object, alienable possessive with a nominative object)<br />
* '''-dha-''' 'of', the genitive postposition (inalienable genitive with an accusative object, alienable genitive with a nominative object)<br />
* '''-shã-''' 'with', the instrumental postposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
* '''-ce-''' 'with', the comitative preposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
* '''-qį-''' 'for', the benefactive preposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
<br />
They are added as suffixes like any other to the nominal stem (with one of the complement-marking case suffixes already added) and all the usual morphophonological alternations occur. Note that apart from '''-qį-''', all the postpositions begin with a light consonant, and so the accusative suffix manifests as '''-į''' before them and final consonants of nominal which alternate in weight, which always manifest as heavy when the complement-marking case suffixes are added in isolation, manifest as light before them.<br />
<br />
If the Wendoth proto-language had postpositions, it was a unusual example of a language which had postpositions but had primary VSO word order. There was a strong tendency in the Wendoth languages for the postpositions to start being used as prepositions instead (they still usually acted as clitics, but did not necessary cliticise to the object noun). But some postpositions resisted this shift by being reanalysed as case suffixes. In particular, the instrumental preposition '''-shã-''' was reanalysed as a case suffix in every Wendoth language.<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are five personal prominal roots: '''be-''' '1p sg.', '''sub''' or '''seb''' '1p incl. pl.' (both variants are evidenced from different Wendoth languages), '''heqo-''' '1p excl. pl', '''sing-''' / '''se-''' or '''se-''' '2p sg.' (both variants are evidenced from different Wendoth languages) and '''niNG-''' / '''ne-''' '2p pl.'. Each root has a suppletive stem in the accusative case, which does not take the usual accusative case sufix: '''ḍã-''' '1p sg.', '''muḍã-''' '1p incl. pl.', '''ḍãḍã-''' '1p excl. pl.', '''mu-''' '2p sg.' and '''mumu-''' '2p pl.'. These accusative pronouns transform in the same circumstances where any other accusative nouns would transform, but their citation forms are untransformed because the untransformed form is not completely predictable from the transformed form (normally one can figure out the untransformed form by looking at the citation form for the nominative case, but this only works when the stem used in the nominative case begins with the same sequence of phonemes).<br />
<br />
The declensions of each pronoun are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!colspan="3"| First-person<br />
!colspan="2"| Second-person<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Singular<br />
! Incl. pl.<br />
! Excl. pl.<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| be-<br />
| sube-, sebe-<br />
| heqo-<br />
| sing- / se-, se-<br />
| niNG- / ne-<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ḍã-<br />
| muḍã-<br />
| ḍãḍã-<br />
| mu-<br />
| mumu-<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| bema-<br />
| uzbuma-, ezbuma-<br />
| heqama-<br />
| singa-<br />
| niNGa-, ne-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
No third-person pronouns can be reconstructed. It seems that the masculine and feminine argument markers '''-to-''' and '''-ko-''' were used for this purpose most of the time, and otherwise, demonstratives were used.<br />
<br />
There is also a reflexive pronoun, '''wo''', which is used only as the object of postpositions, as there is also a reflexive argument marker.<br />
<br />
Opnevį amndochãzh owqį.<br />
po -ne -vį mandochã-zha wo -qį<br />
MASC-INTR-do eternity-from REFL-for <br />
'He only does things for his own benefit.'<br />
<br />
==== Demonstrative pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are seven demonstrative pronouns, which have regular declensions.<br />
<br />
* The first-person demonstrative '''cho-''', '''ṭobe-''' 'this', used for objects close to the speaker. '''ṭobe-''' is a variant of '''cho-''' which is reflected in some Wendoth languages and appears to have been formed by analogy with the second-person demonstrative.<br />
<br />
Oqmąq ṭoų bum.<br />
ko -mą -qa cho -ų be -ma<br />
FEM-take_from-SUB this-ACC 1p.SG-DAT<br />
'Take this.' (speaker is holding a gift and addressing a female)<br />
<br />
* The second-person demonstrative '''ṭosing-''', '''ṭose''' 'that', used for objects close to the addressee. Both variants are reflected in different Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
Oq otreq oṭsų bum?<br />
qo to -rem- -qo ṭose-ų be -ma<br />
maybe MASC-give.NPST-SUB that-ACC 1p.SG-DAT <br />
'Could you give me that?' (male addressee is holding a gift)<br />
<br />
* The "approximal" demonstrative '''jhã-''', which is glossed as 'here' but is used in a wider sense. It is used for all objects whose location relative to the speaker is hard to place, whether because of uncertainty or because the speaker is within or on top the object, and so the object is all around them.<br />
<br />
Jhã mau?<br />
jhã mau<br />
here what<br />
'What's that?' (referring to a noise not coming from any particular direction)<br />
<br />
Jhã įwaw ez.<br />
jhã įwawa hezo<br />
here be_fine.NPST very<br />
'This is a very fine house!'<br />
<br />
* The mesiodistal demonstratives '''va-''' and '''xe-''' 'that', used for objects which are at some location removed from both the speaker and the addressee, but fairly close. '''va-''' is used for visible objects and '''xe-''' is used for non-visible objects.<br />
<br />
Ai opmegą sing vaų.<br />
ai to -mugiʔ sing va -ų<br />
why_not MASC-take 2p.SG that-ACC<br />
'You can take that.' (addressing a male)<br />
<br />
Okreq xeų bum.<br />
ko -rem- qa xe -ų be -ma<br />
FEM-give.NPST-SUB that-ACC 1p.SG-DAT<br />
'Give me that.' (female addressee is holding something, but trying to obscure it from the speaker's view)<br />
<br />
* The distal demonstratives '''vava-''' and '''xexe-''' 'yonder', used for objects which are far away from the speaker and the addressee. '''vava-''' is used for visible objects and '''xexe-''' is used for non-visible objects.<br />
<br />
Opngeq sing avvaų?<br />
to -nge -qa sing vava-ų<br />
MASC-see.NPST-SUB 2p.SG that-ACC<br />
'Can you see that?' (addressing a male, referring to settlements visible in the distance)<br />
<br />
Exxezh endcindup.<br />
xexe-zha nde -cindu -to<br />
that-from somebody-kill.PST-MASC<br />
'He was killed there.' (referring to a distant place)<br />
<br />
==== Interrogative pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are two interrogative pronouns which have regular declensions. '''ndai-''' 'who' is used for animates and '''mau-''' 'what' is used for inanimates.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| osjosh <br />
| osjoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
The following text is adapted from stanza 77 of the ''Hávamál''. It is an example of Wendoth poetry which makes use of both alliteration and rhyme as well as adhering to a strict qualitative meter. The third and sixth lines are in anapestic trimeter; the others are in anapestic dimeter.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
:''Kejazang ouhyehąsh,''<br />
:''kashewoq ouhyehąsh;''<br />
:''shu aundthą thash auįt aųpnin sum.''<br />
:''Amngedhem qe, asfą,''<br />
:''amndochãzh xe yehą:''<br />
:''gaxaihi seb reshem įwanum.''<br />
|<br />
:Cattle die,<br />
:kinsmen die;<br />
:at some time, everybody comes to an end.<br />
:One thing, however,<br />
:is never dead:<br />
:the respect that we have for the virtuous.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Kejazang|kejazang|cattle}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh,|hou-yehą-sha|start-be_dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Cattle die,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|kashewoq|kashewoq|kinsmen}}<br />
{{gl|ouhyehąsh;|hou-yehą-sha|start-be_dead-GEN}}<br />
{{glend|Kinsmen die;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|shu|shu|time}}<br />
{{gl|aundthą|ndau-thą|some-c9}}<br />
{{gl|thash|tha-sha|come-GEN}}<br />
{{gl|auįt|au-Į-ta|stop-ACC-to}}<br />
{{gl|aųpnin|paųnina|all.NOM.sc1}}<br />
{{gl|sum.|sum|person}}<br />
{{glend|at some time, everybody comes to an end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Amngedhem|mangedha-mo|one.NOM.sc4-c10}}<br />
{{gl|qe,|qe|thing}}<br />
{{gl|asfą,|asfą|however}}<br />
{{glend|One thing, however,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|amndochãzh|mandochã-zha|eternity-from}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|yehą|yehą|be_dead}}<br />
{{glend|is never dead:}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|gaxaihi|gaxaihi|respect}}<br />
{{gl|seb|seb|1p.INCL}}<br />
{{gl|reshem|rem-sha-mo|give-GEN-c10}}<br />
{{gl|įwanum|įwe-nu-ma|good-AGT-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|the respect that we have for the virtuous.}}<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-03-27T15:16:58Z<p>Alces: noun morphology</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa. <br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|<br />
!rowspan="2"| Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''bd''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The precise phonetic values of these consonants are somewhat uncertain.<br />
<br />
* The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials (the velarised Pre-Wendoth labials developed into the labials of the Wendoth proto-language). The nature of the contrast between these consonants and the apical posterior coronals is not entirely certain. '''th''' and '''dh''' definitely contrasted with '''s''' and '''z''' in that the latter two consonants were sibilants. However, the contrast may have been augmented by retroflexion or velarisation on '''s''' and '''z''' and/or palatalisation on '''th''' and '''dh'''. Likewise, '''nd''', '''t''' and '''d''' may have been palatalised, especially if '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' were velarised alveolars rather than retroflex consonants.<br />
<br />
* The apical posterior coronal obstruents originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals. It is possible that they were simply velarised alveolar consonants, considering their historical origin (and '''s''' and '''z''' may have been entirely ordinary alveolar consonants, contrasting with '''th''' and '''dh''' only by sibilance) but they have become retroflexes in the majority of the daughter languages.<br />
<br />
* The laminal posterior coronal obstruents originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals. '''ch''' and '''jh''' were affricates, although it is uncertain whether they were merely palatalised alveolars [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] or laminal postalveolars [tʃ] and [dʒ]. '''sh''' and '''zh''', likewise, may have been palatalised alveolars [sʲ] and [zʲ]. '''n''' and '''r''', although it is not certain whether they were apical or laminal, also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*r''' respectively and may have been pronounced with some degree of palatalisation.<br />
<br />
* The front velars (apart from '''y''') originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars. It seems more likely that they were palatalised velars rather than full palatals, as they are reflected as velars in some of the Wendoth languages; however, the transcriptions /ɲ/, /c/, /ɟ/, /ç/ and /ʝ/ are commonly seen for '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j'''.<br />
<br />
* Most of the back velars originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars, and were pronounced as uvulars in the Wendoth proto-language. The exceptions are '''ng''', which originates from the velarised forms of both Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*ŋ''' (although the latter became ∅ rather than '''ng''' after close vowels and word-finally), and '''w'''.<br />
<br />
** '''ng''' may have in fact been a prenasalised stop /ŋg/, like '''nd''', as many Wendoth languages have /ŋg/ as a reflex of it in at least some environments.<br />
<br />
** Velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*g''', '''*ɣ''' and '''*r''' all merged into '''h''' in the Wendoth proto-language. '''h''' was probably pronounced as an approximant rather than a fricative most of the time. In the Wendoth languages, it often debuccalised to [ɦ] or disappeared.<br />
<br />
* '''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. In many of the Wendoth languages, the reflexes of '''y''' and '''w''' are still lateral in certain environments: in syllable codas, or adjacent to close vowels. It is therefore supposed that in the proto-language, earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in many environments, but retained their lateral pronunciation in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels. Thus '''ųįy''' 'often' was probably pronounced something like [ṵː'ḭːlʲ] and '''zow''' 'play' was probably pronounced something like ['zolˠ].<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of the Wendoth proto-language, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, which consists of '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', the qualities are somewhat uncertain (see the next paragraph). It is often useful for morphophonological purposes to distinguish the vowels in the modally-voiced system from the vowels in the other two systems: we therefore call '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' the lax vowels, and we call the other vowels the tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Historically, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. It is tempting to reconstruct '''e''' and '''o''' so that the vowel system is symmetrical: we might reconstruct them as /e/ and /o/, for example, or /ɘ/ and /ɵ/. But there is no evidence for this at the stage of the Wendoth proto-language; indeed, judging by the fact that the lax vowel system was changed in virtually every Wendoth language, it must have been an unstable one.<br />
<br />
The tense vowels are longer than the other vowels, at least when not word-final; they attract the stress from its default position on the final syllable. Word-finally, they were likely pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced). /a̰/ and /a̤/ appear only before morpheme boundaries, although exceptions might be made for loanwords.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /oi/ and /ou/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. (The diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/ do not appear; there is a morphophonological rule that turns /əi/ and /əu/ into /i/ and /u/, repsectively, wherever they arise.) These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels, but they comprise single syllable nuclei.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form CVC; in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form CV. The morphophonological process of [[#Transformation|transformation]] produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqat''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
'''nj''' and '''h''' do not appear word-finally. '''h''' also does not appear word-initially (although it does appear word-initially as a morphophoneme). These are the only restrictions on which consonants can appear adjacent to word boundaries. Also, '''o''' does not appear before nasal consonants.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /ndˠ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sʁ/ and /zʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a close vowel. Historically, all syllables beginning with a vowel originally began with Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋ''', '''*g''', '''*ɣ''' or '''*r''', which were elided in these environments when velarised.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts) in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. There is some evidence that loanwords like '''barqat''' might have been stressed differently, in the same way as the source language, by at least some speakers.<br />
<br />
Function words, like the pronouns, often carry no stress.<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' '1p nom. sg.' /bə/ <br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue' /kʲotʃṳm/ [kʲoˈtʃṳːm]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner' /xʲoḭa̤/ [xʲoḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge' /ṳxʲoj/ [ˈṳːxʲolʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳˈn̪d̪ṵʔ] (the cluster '''mnd''' was preserved by the influence of the unmarked form '''mund''', but it was likely that it, and other difficult-to-pronounce clusters, underwent ''ad hoc'' simplifications in practice).<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages tend to have complicated fusional morphologies. The proto-language, however, was still somewhat agglutinative; the agglutinativity was just somewhat obscured by a complex morphophonology. In order to add an affix to a stem in the proto-language, it was rarely as simple as taking the phonemes of the affix, the phonemes of the stem, and putting them in sequence; the phonemes tended to interact with each other. In this section, a comprehensive explanation of these interactions is given.<br />
<br />
=== Weighted phonemes ===<br />
<br />
It is possible to analyse the close vowels, '''į''', '''ų''', '''i''' and '''u''', as consonant phonemes /j̰/, /w̰/, /j̤/ and /w̤/ respectively. Indeed, due to the lack of the diphthongs /əi/ and /əu/, any occurences of close vowels as syllabic nuclei can be analysed as occurences of these diphthongs, with a rule applying that deletes the initial /ə/ of a diphthong and makes the off-glide syllabic. However, to avoid confusion we will not refer to the close vowels as consonants, but we will call them, together with the consonants, the weighted phonemes. The reason for this is that all weighted phonemes can be organised into pairs. In each pair one phoneme is said to be light, the other heavy. The terms 'light' and heavy correspond to 'slender' and 'broad' in Irish grammar and 'soft' and 'hard' in Russian grammar: the light phonemes are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy phonemes are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. The following table shows the Pre-Wendoth consonants together with their light and heavy reflexes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Pre-Wendoth consonant<br />
! Light reflex<br />
! Heavy reflex<br />
|-<br />
| *m<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
|-<br />
| *n<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
|-<br />
| *ŋ<br />
| nj~∅<sup>1</sup><br />
| ng~∅<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *p<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
|-<br />
| *b<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
|-<br />
| *t<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
|-<br />
| *d<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
|-<br />
| *k<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| *g<br />
| g<br />
| q~h~∅<sup>3</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *f<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
| *v<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
|- <br />
| *s<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
|-<br />
| *z<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
|-<br />
| *x<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| *ɣ<br />
| j<br />
| x~h~∅<sup>4</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *r<br />
| r<br />
| h~∅<sup>5</sup><br />
|-<br />
| *l<br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|-<br />
| *ʔ<br />
| į<br />
| ų<br />
|-<br />
| *ɦ<br />
| i<br />
| u<br />
|}<br />
<br />
# The light reflex of '''*ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and '''nj''' elsewhere. <br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*ŋ''' is '''∅''' word-finally and after close vowels and '''ng''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*g''' is '''q''' word-finally, '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially, and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*ɣ''' is '''x''' word-finally, '''∅''' after close vowels and word-initially, and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
# The heavy reflex of '''*r''' is '''∅''' word-initially, word-finally and after close vowels and '''h''' elsewhere.<br />
<br />
Each light phoneme therefore has a unique heavy counterpart. Not every heavy phoneme has a unique light counterpart, however. There are many morphemes which contain weighted phonemes that alternate in weight depending on the morphemes that follow; the citation forms of such morphemes are given with these consonants in their light manifestations, because then the heavy counterpart is always predictable.<br />
<br />
The table above also explains some alternations that can occur with stems that containing the light reflex of '''*ŋ''' or one of the heavy reflexes of '''*ŋ''', '''*g''' or '''*ɣ''', due to the differing forms of these reflexes in different environments.<br />
<br />
* '''nj''' disappears in word-final position.<br />
* Some (but not all) instances of '''ng''' disappear in word-final position and after close vowels; to distinguish disappearing '''ng''' from non-disappearing '''ng''' in positions where it may become word-final when an affix is added, we write it as '''NG'''.<br />
* Some instances of '''h''' fortify to '''q''' or '''x''' in word-final position; the other instances of '''h''' disappear in word-final position. However, all instances of '''h''' disappear in word-initial position and after close vowels. To distinguish the three kinds of '''h''' from each other in positions where they may become word-final when an affix is added, we write '''h''' that fortifies to '''q''' as '''Q''', we write '''h''' that fortifies to '''x''' as '''X''', and we reserve '''h''' for disappearing '''h'''.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''hewaį-''' 'be friendly', '''ewaį''' 'be friendly (spe. npa. ind.)', '''afhewaį''' 'be friendly (spe. npa. ind.) [informal variant]', '''ouewaį''' 'start being friendly (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auewaį''' 'stop being friendly (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
* '''hųmĮ-''' 'push', '''ųmų''' 'push (spe. npa. ind.)', '''inhųmų''' 'push something (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ouųmų''' 'start pushing (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auųmų''' 'stop pushing (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
There are actually no morphemes that begin with an underlying lax vowel, although there are morphemes that begin with underlying tense vowels.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''įke-''' 'bite', '''įk''' 'bite (spe. npa. ind.)', '''nįk''' 'bite somethng (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
There is one more alternation that occurs in nasals that were present in syllable codas in Pre-Wendoth. In word-final position, these nasals have remained in the Wendoth proto-language, and are written in the citation form of the morpheme. However, if a morpheme follows that begins with a consonant, the nasal disappears.<br />
<br />
=== Unweighted phonemes ===<br />
<br />
The lax vowels, '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''', and the open tense vowels, '''ą''' and '''ã''', comprise the unweighted phonemes. There are some alternations that occur with these phonemes, as well.<br />
<br />
Underlying central vowels '''e''', '''a''' and '''o''' undergo a process called mutation when they come to occur before an underlying nasal, which results in the following changes:<br />
<br />
* '''o''' becomes '''a'''.<br />
* '''a''' becomes '''e'''.<br />
* '''e''' becomes '''u''' adjacent to labials, '''i''' elsewhere.<br />
<br />
This is the reason '''o''' does not occur before nasals. Note that diphthongs are unaffected by this process; the lax vowel has to directly precede the nasal.<br />
<br />
Underlying central vowels also disappear when they come to occur word-finally. And '''e''' disappears, as well, when it comes to occur before a close vowel, which is why the diphthongs '''eį''', '''eų''', '''ei''' and '''eu''' do not appear.<br />
<br />
=== Weight harmony ===<br />
<br />
The Wendoth proto-language has a kind of harmony called weight harmony, which causes weighted phonemes in adjacent syllables to have the same weight. However, it only affects close vowels that precede another weighted phoneme and consonants that are separated from the following weighted phoneme by the vowel '''o''', or '''a''' if the following weighted phoneme is a nasal consonant. And it does not propagate: if there are more than two syllables in a sequence which could all be affected by weight harmony, it only affects the rightmost two weighted phonemes. Weight harmony is the result of a historical change which caused consonants before Pre-Wendoth '''*a''' to become palatalised if '''*i''' or '''*e''' followed in the next syllable, and only a single consonant was in between the '''*a''' and the '''*i''' or '''*e'''.<br />
<br />
In practice, weight harmony has quite different effects when it affects different kinds of morphemes: it can affect prefixes, athematic stems, thematic stems and suffixes, and there are different things you have to keep in mind in each of these cases. The same can be said for the other morphophonological alternations. See the section on [[#Stem varieties|stem varieties]] for an examination of each kind of morpheme individually. First, there is one final morphophonological process to take note of.<br />
<br />
=== Transformation ===<br />
<br />
All stems alternate between two forms, which are called the untransformed and transformed forms, although some stems have a transformed form which is identical to the untransformed form. The form which a stem takes depends on which suffix is added; some suffixes cause transformation, and some do not.<br />
<br />
Transformation causes the sequence of phonemes in a word-initial syllable of the form CV to be reversed, so that it becomes a syllable of the form VC. It applies before elision of initial '''Q''', '''X''' and '''h''', so that these consonants end up manifesting in the transformed form (as '''h''') even though they do not manifest in the untransformed form. However, transformation only produces this change if the initial syllable is followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant. Otherwise, and if the initial syllable has no underlying onset consonant, transformation produces no change in the stem.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''kashe-''' 'blood', '''kash''' 'blood (nom.)', '''akshų''' 'blood (acc.)', '''akshum''' 'blood (dat.)'<br />
* ''hewaį-''' 'be friendly', '''ewaį''' 'be friendly (non-past indicative)', '''ehwaįq''' 'be friendly (non-past subjunctive)'<br />
* '''sum-''' 'human', '''sum''' 'human (nom.)', '''sų''' 'human (acc.)', '''sum''' 'human (dat.)' (no transformation because all the words are monosyllabic)<br />
* '''įbun-''' 'forest', '''įbun''' 'forest (nom.)', '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)', '''įbung''' 'forest (dat.)' (no transformation because there is no word-initial consonant)<br />
<br />
Transformation also triggers vowel mutation when it causes a central vowel to precede a nasal. Although one might expect the reverse process to occur, where a vowel un-mutates when transformation causes it to no longer precede a nasal, this appears to have been universally levelled out by analogy.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''noiji-''' 'lip', '''noiji''' 'lip (nom.)', '''ainjių''' 'lip (acc.)', '''ainjim''' 'lip (dat.)'<br />
* '''medų-''' 'forehead', '''medų''' 'forehead (nom.)', '''umdų''' 'forehead (acc.)', '''umdųm''' 'forehead (dat.)'<br />
<br />
As well as roots, prefixes can be transformed. When a prefix is added to a stem, the prefix is transformed whenver possible.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''to-''' 'masc.', '''toįdh''' 'be imaginary (spe. npa. ind. masc.)', '''otdhemer''' 'move away from (spe. npa. ind. masc.)'<br />
<br />
=== Stem varieties ===<br />
<br />
There are two kinds of morphemes in the Wendoth proto-language, thematic morphemes (morphemes that end in a syllable rhyme) and athematic morphemes (morphemes that end in a syllable onset). The only athematic morphemes are determiner roots. These roots always end in a weighted phoneme which alternates in weight depending on the following suffix. Some suffixes are said to be light; adding these to the stem causes the final phoneme to manifest as light. And some suffixes are said to be heavy; adding these to the stem causes the final phoneme to manifest as heavy. In fact, the only athematic stems are determiner roots, so the only suffixes that are added to them are agreement suffixes, and it turns out that the agreement suffixes for animate nouns are light and the agreement suffixes for inanimate nouns are heavy. This is, most likely, a convenient coincidence.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''redh-''' 'few', '''redh''' 'few (nom. animate)', '''rev''' 'few (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''toį-''' 'this', '''toį''' 'this (nom. animate)', '''toų''' 'this (nom. inanimate)'<br />
<br />
If the final weighted phoneme is preceded by the vowel '''o''', or '''a''' if the final phoneme is a nasal consonant, then weight harmony will cause the consonant before this vowel to have the same weight as the final phoneme, too. A close vowel preceding the final weighted phoneme may also be affected by weight harmony, but not always; we write close vowels which are affected as '''Į''' (if creaky-voiced) or '''I''' (if breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''id-''' 'many', '''id''' 'many (nom. animate), '''ub''' 'many (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''ndan-''' 'one', '''ndan''' 'one (nom. animate)', '''mang''' 'one (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''yosh-''' 'other', '''yosh''' 'other (nom. animate)', '''wos''' 'other (nom. inanimate)'<br />
* '''Iį-''' 'some', '''iį''' 'some (nom. animate)', '''uų''' 'some (nom. inanimate)'<br />
<br />
As for thematic morphemes, these can be sub-classified into three kinds: tense morphemes, nasal morphemes and lax morphemes, in order of least to most complicated to deal with.<br />
<br />
Tense morphes are those that end in a tense vowel. These morphemes are invariant; additional morphemes can be directly appended to their ends.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ingi-''' 'food', '''ingi''' 'food (nom.)', '''ingių''' 'food (acc.)', '''ingim''' 'food (dat.)'<br />
* '''ngįą-''' 'be big', '''ngįą''' 'be big (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ngįąq''' 'be big (spe. npa. sub.)'<br />
* '''au-''' 'cessative', '''autha''' 'stop coming (spe. npa. ind.)', '''auįw''' 'stop being white (spe. npa. ind.)'<br />
<br />
Nasal morphemes are those that end in an underlying nasal. For these morphemes, the final nasal disappears if a morpheme that begins with a consonant follows. <br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''ndan-''' 'one', '''ndan''' 'one (nom.)', '''ndat''' 'one (ill.)', '''ndanį''' 'one (pos.)'<br />
* '''ngeyend-''' 'be ill', '''ngeyend''' 'be ill (spe. npa. ind.)', '''ngeyeq''' 'be ill (spe. npa. sub.)'<br />
<br />
Morphemes ending in a close vowel can be analysed as nasal morphemes with a final '''NG''' following the close vowel; due to the preceding close vowel, this '''NG''' always disappears. But it is simpler to analyse these morphemes as tense morphemes, and we will do so in general. The only exception is with nominal stems; some apparent tense nominal stems ending in a close vowel are of declension Type III (c), like nasal stems ending in '''NG''', and unlike tense stems, so these stems are considered to have underlying final '''NG'''.<br />
<br />
Lax morphemes are those that end in a lax vowel. If no morpheme follows after a lax morpheme, the final lax vowel is deleted. Final '''e''' also disappears if a morpheme beginning with a close vowel follows. And, if a morpheme beginning with a nasal follows, the final lax vowel mutates.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''hahezhe-''' 'fog', '''ahezh''' 'fog (nom.)', '''ahhezhų''' 'fog (acc.)', '''ahhezhum''' 'fog (dat.)'<br />
* '''sasa-''' 'success', '''sas''' 'success (nom.)', '''assaų''' 'success (acc.)', '''assem''' 'success (dat.)'<br />
* '''kochundo-''' 'tongue', '''kochum''' 'tongue (nom.)', ''''okchumoų''' 'tongue (acc.)', '''okchumam''' 'tongue (dat.)'<br />
<br />
Some morphemes show alternations in the final weighted phoneme due to weight harmony. These are called alternating morphemes, and they include all lax morphemes ending in '''o''', some of the tense morphemes ending in close vowels but not all of them (as with the determiner roots, we write a final close vowel that alternates in weight as '''Į''' or '''I'''), and no other morphemes.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''heko-''' '1p excl. pl', '''eq''' '1p. excl. pl. (nom.)', '''ehkoshã''' '1p excl. pl. (ins.)'<br />
* '''ijo-''' 'water', '''ix''' 'water (nom.)', '''ihoshã''' 'water (ins.)'<br />
* '''hųmĮ-''' 'hit', '''ųmų''' 'hit (non-past indicative)', '''ųhmįsh''' 'hit (habitual non-past indicative)'<br />
* '''to-''' 'masc.', '''ottho''' 'came (past indicative masc.), '''opngi''' 'saw (past indicative masc.)'<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Noun declension ===<br />
<br />
Nouns take three complement-marking cases, nominative, accusative and dative, which are primarily used to mark subjects, direct objects and indirect objects, respectively. The dative case is also used to mark the direct objects of certain monotransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
Nominal stems are, in general, transformed in the accusative and dative cases if possible, but not in the nominative case. For this reason, the citation forms of nouns stems in the nominative case are untransformed and the citation forms of noun stems in the accusative and dative cases are transformed. However, when a determiner precedes a noun the noun may be prevented from transforming. See the section on [[#Determiners|determiners]] for more information on this. So nouns in the accusative and dative cases are not always transformed. Likewise, adding derivational suffixes and postpositional clitics can result in nouns in the nominative case being transformed. <br />
<br />
For the purposes of declension, nouns can be classified into three types, I, II and III.<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type I nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type I nouns are the simplest. They have a single stem, which is used in all three cases, and it always ends in a lax vowel or a close vowel. The suffixes are as follows:<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-'''<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-'''<br />
<br />
Apart from the regular morphophonological alternations, there are no complications here. <br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''kashe-''' 'blood', '''kash''' 'blood (nom.)', '''akshų''' 'blood (acc.)', '''akshum''' 'blood (dat.)'<br />
* '''sasa-''' 'success', '''sas''' 'success (nom.)', '''assaų''' 'success (acc.)', '''assem''' 'success (dat.)'<br />
* '''ijo-''' 'water', '''ix''' 'water (nom.)', '''ihoų''' 'water (acc.)', '''iham''' 'water (dat.)'<br />
* '''noiji-''' 'lip', '''noiji''' 'lip (nom.)', '''ainjių''' 'lip (acc.)', '''ainjim''' 'lip (dat.)'<br />
* '''medų-''' 'forehead', '''medų''' 'forehead (nom.)', '''umdų''' 'forehead (acc.)', '''medųm''' 'forehead (dat.)'<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type II nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type II nouns have two stems, one which is used in the nominative case and called the primary stem, and one which is used in the other two cases and called the secondary stem. In Type II nouns, the primary stem ends in an open tense vowel, '''-ą''' or '''-ã''', while the secondary stem is like a Type I stem and ends in a close vowel or a lax vowel. Apart from the endings, the two stems are the same.<br />
<br />
The suffixes are exactly the same as with Type I nouns if the primary stem ends in '''-ą''', but if the primary stem ends in '''-ã''', there is a minor change: the accusative suffix is '''-I-''' rather than '''-Į-'''. We can therefore classify Type II nouns as Type II (a) (if their primary stem ends in '''-ą''') or Type II (b) (if their primary stem ends in '''-ã'''), and the two types have very slightly different declensions.<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-''' (subtype [a]), '''-I-''' (subtype [b])<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-'''<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''zashą-''' / '''zasha-''' 'fall', '''zashą''' 'fall (nom.)', '''azshaų''' 'fall (acc.)', '''azshem''' 'fall (dat.)'<br />
* '''kechã-''' / '''keche-''' 'father', '''kechã''' 'father (nom.)', '''ekchų''' 'father (acc.)', '''ekchum''' 'father (dat.)'<br />
<br />
==== Declension of Type III nouns ====<br />
<br />
Type III nouns also have two stems, one which is used in the nominative case and called the primary stem, and one which is used in the other two cases and called the secondary stem. And, as with Type II nouns, the secondary stem is like a Type I stem and ends in a close vowel or a lax vowel. The difference with Type III nouns is that the primary stem generally ends in a nasal: either '''nd''', '''m''', '''n''', '''ng''', '''nj''' or '''NG''. There are also a few Type III nouns that end in tense vowels, which can be seen as having an underlying final '''NG'' (as '''NG'' disappears after tense vowels). The vowel which precedes the nasal is always the mutated form of the vowel that ends the secondary stem.<br />
<br />
There are three subtypes of Type III nouns, which use slightly different dative suffixes. Type III (a) nouns end in '''nd''' or '''m''' and have the dative suffix '''-ma-''' (as usual). Type III (b) nouns end in '''n''' or '''ng''' and have the dative suffix '''-nga-'''. And Type III (c) nouns end in underlying '''nj''' or '''NG''' and have the dative suffix '''-NGa-''' (the '''NG''' disappears after tense vowels). Note that in each case, the initial consonant of the dative suffix is the heavy counterpart of the final nasal.<br />
<br />
* Nominative: '''-∅-'''<br />
* Accusative: '''-Į-'''<br />
* Dative: '''-ma-''' (subtype [a]), '''-nga-''' (subtype [b]), '''-NGa-''' (subtype [c])<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
* '''sum-''' / '''se-''' 'human', '''sum''' 'human (nom.)', '''sų''' 'human (acc.)', '''sum''' 'human (dat.)'<br />
* '''įbun-''' / '''įbu-''' 'forest', '''įbun''' 'forest (nom.)', '''įbuų''' 'forest (acc.)', '''įbung''' 'forest (dat.)'<br />
* '''taunj-''' / '''tau-''' 'heart', '''tau''' 'heart (nom.)', '''tauų''' 'heart (acc.)', '''tau''' 'heart (acc.)'<br />
<br />
==== Adjunct-marking cases ====<br />
<br />
In addition to the three complement-marking cases, the Wendoth proto-language can be analysed as having thirteen additional adjunct-marking cases. Alternatively, it can be analysed as having seven clitic postpositions (with some of them having different meanings when their object noun has a different case). Neither analysis is much more correct than the other, although the analysis as clitic postpositions is arguably more simple.<br />
<br />
The clitic postpositions are:<br />
* '''-ta-''' 'to', the locative / allative / illative postposition (locative / allative with an accusative object, illative with a nominative object; also proximate allative / illative with a dative object)<br />
* '''-zha-''', the inessive / elative / ablative postposition (inessive / elative with a nominative object, ablative with a nominative object; also proximate elative / ablative with a dative object)<br />
* '''-į-''' 'of', the possessive postposition (inalienable possessive with an accusative object, alienable possessive with a nominative object)<br />
* '''-dha-''' 'of', the genitive postposition (inalienable genitive with an accusative object, alienable genitive with a nominative object)<br />
* '''-shã-''' 'with', the instrumental postposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
* '''-ce-''' 'with', the comitative preposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
* '''-qį-''' 'for', the benefactive preposition (always takes a nominative object)<br />
<br />
They are added as suffixes like any other to the nominal stem (with one of the complement-marking case suffixes already added) and all the usual morphophonological alternations occur. Note that apart from '''-qį-''', all the postpositions begin with a light consonant, and so the accusative suffix manifests as '''-į''' before them and final consonants of nominal which alternate in weight, which always manifest as heavy when the complement-marking case suffixes are added in isolation, manifest as light before them.<br />
<br />
If the Wendoth proto-language had postpositions, it was a unusual example of a language which had postpositions but had primary VSO word order. There was a strong tendency in the Wendoth languages for the postpositions to start being used as prepositions instead (they still usually acted as clitics, but did not necessary cliticise to the object noun). But some postpositions resisted this shift by being reanalysed as case suffixes. In particular, the instrumental preposition '''-shã-''' was reanalysed as a case suffix in every Wendoth language.<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
==== Personal pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are five personal prominal roots: '''be-''' '1p sg.', '''sub''' or '''seb''' '1p incl. pl.' (both variants are evidenced from different Wendoth languages), '''heqo-''' '1p excl. pl', '''sing-''' / '''se-''' or '''se-''' '2p sg.' (both variants are evidenced from different Wendoth languages) and '''niNG-''' / '''ne-''' '2p pl.'. Each root has a suppletive stem in the accusative case, which does not take the usual accusative case sufix: '''ḍã-''' '1p sg.', '''muḍã-''' '1p incl. pl.', '''ḍãḍã-''' '1p excl. pl.', '''mu-''' '2p sg.' and '''mumu-''' '2p pl.'. These accusative pronouns transform in the same circumstances where any other accusative nouns would transform, but their citation forms are untransformed because the untransformed form is not completely predictable from the transformed form (normally one can figure out the untransformed form by looking at the citation form for the nominative case, but this only works when the stem used in the nominative case begins with the same sequence of phonemes).<br />
<br />
The declensions of each pronoun are given below.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!colspan="3"| First-person<br />
!colspan="2"| Second-person<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Singular<br />
! Incl. pl.<br />
! Excl. pl.<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| be-<br />
| sube-, sebe-<br />
| heqo-<br />
| sing- / se-, se-<br />
| niNG- / ne-<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ḍã-<br />
| muḍã-<br />
| ḍãḍã-<br />
| mu-<br />
| mumu-<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| bema-<br />
| uzbuma-, ezbuma-<br />
| heqama-<br />
| singa-<br />
| niNGa-, ne-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
No third-person pronouns can be reconstructed. It seems that the masculine and feminine argument markers '''-to-''' and '''-ko-''' were used for this purpose most of the time, and otherwise, demonstratives were used.<br />
<br />
There is also a reflexive pronoun, '''wo''', which is used only as the object of postpositions, as there is also a reflexive argument marker.<br />
<br />
Opnevį amndochãzh owqį.<br />
po -ne -vį mandochã-zha wo -qį<br />
MASC-INTR-do eternity-from REFL-for <br />
'He only does things for his own benefit.'<br />
<br />
==== Demonstrative pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are seven demonstrative pronouns, which have regular declensions.<br />
<br />
* The first-person demonstrative '''cho-''', '''ṭobe-''' 'this', used for objects close to the speaker. '''ṭobe-''' is a variant of '''cho-''' which is reflected in some Wendoth languages and appears to have been formed by analogy with the second-person demonstrative.<br />
<br />
Oqmąq ṭoų bum.<br />
ko -mą -qa cho -ų be -ma<br />
FEM-take_from-SUB this-ACC 1p.SG-DAT<br />
'Take this.' (speaker is holding a gift and addressing a female)<br />
<br />
* The second-person demonstrative '''ṭosing-''', '''ṭose''' 'that', used for objects close to the addressee. Both variants are reflected in different Wendoth languages.<br />
<br />
Oq otreq oṭsų bum?<br />
qo to -rem- -qo ṭose-ų be -ma<br />
maybe MASC-give.NPST-SUB that-ACC 1p.SG-DAT <br />
'Could you give me that?' (male addressee is holding a gift)<br />
<br />
* The "approximal" demonstrative '''jhã-''', which is glossed as 'here' but is used in a wider sense. It is used for all objects whose location relative to the speaker is hard to place, whether because of uncertainty or because the speaker is within or on top the object, and so the object is all around them.<br />
<br />
Jhã mau?<br />
jhã mau<br />
here what<br />
'What's that?' (referring to a noise not coming from any particular direction)<br />
<br />
Jhã įwaw ez.<br />
jhã įwawa hezo<br />
here be_fine.NPST very<br />
'This is a very fine house!'<br />
<br />
* The mesiodistal demonstratives '''va-''' and '''xe-''' 'that', used for objects which are at some location removed from both the speaker and the addressee, but fairly close. '''va-''' is used for visible objects and '''xe-''' is used for non-visible objects.<br />
<br />
Ai opmegą sing vaų.<br />
ai to -mugiʔ sing va -ų<br />
why_not MASC-take 2p.SG that-ACC<br />
'You can take that.' (addressing a male)<br />
<br />
Okreq xeų bum.<br />
ko -rem- qa xe -ų be -ma<br />
FEM-give.NPST-SUB that-ACC 1p.SG-DAT<br />
'Give me that.' (female addressee is holding something, but trying to obscure it from the speaker's view)<br />
<br />
* The distal demonstratives '''vava-''' and '''xexe-''' 'yonder', used for objects which are far away from the speaker and the addressee. '''vava-''' is used for visible objects and '''xexe-''' is used for non-visible objects.<br />
<br />
Opngeq sing avvaų?<br />
to -nge -qa sing vava-ų<br />
MASC-see.NPST-SUB 2p.SG that-ACC<br />
'Can you see that?' (addressing a male, referring to settlements visible in the distance)<br />
<br />
Exxezh endcindup.<br />
xexe-zha nde -cindu -to<br />
that-from somebody-kill.PST-MASC<br />
'He was killed there.' (referring to a distant place)<br />
<br />
==== Interrogative pronouns ====<br />
<br />
There are two interrogative pronouns which have regular declensions. '''ndai-''' 'who' is used for animates and '''mau-''' 'what' is used for inanimates.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| osjosh <br />
| osjoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
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The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
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Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
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==== Possession ====<br />
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In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
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The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
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It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
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==== Locatives ====<br />
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The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
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==== Other prepositions ====<br />
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'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
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=== Copulas ===<br />
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Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
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For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
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=== Complement clauses ===<br />
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Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
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The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
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An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
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=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
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=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
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Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
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=== Comitatives ===<br />
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The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
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=== Conditionals ===<br />
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Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
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Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
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=== Comparatives ===<br />
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Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
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Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
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=== Interrogatives ===<br />
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For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
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For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
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=== Negatives ===<br />
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Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
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The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
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Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
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== Semantics ==<br />
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=== Specificity ===<br />
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Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
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=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
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=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Pre-WendothPre-Wendoth2015-03-26T17:59:58Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Pre-Wendoth<br />
| date = c. -3000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = [[West Tuysáfa]]<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = agglutinative<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Pre-Wendoth''' is the ancestor of the [[Wendoth]] language. Our knowledge of the language is tentative and based on internal reconstruction. Judging by the extent of the changes that occured in the course of the development into Wendoth, it was likely spoken a considerable amount of time before Wendoth, perhaps around -3000 YP. Its speakers were probably still hunter-gatherers. It may have been spoken in the central region of west Tuysáfa like its descendant, or in another region; we cannot say for certain.<br />
<br />
= Sound changes to Wendoth =<br />
<br />
[+open] > [+front] / _[-syllabic][+front], _[+nasal][-syllabic], [+nasal]#<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
[a] was fronted to [æ] before syllables containing a front vowel ([i] or [e]), and also before coda nasals. Elsewhere, it was backed to [ɑ]. This alternation was, at this stage, allophonic.<br />
<br />
[+consonantal] > [+front] / _[+front], [+front]_#, [+front]_[+consonantal]<br />
[+consonantal] > [+back] / _[+back], [+back]_#, [+back]_[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Cconsonants before front vowels, or in a syllable coda following a front vowel, were allophonically palatalised, and consonants before back vowels, or in a syllable coda following a back vowel, were allophonically velarised (except for [k], [g], [x] and [ɣ], which were already velar). The previous change had resulted in every vowel being either front or back, so every consonant was affected by this change: before Pre-Wendoth *a, consonants were palatalised if the *a was followed by a syllable containing *i or *e or a nasal in the syllable coda, and otherwise (if the *a was word-final, followed by a syllable containing *u, *o or *a, or followed by a laryngeal in the syllable coda) they were velarised.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [-front, -back]<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] merged as [ɨ], [e] and [o] merged as [ə] and [æ] and [ɑ] merged as [a]. This caused the distinctions between the palatalised and velarised consonants to become phonemic.<br />
<br />
[+syllabic] > [+creaky] / _[LARYNGEAL, -continuant]<br />
[+syllabic] > [+breathy] / _[LARYNGEAL, +continuant]<br />
<br />
Vowels before [ʔ] acquired creaky voice and vowels before [ɦ] acquired breathy voice. At this stage, this was an allophonic alternation.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -close] > a / _[LARYNGEAL]#, _[LARYNGEAL][-syllabic]<br />
[LARYNGEAL] > ∅ / _#, _[-syllabic]<br />
<br />
The contrast between the three central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a]) was neutralised before laryngeals in syllable codas; all three were lowered to [a] (this change suggests that the laryngeals may have been pharyngeal or uvular in this environment). Laryngeals in syllable codas were then deleted, but Pre-Wendoth *a, *Vʔ and *Vɦ as syllable rhymes were still distinguished by the differing phonations of the remaining [a]. Every Wendoth word containing creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced /a/ either developed the phoneme by this change (and hence has it in word-final position), or is not of Pre-Wendoth vintage.<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +front] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +back] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[-consonantal] > [+creaky] / [+creaky]_<br />
[-consonantal] > [+breathy] / [+breathy]_<br />
<br />
The palatalised and velarised glottal consonants vocalised into vowels: [i] if palatalised, [u] if velarised. They also acquired the phonation of the preceding vowel, so that palatalised and velarised [ʔ] became creaky-voiced vowels and palatalised and velarised [ɦ] became breathy-voiced vowels. [i] and [u], of course, remained distinct from Pre-Wendoth *i and *u as those two vowels had merged into [ɨ]. By now, the language had developed a three-way phonation contrast of plain, creaky and breathy registers, although the three were only contrasted word-finally on [a] at this point.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -front, -back] > ∅ / _[-consonantal, high]<br />
[+syllabic, -front, -back] > ∅ / [+syllabic, +high]_<br />
[+syllabic] > [-syllabic] / [+syllabic]_<br />
<br />
The previous change produced sequences of three vowels in a row, with the middle one being [i] or [u]. This unstable situation was resolved by this change. First, [ɨ] disappeared before [i] and [u]. Secondly, all central vowels (i.e. vowels other than [i] and [u]) disappeared after [i] and [u] (this was probably accompanied by lengthening of the preceding close vowel). The restriction to central vowels is just there to prevent sequences of the form [Viɨi], [Viɨu], [Vuɨi] or [Vuɨu] (< Pre-Wendoth *VHiH/VHuH where H is a glottal consonant) from becoming monosyllabic [Vi] or [Vu], rather than disyllabic [Vii], [Viu], [Vui] or [Vuu]. Finally, [i] and [u] became [j] and [w] when following another vowel, producing the diphthongs [əj], [əw], [aj] and [aw].<br />
<br />
Sequences of two identical close vowels, [ii] and [uu], produced by this change were also dissimilated to [ui] and [iu], respectively. This change only applied within stems; outside of them, it was obscured by analogy.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+nasal] / _[+nasal]<br />
[+nasal] > ∅ / _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Nasals disappeared before consonants, but their former presence was betrayed by nasalisation (which also applied to vowels before remaining nasals). The off-glides [j] and [w] of diphthongs were nasalised by this change, but the nucleus of the diphthongs were not nasalised with them (and in the end the nasalised diphthongs ended up indistinguishable from the non-nasalised diphthongs).<br />
<br />
∅ > j / [LABIAL, +palatalised]_<br />
[+nasal] > [-continuant] / _j<br />
[CORONAL, -continuant, +front] > [+delayed release]<br />
[LABIAL] > [CORONAL, +anterior] / _j<br />
j > ∅ / [-syllabic]_<br />
<br />
This sequence of changes is behind the curious fact that in Wendoth, the dentals pattern as the palatalised versions of the labials. It is not known exactly how the Pre-Wendoth labials turned into dentals when palatalised, but this is one hypothesis: they initially changed into clusters with [j], then the labials assimilated to the following [j], taking a less anterior position in the mouth, and became coronals, although they still had a more anterior position than the other coronals, and the following [j]s were dropped. It is likely that these new coronals were still palatalised, at least at first. Therefore, the palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronal stops *t and *d were probably affricated to [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] at this time, for otherwise there would be little difference between them and the new coronals.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth [m], when palatalised, became a prenasalised stop [nd] rather than dental [n]. This is probably the result of the cluster [mj] undergoing epenthesis and becoming [mbj], with the [bj] then changing as usual to dental [d], and with the preceding [m] assimilating to the [d]'s place of articulation.<br />
<br />
[+open, +creaky] > [+front]<br />
[+open, +breathy] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a] acquired differences in quality from central, plain [a]: creaky-voiced [a] became front [a̟] and breathy-voiced [a] became back [ɑ] (while still retaining their respective phonations).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -front, -back] > ∅ / [+syllabic][-syllabic]_#,<br />
<br />
Word-final central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a]) disappeared, unless they were in the initial syllable. This change must have occured after the change of palatalised labials into dentals, because clusters with [j] are unlikely to have occured word-finally. It also must have occured after the change in quality of creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a], because they were not affected by this change. <br />
<br />
After this change, a sandhi process started to occur by which, when a word-final consonant was followed by a word-initial consonant, the vowel in the initial syllable of the following word was inserted to break up the cluster.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > ∅ / #[-syllabic]_[-syllabic][+syllabic]<br />
<br />
Vowels disappeared in the initial syllables of words, unless it was the only syllable. Together with the sandhi phenomenon described above, this change resulted in the phenomenon of [[Wendoth#Transformation|transformation]] in the Wendoth proto-language. It was prevented from applying in most unmarked forms by analogy with monosyllabic unmarked forms.<br />
<br />
[+open, +nasalised, -back] > [+front]<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Nasalised and non-nasalised [a] acquired differences in quality: nasalised [a], if not already backed due to breathy voice, became front [a̘] and non-nasalised [a], if not already fronted due to creaky voice, became back [ɑ]. This eliminated all remaining instances of central [a] from the language. To summarise, [a] became front [a̘] when creaky-voiced or nasalised and modally-voiced, and [a] became back [ɑ] otherwise (when breathy-voiced or non-nasalised and modally-voiced).<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, -approximant, -front] > [+low]<br />
<br />
Velar non-approximants ([k], [g], [x], [ɣ] and [ŋ]), if not palatalised, became uvular ([q], [ɢ], [χ], [ʁ] and [ɴ]).<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -sonorant] > [-voice] / _#<br />
ɢ > ʁ<br />
rˠ > ʁ<br />
<br />
Word-final voiced uvular obstruents ([ɢ] and [ʁ]) were devoiced. Then remaining [ɢ] and [rˠ] merged into [ʁ], the latter probably via [ʀ]. The change of [rˠ] to [ʁ] reintroduced word-final [ʁ], but it was later elided in this environment (see below).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -close, -open, -nasal] > [+open]<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -nasal] > [-close]<br />
[-consonantal, +open, +back] > [-open] / _[-syllabic]<br />
<br />
A vowel shift occured which affected non-nasalised vowels only. First, [ə] became [a] and [ɨ] became [ə]. This affected creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced versions of [ə] in the diphthongs [əj] and [əw] as well. Then, [ɑ], in order to contrast further with [a], raised to something like [o]. However, word-final [ɑ] (which was always breathy-voiced) did not become [o].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +nasal] > [-nasal]<br />
a̘ > a<br />
ɨ > ṳ / [LABIAL]_, _[LABIAL]<br />
ɨ > i̤<br />
<br />
Nasalised vowels were denasalised. The front [a̘] which was formerly nasalised merged with the central [a] which originated from former [ə]. The vowel [ɨ], now only present where it had formerly been nasalised, as it had shifted to [ə] elsewhere, merged with either [i̤] or [ṳ]: [u] adjacent to labials, [i] elsewhere. It is likely that its nasalisation was reinterpreted as breathy voice, rather than it being lost first.<br />
<br />
ʁ, ɴ > ∅ / _#, [+syllabic, +close]_<br />
ʁ > ∅ / #_<br />
ŋʲ > ∅ / _#<br />
<br />
[ʁ] and [ɴ] disappeared word-finally and after [i] or [u] (creaky-voiced, breathy-voiced or neither). [ʁ] also disappeared word-initially. Palatalised [ŋʲ] also disappeared word-finally.<br />
<br />
nˠ, ɴ > ŋ<br />
<br />
Velarised [n] and remaining [ɴ] merged into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
lʲ > j / _[+syllabic, -close] ^ [+syllabic, +close]_<br />
lˠ > w / _[+syllabic, -close] ^ [+syllabic, +close]_<br />
<br />
Palatalised and velarised [l] became semivowels [j] and [w] except in syllable codas and adjacent to [i] and [u].<br />
<br />
At some point, a change in the stress must also have occured where, in words containing [i] or [u] (i.e. long vowels), the stress was shifted to the rightmost syllable that contained one of these vowels.<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
<br />
The following table shows the reconstructed consonants of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Coronal<br />
! Dorsal<br />
! Laryngeal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ŋ<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b<br />
| t d<br />
| k g<br />
| ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| f v<br />
| s z<br />
| x ɣ<br />
| ɦ<br />
|-<br />
! Liquid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| r l<br />
|bgcolor="gray" colspan="2"|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Before '''u''' and '''o''', and also before '''a''' if it is followed by a syllable containing '''u''', '''o''' or '''a''' (unless the '''a''' is followed by a nasal in the syllable coda), it is impossible to distinguish Pre-Wendoth '''g''', '''ɣ''' and '''r'''. '''G''' is used to represent an indeterminate '''g''', '''ɣ''' or '''r''' in this environment. For example, '''soGo''' 'be old' might be '''sogo''', '''soɣo''' or '''soro'''.<br />
<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth is reconstructed with the standard five vowels.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| i<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| u<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| e<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| o<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|a<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
It is likely that '''a''' had a front allophone before nasals in the syllable coda and syllables containing '''i''' or '''e''', and a back allophone elsewhere. After '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ''' and before '''ʔ''' and '''ɦ''' in the syllable coda, it is impossible to distinguish the front vowels and the back vowels from each other (although *a can be sometimes be distinguished via morphology); '''I''' is used to represent an indeterminate front vowel and '''U''' is used to represent an indeterminate back vowel. For example, '''ŋuʔU''' 'sweat' might be '''ŋuʔu''' or '''ŋuʔo''' (but its morphology shows that it is not '''ŋuʔa''') and '''lanIɦ''' 'girl' might be '''laniɦ''' or '''laneɦ'''. '''I''' and '''U''' are also used to represent the final vowels of certain particles, because final vowels were lost during the development into Wendoth (this is not a problem for morphemes that take endings, but it is for particles). For example, the submissive imperative particle '''nixI''' might be '''nixi''' or '''nixe'''.<br />
<br />
== Syllable structure ==<br />
<br />
As far as can be told, all syllables were of the form CV except for final syllables, which could have a final consonant: either a nasal or a laryngeal. CVC syllables could also appear before some morpheme boundaries (e.g. before the second noun in a compound or before a classifier suffix). In this document, morpheme boundaries of this kind have been indicated by hyphens. It is possible that there were also CVC syllables, even within morphemes, ending in nasals, but as nasals in syllable codas were deleted during the development into Wendoth this cannot be determined. It is, perhaps, unlikely, though; after all, there were certainly no CVC syllables within morphemes that ended in laryngeals.<br />
<br />
== Suprasegmentals ==<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, stress probably fell without exception on the penultimate syllable if there was more than one syllable. The loss of word-final vowels during the development into Wendoth resulted in the stress falling without exception on the final syllable. The movement of the stress to preceding close vowels is likely a later development.<br />
<br />
= Morphology =<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
<br />
Only three cases are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: nominative, accusative and dative. The suffixes are '''-∅''' (nominative), '''-ʔU''' (accusative) and '''-mo''' (dative). The suffixes are altered slightly when added to stems ending in a final consonant: the '''-ʔ-''' of the accusative suffix disappears after a laryngeal but annihilates a preceding nasal, while the '''-m-''' of the dative suffix disappears after a nasal but annihilates a preceding laryngeal.<br />
<br />
Each nominal stem in Pre-Wendoth had no more than three syllables. Disyllabic nominal stems were not significantly more common than trisyllabic ones. Monosyllabic nominal stems were rare and always had a final laryngeal or nasal, e.g. '''ʔiʔ''' 'hand', '''sum''' 'person'.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Six personal pronominal morphemes are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: '''bu''' '1p sg. nom.', '''doɦ''' '1p sg. acc.', '''ruka''' '1p excl. pl. nom.', '''sun''' '2p sg. nom.', '''muɦU''' '2p sg. acc.' and '''niŋ''' '2p pl. nom.' The first-person inclusive plural pronoun was formed by compounding the second and first-person singular pronouns: '''sun-bu''' '1p. incl. pl. nom', '''muɦU-daɦ''' '1p. incl. pl. acc'. The accusative forms of the first-person exclusive plural and second-person plural pronouns were formed by reduplication of the corresponding singular pronouns: '''doɦ-doɦ''' '1p excl. pl. acc.', '''muɦU-muɦU''' '2p pl. acc.'. The dative endings for each pronoun were formed regularly from their nominative forms.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!colspan="3"| First-person<br />
!colspan="2"| Second-person<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Singular<br />
! Incl. pl.<br />
! Excl. pl.<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| bu<br />
| sun-bu<br />
| ruka<br />
| su(n)<br />
| niŋ<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| doɦ<br />
| muɦU-doɦ<br />
| doɦ-doɦ<br />
| muɦU<br />
| muɦU-muɦU<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| bumo<br />
| sun-bumo<br />
| rukamo<br />
| suno<br />
| niŋo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The final '''-n''' of '''sun''' tended to be dropped in the Wendoth languages by analogy with '''bu'''. There was also a tendency for the final '''-U''' of '''muɦU''' to be dropped by analogy with '''doɦ'''.<br />
<br />
There was also a reflexive pronoun '''la''', which declined regularly. When it occured as the direct object of a verb, it was incorporated into the verb as the suffix '''-la'''.<br />
<br />
be ʔamu-la.<br />
be ʔamu-la<br />
1p.SG hit -REFL<br />
'I hit myself.'<br />
<br />
Seven demonstrative pronouns are reconstructed, which decline regularly: '''ta(-bu)''' 'this (near me)', '''ta-sun''' 'that (near you)', '''dIɦ''' 'that (around us)', '''vo''' 'that (visible and close to us)', '''vo-vo''' 'that (visible and far away)', '''xu''' 'that (out of sight but close to us)', '''xu-xu''' 'that (out of sight and far away)'. It is possible that '''vo-vo''' and '''xu-xu''' are later innovations that were not present at the Pre-Wendoth stage. Evidence from most Wendoth languages suggests '''ta''' for the proximal demonstrative, but evidence from others suggests '''ta-bu'''; it is impossible to tell whether the addition of '''-bu''' is an innovation or not. <br />
<br />
Two interrogative pronouns, with an animacy distinction, are reconstructed: '''meɦi''' 'who' and '''meɦu''' 'what'. <br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
=== Tense, aspect and mood ===<br />
<br />
Two verbal tenses are reconstructed, past and non-past. The suffixes are '''-∅''' (non-past) and '''-ŋ''' (past). The '''-ŋ-''' of the past suffix annihilates a preceding laryngeal. There were no verb stems that ended in a nasal. <br />
<br />
In order to convey aspectual and modal information, verb compounds can be formed, with the head being appended after the stem, including the tense suffix, of the complement verb. The head also bears a tense suffix of its own. The meaning of the resulting compound is 'to H the act of doing C', where 'H' is the head verb and 'C' is the complement verb. Some examples of verbs that can be used as heads are listed below.<br />
<br />
* '''fa''' 'come' and '''gi''' 'go'; often added after verbs involving movement, with a kind of vague intensifying effect<br />
<br />
Pa zaseŋ-giŋ!<br />
pa zaseʔ-ŋ -gi-ŋ<br />
MASC.SG fall -PAST-go-PAST<br />
'He fell right over!'<br />
<br />
* '''ɣa''' 'precede, come before'; used together with an adjunct noun in the dative case to indicate that the event described by the noun (which is understood to have been carried out by the subject of the main clause) preceded the event described in the main clause. Tended to have '''gi''' appended afterwards as well, so that the reflex in the Wendoth language is '''og(e-)''' (< '''ɣa-gi''') (some Wendoth languages have '''tog(e-)''' by analogy). <br />
<br />
bu foʔira-Gahuŋo xonuŋ-ɣaŋ.<br />
bu foʔira-Gahu -ŋ -mo xonu-ŋ -ɣa -ŋ<br />
1p.SG.NOM sleep -begin-PAST-DAT cry -PAST-precede-PAST<br />
'I cried before I went to sleep.'<br />
<br />
* '''ti''' 'succeed, come after'; used together with an adjunct noun in the dative case to indicate that the event described by the noun (which is understood to have been carried out by the subject of the main clause) succeeded the event described in the main clause. Tended to have '''gi''' appended afterwards as well, so that the reflex in the Wendoth language is '''cheg(e-)''' (< '''ti-gi''').<br />
<br />
bu xonuŋo fooʔira-Gaɦuŋ-tiŋ.<br />
bu xonu-ŋ -mo foʔira-Gahu -ŋ -ti -ŋ<br />
1p.SG.NOM cry -PAST-DAT sleep -begin-PAST-succeed-PAST<br />
'I went to sleep after I cried.'<br />
<br />
* '''te''' 'accompany, be alongside'; used together with an adjunct noun as the object of the comitative postposition '''xi''' to indicate that the event described by the noun (which is understood to have been carried out by the subject of the main clause) took place at the same time as the event described in the main clause. The time of reference, for the event described by the noun, is taken to be the time of the event described in the main clause, and tense suffixes are used accordingly. Tended to have '''gi''' appended afterwards as well, so that the reflex in the Wendoth language is '''tag(e-)''' (< '''te-gi''').<br />
<br />
bu xonu ce foʔira-Gaɦuŋ-teŋ.<br />
bu xonu ce foʔira-Gahu -ŋ -te -ŋ<br />
1p.SG.NOM cry with sleep -begin-PAST-succeed-PAST<br />
'I went to sleep crying.'<br />
<br />
* '''ɣaɦu''' 'begin' and '''goɦu''' 'end'; used to indicate inchoative and cessative aspect, respectively. Possibly compounds '''ɣa-hu''' and '''go-hu''', although the indistinguishability of the complement of this compound from '''ɣa''' 'precede' might be a coincidence.<br />
<br />
sufi niheroʔ-Gahu.<br />
sufi niheroʔ-Gahu<br />
sky be_dark-begin<br />
'It's getting dark.'<br />
<br />
* '''ko'''. The meaning of this verb is uncertain, but it developed into the subjunctive suffix '''-q(a-)''' of the Wendoth proto-language.<br />
<br />
* '''se'''. The meaning of this verb is uncertain, but it developed into the habitual suffix '''-sh(a-)''' of the Wendoth proto-language.<br />
<br />
Like nominal stems, verbal stems had one to three syllables. Unlike nominal stems, monosyllabic verbal stems of the form CV were possible, and quite a few of them can be reconstructed. As well as the ones above which were used in verb compounds, there were also verbs like '''ho''' 'exist, be true', '''nu''' 'see, know', '''la''' 'resemble''''zi''' 'be the same as'.<br />
<br />
=== Argument reference ===<br />
<br />
Verbs also take classifier prefixes and suffixes indicating the nominal class of their subject and object. The prefixes indicate the class of the subject and the suffixes indicate the class of the object. For each class, the corresponding prefix and suffix are identical in form. The suffixes are added after the tense suffixes.<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes in total. The associated affixes are listed below.<br />
<br />
* I (males): '''pa'''<br />
* II (females): '''ka'''<br />
* III (food): '''ɦI'''<br />
* IV: (strong animates): '''za'''<br />
* V: (weak animates): '''ra'''<br />
* VI: (instruments): '''xim'''<br />
* VII: (fluids): '''boʔa'''<br />
* VIII: (solids): '''ʔe'''<br />
* IX: (places): '''fIʔ'''<br />
* X: (feelings): '''ma'''<br />
* XI: (abstractions): '''dora'''<br />
<br />
Little can be said about which nouns were assigned to which class, because it tended to be highly variable between different Wendoth languages. In fact, different classifiers could often be used with the same noun to give different meanings. One notable phenomenon attested across the Wendoth languages is the use of the III and IV classifiers to distinguish animals from their associated meats:<br />
<br />
nuŋ-za bu doŋuʔU.<br />
nu -ŋ -za bu doŋu-ʔU<br />
see-PAST-IV 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I saw a hare.'<br />
<br />
hIkeŋ-ɦI bu doŋuʔU.<br />
ɦIke-ŋ -ɦI bu doŋu-ʔU<br />
eat -PAST-III 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I ate hare meat'.<br />
<br />
== Determiners ==<br />
<br />
Determiner roots always end in a consonant. They are inflected so as to agree with the noun they modify with respect to both case and class. The endings for the accusative and dative cases are the same, so the agreement only distinguishes the nominative from the other cases. Similarly, the agreement only distinguishes four kinds of nouns with respect to class: nouns referring to humans (classes I-II), nouns referring to animates (classes III-V), nouns referring to inanimates (classes VI-IX) and nouns referring to abstractions (classes X-XI). The endings are as follows.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative / Dative<br />
|-<br />
! I-II<br />
| -i-ne<br />
| -Iʔ-ne<br />
|-<br />
! III-V<br />
| -i<br />
| -Iʔ<br />
|-<br />
! VI-IX<br />
| -u<br />
| -Uʔ<br />
|-<br />
! X-XI<br />
| -u-ve<br />
| -Uʔ-ve<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The demonstratives can also be used as determiners; for each demonstrative, one adds '''-ʔ''' to the end of the nominal root to get the determiner, except in the case of '''dIɦ''' 'that (around us)' which already has a final consonant. There is also an interrogative determiner '''meɦ-''' (compare the two interrogative pronouns '''meɦi''' 'who' and '''meɦu''' 'what').<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth had a small, closed class of postpositions. Exactly seven are reconstructed: '''pe''', '''ze''', '''ve''', '''ʔI''', '''xi''', '''seɦ''', '''koʔI'''.<br />
<br />
'''pe''' and '''ze''' are the locative postpositions. Depending on the case of the object noun, they carry different meanings, given by the following table.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! from<br />
! at<br />
! to<br />
|-<br />
! outside<br />
| '''ze''' + accusative<br />
| '''pe''' + accusative<br />
| '''pe''' + accusative<br />
|-<br />
! inside<br />
| '''ze''' + nominative<br />
| '''ze''' + nominative<br />
| '''pe''' + nominative<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Either preposition can also take its object in the dative case, in which case it connotes imprecision.<br />
<br />
'''ve''' and '''ʔI''' are the possessive postpositions. The key difference between them seems to be that '''ʔI''' is only used for possession of an inanimate by an animate. The object takes the accusative case if the possession is inalienable and the nominative case if the possession is alienable. '''ve''' is used to indicate other kinds of possession where one animate possesses another animate (e.g. kinship relationships), one inanimate possesses another inanimate (e.g. compositional relationships), or an inanimate possesses an animate (e.g. the possession of an agent by an action taken). Again, the object takes the accusative case if the possession is inalienable and the nominative case if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
bu ʔI noki<br />
bu ʔI noki<br />
1p.SG of head<br />
'my head'<br />
<br />
The remaining three prepositions, '''xi''', '''seɦ''' and '''koʔI''', have, respectively, comitative, instrumental and benefactive meanings, and their objects all take the nominative case.<br />
<br />
There are a variety of nouns which are used in fixed phrases with combinations of adpositions to give more specific meanings. For example, there are two nouns ɣele and todo, whose meanings can be glossed as 'the space above sth.' and 'the space below sth.', and are used to convey the meanings of 'above' and 'below'.<br />
<br />
bu zuʔa-ʔUgoraʔU ve ɣele ze pa-niʔIŋ <br />
bu zuʔa-ʔUgora-ʔU ve ɣele ze pa -niʔI-ŋ<br />
1p.NOM.SG tree-top -ACC of below in MASC-sit -PAST<br />
I sat under a tree.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Internal reconstruction of syntax is difficult, so little is known about Pre-Wendoth syntax. It does seem that it was originally head-final, but transitioned to head-initial during the development into Wendoth (although determiners remained preceding their head nouns). The basic word order was, therefore, probably SOV, and postpositional phrases preceded their head nouns.<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
<br />
See [[Wendoth/Lexicon]].</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-03-23T14:05:58Z<p>Alces: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa. <br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
!colspan="3"| Coronal<br />
!colspan="2"| Dorsal<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!<br />
! Anterior<br />
! Posterior, apical<br />
! Posterior, laminal<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ŋʲ/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''bd''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|colspan="2"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The precise phonetic values of these consonants are somewhat uncertain.<br />
<br />
* The anterior coronals, '''nd''', '''t''', '''d''', '''th''' and '''dh''', originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials (the velarised Pre-Wendoth labials developed into the labials of the Wendoth proto-language). The nature of the contrast between these consonants and the apical posterior coronals is not entirely certain. '''th''' and '''dh''' definitely contrasted with '''s''' and '''z''' in that the latter two consonants were sibilants. However, the contrast may have been augmented by retroflexion or velarisation on '''s''' and '''z''' and/or palatalisation on '''th''' and '''dh'''. Likewise, '''nd''', '''t''' and '''d''' may have been palatalised, especially if '''ṭ''' and '''ḍ''' were velarised alveolars rather than retroflex consonants.<br />
<br />
* The apical posterior coronal obstruents originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth coronals. It is possible that they were simply velarised alveolar consonants, considering their historical origin (and '''s''' and '''z''' may have been entirely ordinary alveolar consonants, contrasting with '''th''' and '''dh''' only by sibilance) but they have become retroflexes in the majority of the daughter languages.<br />
<br />
* The laminal posterior coronal obstruents originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronals. '''ch''' and '''jh''' were affricates, although it is uncertain whether they were merely palatalised alveolars [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] or laminal postalveolars [tʃ] and [dʒ]. '''sh''' and '''zh''', likewise, may have been palatalised alveolars [sʲ] and [zʲ]. '''n''' and '''r''', although it is not certain whether they were apical or laminal, also originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*r''' respectively and may have been pronounced with some degree of palatalisation.<br />
<br />
* The front velars (apart from '''y''') originate from palatalised Pre-Wendoth velars. It seems more likely that they were palatalised velars rather than full palatals, as they are reflected as velars in some of the Wendoth languages; however, the transcriptions /ɲ/, /c/, /ɟ/, /ç/ and /ʝ/ are commonly seen for '''nj''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j'''.<br />
<br />
* Most of the back velars originate from velarised Pre-Wendoth velars, and were pronounced as uvulars in the Wendoth proto-language. The exceptions are '''ng''', which originates from the velarised forms of both Pre-Wendoth '''*n''' and '''*ŋ''' (although the latter became ∅ rather than '''ng''' after close vowels and word-finally), and '''w'''.<br />
<br />
* '''ng''' may have in fact been a prenasalised stop /ŋg/, like '''nd''', as many Wendoth languages have /ŋg/ as a reflex of it in at least some environments.<br />
<br />
* Velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*g''', '''*ɣ''' and '''*r''' all merged into '''h''' in the Wendoth proto-language. '''h''' was probably pronounced as an approximant rather than a fricative most of the time. In the Wendoth languages, it often debuccalised to [ɦ] or disappeared.<br />
<br />
* '''y''' and '''w''' originate from palatalised and velarised Pre-Wendoth '''*l''', respectively. In many of the Wendoth languages, the reflexes of '''y''' and '''w''' are still lateral in certain environments: in syllable codas, or adjacent to close vowels. It is therefore supposed that in the proto-language, earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w], respectively, in many environments, but retained their lateral pronunciation in syllable codas and adjacent to close vowels. Thus '''ųįy''' 'often' was probably pronounced something like [ṳː'i̤ːlʲ] and '''zow''' 'play' was probably pronounced something like ['zolˠ].<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/, '''i''' /i̤/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/, '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
| '''e''' /ɘ/, '''o''' /ɞ/<br />
|bgcolor="gray"|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowel system of the Wendoth proto-language, as reconstructed here, can be understood as contrasting three different vowel qualities and three different phonations (modal, creaky and breathy voice). In the creaky- and breathy-voiced systems, the three qualities are /i/, /u/ and /a/ (with /a/ front in the creaky-voiced system and back in the breathy-voiced system). In the modally-voiced system, the vowels are centralised, so the three qualities are /ɘ/, /ɞ/ and /a/.<br />
<br />
The exact phonetic values of '''e''', ''a'' and '''o''' are, however, somewhat uncertain. Historically, they arise mainly from Pre-Wendoth '''*i''' and '''*u''' (which merged as '''*ɨ'''), '''*e''' and '''*o''' (which merged as '''*ə''') and '''*a''' respectively. A chain shift occured in which '''*ɨ''' and '''*ə''' lowered, and '''*a''' was backed and raised. The reconstruction of '''*o''' as /ɞ/ makes the system nicely symmetrical, but it could just as well have been pronounced more like [ɔ] or [o]. In broad phonemic transcriptions, '''e''' and '''o''' may be transcribed simply as /e/ and /o/.<br />
<br />
The creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced vowels were longer than the other vowels, at least when not word-finally; they attracted the stress from its default position on the final syllable. Word-finally, it appears that they were short, but often pronounced with a following [ʔ] (if creaky-voiced) or [ɦ] (if breathy-voiced). Creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a] appear only in morpheme-final syllables, although exceptions might be made for loanwords.<br />
<br />
There are diphthongs '''ei''' /ɘi/, '''eu''' /ɘu/, '''ai''' /ai/, '''au''' /au/, '''oi''' /ɞi/ and '''ou''' /ɞu/, which can have breathy voice or creaky voice. These can be analysed as sequences consisting of modally voiced vowels and creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced close vowels. However, the phenomenon of initial syllable inversion suggests that the diphthongs were morphophonologically single segments: for example, we have '''yaif''' ['jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' and '''aiyfaų''' ['ai̤lʲfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form CVC; in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not in their unmarked forms. Every consonant appears word-finally except '''ny''' and '''h'''. '''h''' also does not appear word-initially. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form CV. The initial syllable inversion phenomenon produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqat''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /ndˠ/, /nɣʲ/, /ngʲ/, /xʲʁ/, /ɣʲʁ/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sʁ/ and /zʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'j''', '''n'g''', '''c'h''', '''j'h''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in a close vowel. Historically, all syllables beginning with a vowel originally began with Pre-Wendoth *ŋ, *g, *ɣ or *r, which were elided in these environments when velarised.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is assigned regularly to the final close vowel ('''i''', '''u''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts) in a word if the word contains a close vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. There is some evidence that loanwords like '''barqat''' might have been stressed differently, in the same way as the source language, by at least some speakers.<br />
<br />
Function words, like the pronouns, often carry no stress.<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
* '''be''' 'I' /bɘ/ <br />
* '''kochum''' 'tongue' /kʲɞtʃṳm/ [kʲɞˈtʃṳːm]<br />
* '''coįã''' 'foreigner' /xʲɞḭa̤/ [xʲɞḭˈɑ̤ɦ]<br />
* '''ucoy''' 'edge' /ṳxʲɞj/ [ˈṳːxʲɞlʲ]<br />
* '''umndų''' 'mother (acc.)' /ṳmⁿd̪ṵ/ [ṳˈn̪d̪ṵʔ] (the cluster '''mnd''' was preserved by the influence of the unmarked form '''mund''', but it was likely that it, and other difficult-to-pronounce clusters, underwent ''ad hoc'' simplifications in practice).<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| osjosh <br />
| osjoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Pre-WendothPre-Wendoth2015-03-22T12:29:39Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Pre-Wendoth<br />
| date = c. -3000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = [[West Tuysáfa]]<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Pre-Wendoth''' is the ancestor of the [[Wendoth]] language. Our knowledge of the language is tentative and based on internal reconstruction. Judging by the extent of the changes that occured in the course of the development into Wendoth, it was likely spoken a considerable amount of time before Wendoth, perhaps around -3000 YP. Its speakers were probably still hunter-gatherers. It may have been spoken in the central region of west Tuysáfa like its descendant, or in another region; we cannot say for certain.<br />
<br />
= Sound changes to Wendoth =<br />
<br />
[+open] > [+front] / _[-syllabic][+front], _[+nasal]#<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
[a] was fronted to [æ] before consonants followed by a front vowel ([i] or [e]), and also before coda nasals. Elsewhere (including before coda glottals, whether or not they were followed by a front vowel), it was backed to [ɑ]. This alternation was, at this stage, allophonic.<br />
<br />
[+consonantal] > [+front] / _[+front], [+front]_#, [+front]_[+consonantal]<br />
[+consonantal] > [+back] / _[+back], [+back]_#, [+back]_[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Cconsonants before front vowels, or in a syllable coda following a front vowel, were allophonically palatalised and consonants before back vowels, or in a syllable coda following a back vowel, were allophonically velarised (except for [k], [g], [x] and [ɣ], which were already velar). The last change had resulted in every vowel being either front or back, so every consonant was affected by this change.<br />
<br />
In particular, consider the fate of the consonants in syllable codas after Pre-Wendoth *a. Nasals had the preceding *a fronted to [æ] by the previous change, so they were palatalised by this change. Glottals, on the other hand, had the preceding *a backed to [ɑ] (unless there was a following syllable containing Pre-Wendoth *i or *e) and therefore were velarised.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [-front, -back]<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] merged as [ɨ], [e] and [o] merged as [ə] and [æ] and [ɑ] merged as [a]. This completed the process of the transferral of the [+front] and [+back] features of vowels to surrounding consonants started by the previous change.<br />
<br />
[+syllabic] > [+creaky] / _[LARYNGEAL, -continuant]<br />
[+syllabic] > [+breathy] / _[LARYNGEAL, +continuant]<br />
<br />
Vowels before [ʔ] acquired creaky voice and vowels before [ɦ] acquired breathy voice. At this stage, this was an allophonic alternation.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > a / _[LARYNGEAL]#, _[LARYNGEAL][+consonantal]<br />
[LARYNGEAL] > ∅ / _#, _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
It is likely that [ʔ] and [ɦ] were realised as pharyngeals in syllable codas. If so, the effect of this change was to neutralise the contrast between the three vowels (by merging them into [a]) before pharyngeals. That is, [ɨ] and [ə] both become [a] before [ʔ] and [ɦ] in a syllable coda. [ʔ] and [ɦ] were subsequently deleted in the syllable coda, but Pre-Wendoth *a, *Vʔ and *Vɦ as syllable rhymes were still distinguished by the differing phonations of the remaining [a]. Every Wendoth word containing creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced /a/ either developed the phoneme by this change, or is not of Pre-Wendoth vintage.<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +front] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +back] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[-consonantal] > [+creaky] / [+creaky]_<br />
[-consonantal] > [+breathy] / [+breathy]_<br />
<br />
The palatalised and velarised glottal consonants vocalised into vowels: [i] if palatalised, [u] if velarised. They also acquired the phonation of the preceding vowel, so that palatalised and velarised [ʔ] became creaky-voiced vowels and palatalised and velarised [ɦ] became breathy-voiced vowels. [i] and [u], of course, remained distinct from Pre-Wendoth *i and *u as those two vowels had merged into [ɨ]. By now, the language had developed a three-way phonation contrast of plain, creaky and breathy registers.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -front, -back] > ∅ / _[-consonantal, high]<br />
[+syllabic, -front, -back] > ∅ / [+syllabic, +high]_<br />
[+syllabic] > [-syllabic] / [+syllabic]_<br />
<br />
The previous change produced sequences of three vowels in a row, with the middle one being [i] or [u]. This unstable situation was resolved by this change. First, [ɨ] disappeared before [i] and [u]. Secondly, all central vowels (i.e. vowels other than [i] and [u]) disappeared after [i] and [u]. The restriction to central vowels is just there to prevent sequences of the form [Viɨi], [Viɨu], [Vuɨi] or [Vuɨu] (< Pre-Wendoth *VHiH/VHuH where H is a glottal consonant) from becoming monosyllabic [Vi] or [Vu], rather than disyllabic [Vii], [Viu], [Vui] or [Vuu]. Finally, [i] and [u] became [j] and [w] when following another vowel, producing the diphthongs [əj], [əw], [aj] and [aw].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+nasal] / _[+nasal]<br />
[+nasal] > ∅ / _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Nasals disappeared before consonants, but their former presence was betrayed by nasalisation (which also applied to vowels before remaining nasals).<br />
<br />
∅ > j / [LABIAL, +palatalised]_<br />
[+nasal] > [-continuant] / _j<br />
[CORONAL, -continuant, +front] > [+delayed release]<br />
[LABIAL] > [CORONAL, +anterior] / _j<br />
j > ∅ / [-syllabic]_<br />
<br />
This sequence of changes is behind the curious fact that in Wendoth, the dentals pattern as the palatalised versions of the labials. It is not known exactly how the Pre-Wendoth labials turned into dentals when palatalised, but this is one hypothesis: they initially changed into clusters with [j], then the labials assimilated to the following [j], taking a less anterior position in the mouth, and became coronals, although they still had a more anterior position than the other coronals, and the following [j]s were dropped. It is likely that these new coronals were still palatalised, at least at first. Therefore, the palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronal stops *t and *d were probably affricated to [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] at this time, for otherwise there would be little difference between them and the new coronals.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth [m], when palatalised, became a prenasalised stop [nd] rather than dental [n]. This is probably the result of the cluster [mj] undergoing epenthesis and becoming [mbj], with the [bj] then changing as usual to dental [d], and with the preceding [m] assimilating to the [d]'s place of articulation.<br />
<br />
[+open, +creaky] > [+front]<br />
[+open, +breathy] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a] acquired differences in quality from central, plain [a]: creaky-voiced [a] became front [a̟] and breathy-voiced [a] became back [ɑ] (while still retaining their respective phonations).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -front, -back] > ∅ / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a]) disappeared. This change must have occured after the change of palatalised labials into dentals, because clusters with [j] are unlikely to have occured word-finally. It also must have occured after the change in quality of creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a], because they were not affected by this change.<br />
<br />
[+open, +nasalised, -back] > [+front]<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Nasalised and non-nasalised [a] acquired differences in quality: nasalised [a], if not already backed due to breathy voice, became front [a̘] and non-nasalised [a], if not already fronted due to creaky voice, became back [ɑ].<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, -approximant, -front] > [+low]<br />
<br />
Velar non-approximants ([k], [g], [x], [ɣ] and [ŋ]), if not palatalised, became uvular ([q], [ɢ], [χ], [ʁ] and [ɴ]).<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -sonorant] > [-voice] / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final voiced uvular obstruents ([ɢ] and [ʁ]) were devoiced.<br />
<br />
ɢ > ʁ<br />
rˠ > ʁ<br />
<br />
[ɢ] and [rˠ] merged into [ʁ], the latter probably via [ʀ].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -close, -open, -nasal] > [+open]<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -nasal] > [-close]<br />
[-consonantal, +open, +back] > [-open] / _[-syllabic]<br />
<br />
A vowel shift occured which affected non-nasalised vowels only. First, [ə] became [a] and [ɨ] became [ə]. This affected creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced versions of [ə] in the diphthongs [əj] and [əw] as well. Then, [ɑ], in order to contrast further with [a], raised to [o]. However, word-final [ɑ] (which was always breathy-voiced, non-breathy-voiced word-final *a having been deleted) did not become [o].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +nasal] > [-nasal]<br />
a > a̘<br />
ɨ > u / [LABIAL]_<br />
ɨ > i<br />
<br />
Nasalised vowels were denasalised. The central [a] which originated from former [ə] merged with the front [a̘] which was formerly nasalised. The vowel [ɨ], now only present where it had formerly been nasalised, as it had shifted to [ə] elsewhere, merged with either [i] or [u]: [u] after labials, [i] elsewhere. It did not, however, acquire any creaky or breathy voice. So three different phonations ended up being contrasitive on [i] and [u]: plain, creaky and breathy.<br />
<br />
ʁ, ɴ > ∅ / _#, [+syllabic, +close]_<br />
ŋʲ > ∅ / _#<br />
<br />
[ʁ] and [ɴ] disappeared word-finally and after [i] or [u] (creaky-voiced, breathy-voiced or neither). Palatalised [ŋʲ] also disappeared, but only word-finally.<br />
<br />
nˠ, ɴ > ŋ<br />
nʲ > n<br />
<br />
Velarised [n] became velar, and palatalised [n] lost its palatalisation. Remaining [ɴ] merged with [ŋ].<br />
<br />
lʲ > j / _[+syllabic]<br />
lˠ > w / _[+syllabic]<br />
<br />
Palatalised and velarised [l] became semivowels [j] and [w] before vowels.<br />
<br />
At some point, a change in the stress must also have occured where, in words containing [i], [u] or creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced [a], the stress was shifted to the rightmost syllable that contained one of these vowels.<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
<br />
The following table shows the reconstructed consonants of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal<br />
Nasal *m *n *ŋ <br />
Plosive *p *b *t *d *k *g *ʔ<br />
Fricative *f *v *s *z *x *ɣ *ɦ<br />
Rhotic *r<br />
Lateral *l<br />
<br />
Before *u and *o, and also before *a if it is followed by a syllable containing *u, *o or *a (unless the *a is followed by a nasal in the syllable coda), it is impossible to distinguish Pre-Wendoth *g, *ɣ and *r. *G is used to represent an indeterminate *g, *ɣ or *r in this environment. For example, *soGo 'be old' might be *sogo, *soɣo or *soro.<br />
<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth is reconstructed with the standard five vowels.<br />
<br />
Front Central Back<br />
Close *i *u<br />
Mid *e *o<br />
Open *a<br />
<br />
It is likely that *a had a front allophone before nasals in the syllable coda and syllables containing *i or *e, and a back allophone elsewhere. After *ʔ and *ɦ and before *ʔ and *ɦ in the syllable coda, it is impossible to distinguish the front vowels and the back vowels from each other; *I is used to represent an indeterminate front vowel and *U is used to represent an indeterminate back vowel. For example, *ŋuʔU 'sweat' might be *ŋuʔu, *ŋuʔo or *ŋuʔa and *lanIɦ 'girl' might be *laniɦ or *laneɦ. *I and *U are also used to represent the final vowels of certain particles, because final vowels were lost during the development into Wendoth (this is not a problem for morphemes that take endings, but it is for particles). For example, the submissive imperative particle *nixI might be *nixi or *nixe.<br />
<br />
== Syllable structure ==<br />
<br />
As far as can be told, all syllables were of the form CV except for final syllables, which could have a final consonant: either a nasal or a glottal consonant. CVC syllables could also appear before some morpheme boundaries (e.g. before the second noun in a compound or before a classifier suffix). In this document, morpheme boundaries of this kind have been indicated by hyphens. It is possible that there were also CVC syllables, even within morphemes ending in nasals, but as nasals in syllable codas were deleted during the development into Wendoth this cannot be determined. It is, perhaps, unlikely, though; after all, there were certainly no CVC syllables within morphemes that ended in glottal consonants.<br />
<br />
== Suprasegmentals ==<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, stress probably fell without exception on the penultimate syllable if there was more than one syllable. The loss of word-final vowels during the development into Wendoth resulted in the stress falling without exception on the ultimate syllable. The movement of the stress to preceding phonated vowels is likely a later development.<br />
<br />
= Morphology =<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
<br />
Only three cases are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: nominative, accusative and dative. For nominal roots ending in a vowel, the nominative is unmarked, while the other two cases are marked by suffixes, *-ʔU and *-mo respectively. There are also some nominal roots that end in a nasal consonant; for these, the nominative is unmarked as usual, but the *-ʔ of the accusative suffix annihilates the preceding nasal, while the dative suffix is just *-o.<br />
<br />
The instrumental case of Wendoth is generally assumed to be of recent origin from a postposition *sIɦ, due to the fact that, if it was a case suffix in Pre-Wendoth, it would have to come directly after the nasal consonants that end some nominal roots. For example, the Wendoth noun *zˠəja 'night noise' (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ) is *zˠəjaʃa̤ in the instrumental case (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ-sIɦ). Pre-Wendoth *zulasIɦ would result in Wendoth *zˠəjoʃa̤.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Six personal pronominal morphemes are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: *bu '1p sg. nom.', *dUɦ '1p sg. acc.', *reka '1p excl. pl. nom.', *su(n) '2p sg. nom.', *mu(n) '2p sg. acc.' and *ni '2p pl. nom.' The first-person inclusive plural pronoun was formed by compounding the second and first-person singular pronouns: *sun-bu '1p. incl. pl. nom', *mu(n)-daɦ '1p. incl. pl. acc'. The accusative forms of the first-person exclusive plural and second-person plural pronouns were formed by reduplication of the corresponding singular pronouns: *dUɦ-dUɦ '1p excl. pl. acc.', *mu(n)-mu(n) '2p pl. acc.'. The dative endings for each pronoun were formed regularly from their nominative forms.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc. Dat.<br />
1p sg. bu dUɦ bumo<br />
1p excl. pl. su(n)-bu mu(n)-dUɦ su(n)-bumo<br />
1p incl. pl. reka dUɦ-dUɦ rekamo<br />
2p sg. su(n) mu(n) sumo<br />
2p pl. ni mu(n)-mu(n) nimo<br />
<br />
The final *-n of *su(n) and *mu(n) is of uncertain status. Some of the Wendoth languages suggest *sun and *mun, some of them suggest *sun and *mu, some of them suggest *su and *mu, and some of them suggest *su and *mun. It is likely that at least one of the pronouns had a final *-n, but the final *-n of the other one, where it is evidenced, might have been in an analogical innovation.<br />
<br />
Seven different demonstratives are reconstructed: *ta(-bu) 'this (near me)', *ta-sun 'that (near you)', *dIɦ 'that (around us)', *vo 'that (visible and close to us)', *vo-vo 'that (visible and far away)', *xu 'that (out of sight but close to us)', *xu-xu 'that (out of sight and far away)'. Evidence from most Wendoth languages suggests *ta for the proximal demonstrative, but evidence from North Wendoth and Mbethi suggests *ta-bu; it is impossible to tell whether the addition of *-bu is an innovation or not.<br />
<br />
Two interrogative pronouns, with an animacy distinction, are reconstructed: *mi 'who' and *mu 'what'.<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
There are two verbal tenses, past and non-past. The vast majority of reconstructed verbal roots end in a vowel or a laryngeal consonant; these are called the thematic roots, and they are unmarked in the non-past tense and take the suffix *-ŋ in the past tense. There is also a small collection of roots (*fal- 'come', *ɦis- 'go', *rem- 'give', *muʔ- 'take from', *tax- 'hold') which end in a consonant; these are called the athematic roots. They became the "irregular verbs" of Wendoth, but at the Pre-Wendoth stage they regularly took *-i in the non-past tense and *-aŋ in the past tense. There may have been more athematic roots in Pre-Wendoth which either fell out of use or were assimilated into the thematic class.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth likely made heavy use of compound verbs to convey aspectual and modal information. The head verb would follow the modifier verb, as expected given that Pre-Wendoth was, in general, a head-final language. For example, *Gahu 'begin' was used to convey the beginning of a process.<br />
<br />
*sufi niheroʔ-Gahu.<br />
sufi niheroʔ-Gahu<br />
sky be_dark-begin<br />
'It's getting dark.'<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, a switch occured from head-final to head-initial alignment, so that the head verbs in compound verbs ended up preceding their modifier verbs. But several head verbs were, instead, reanalysed as suffixes. It is likely that the subjunctive and habitual suffixes of Wendoth originated from the same source; although we do not know which verbs they originated from: the subjunctive suffix descends from *-ko and the habitual suffix descends from *-se, but the actual verbs probably had more than one syllable (like the vast majority of Pre-Wendoth verbs). Other verbs underwent the same process of reanalysis in various Wendoth languages, but *-ko and *-se are the two universally attested suffixes.<br />
<br />
Verbs also take classifier prefixes and suffixes indicating the nominal class of their subject and object. The prefixes indicate the class of the subject and the suffixes indicate the class of the object. For each class, the corresponding prefix and suffix are identical in form. The suffixes are added directly after the final -ŋ of the past suffixes.<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes in total. The associated affixes are listed below.<br />
<br />
* I (males): pa<br />
* II (females): ka<br />
* III (food): ɦI<br />
* IV: (strong animates): za<br />
* V: (weak animates): ra<br />
* VI: (instruments): xim<br />
* VII: (fluids): boʔa<br />
* VIII: (solids): ʔe<br />
* IX: (places): fIʔ <br />
* X: (feelings): ma<br />
* XI: (abstractions): dora<br />
<br />
Little can be said about which nouns were assigned to which class, because it tended to be highly variable between different Wendoth languages. In fact, different classifiers could often be used with the same noun to give different meanings. One notable phenomenon attested across the Wendoth languages is the use of the III and IV classifiers to distinguish animals from their associated meats:<br />
<br />
*nuŋ-za bu doŋuʔU.<br />
nu -ŋ -za bu doŋu-ʔU<br />
see-PAST-IV 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I saw a hare.'<br />
<br />
*hIkeŋ-ɦI bu doŋuʔU.<br />
ɦIke-ŋ -ɦI bu doŋu-ʔU<br />
eat -PAST-III 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I ate hare meat'.<br />
<br />
== Determiners ==<br />
<br />
Determiner roots always end in a consonant. They are inflected so as to agree with the noun they modify with respect to both case and class. The endings for the accusative and dative cases are the same, so the agreement only distinguishes the nominative from the other cases. Similarly, the agreement only distinguishes four kinds of nouns with respect to class: nouns referring to humans (classes I-II), nouns referring to animates (classes III-V), nouns referring to inanimates (classes VI-IX) and nouns referring to abstractions (classes X-XI). The endings are as follows.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc./Dat.<br />
I-II *-i-ne *-Iʔ-ne<br />
III-V *-i *-Iʔ<br />
VI-IX *-u *-Uʔ<br />
X-XI *-u-vo *-Uʔ-vo<br />
<br />
The demonstratives can also be used as determiners; for each demonstrative, one adds *-ʔ to the end of the nominal root to get the determiner, except in the case of *dIɦ 'that (around us)' which already has a final consonant. There is also an interrogative determiner *m- (compare the two interrogative pronouns *mi 'who' and *mu 'what').<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
<br />
Only seven postpositions can be reconstructed: *pe 'to', *ze 'from', *ve 'of (inalienable)', *ʔI 'of (alienable)', *xi 'with (comitative), *seɦ 'with (instrumental)' and *koʔI 'for'. The meanings of the locative postpositions, *pe 'to' and *ze 'from', are only roughly indicated by their glosses. *pe is used to indicate movement towards an object, whether it is movement *within* the object or not: there is no distinction between 'in' and 'into'. Likewise, *ze is used to indicate movement away from an object, whether it is movement from within the object or not. But when there is no movement, whereas English has separate words in this case&mdash;'in' to indicate a position within the object, 'at' otherwise&mdash;Pre-Wendoth uses *ze for 'in' and *pe for 'at'.<br />
<br />
There are a variety of nouns which are used in fixed phrases with combinations of adpositions to give more specific meanings. For example, there are two nouns ɣele and todo, whose meanings can be glossed as 'the space above sth.' and 'the space below sth.', and are used to convey the meanings of 'above' and 'below'.<br />
<br />
*bu pa-niʔIŋ xele zuʔa-ʔUgora ve ze.<br />
bu pa -niʔI-ŋ ɣele zuʔa-ʔUgora ve ze<br />
1p.NOM.SG MASC-sit -PAST below top- tree of in.<br />
I sat under a tree.<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, the postpositions either turned into case suffixes or turned into prepositional clitics. They had different fates in different Wendoth languages, although *sIɦ, in particular, turned into a case suffix in every Wendoth language, so that it can be reconstructed as a case suffix at the Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Internal reconstruction of syntax is difficult, so little is known about Pre-Wendoth syntax. It does seem that it was originally head-final, but transitioned to head-initial during the development into Wendoth (although determiners remained preceding their head nouns). The basic word order was, therefore, probably SOV.<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
<br />
{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
Glosses are for the Wendoth reflexes; we cannot tell what semantic shifts may have occured during the development into Wendoth.<br />
<br />
boʔa: n. (VII) 'litter' (as in, objects scattered on the ground)<br />
bu: 1p sg. pron. (acc. dah)<br />
dUɦ: acc. form of bu<br />
dUɦ-dUɦ: acc. form of reka<br />
dIɦ: n. 'that (around us)'<br />
dIɦ-: det. 'that (around us)'<br />
fal-: v. it. 'come'<br />
feɦIme: n. (II) 'woman, wife'<br />
fIʔ: v. it. 'be situated, exist'<br />
fIʔ-xim: n. (VI) 'house'<br />
fIʔ-go: n. (VI) 'leader's house'<br />
GaɦU: v. 'begin'<br />
GoxeɦU: n. (I) 'man, husband'<br />
ɦIka: n. (III) 'meat'<br />
ɦIme: n. (II) insulting term for a woman<br />
ɦIs-: v. it. 'go'<br />
ɦUpo: v. mt. 'pass through'<br />
kaka-: n. (II) 'mother'<br />
kasoro-: n. (II) 'spinster' (with negative connotations)<br />
koʔI: prep. for<br />
lanIɦ: n. (II) 'girl'<br />
lodo: n. (I) 'boy'<br />
-lu: reflexive clitic<br />
m-: det. 'who/what'<br />
mi: n. 'who'<br />
mu: n. 'what'<br />
mun: acc. form of sun<br />
mun-mun: acc. form of ni<br />
muʔ: v. dt. 'take from'<br />
niɦIrUʔ: v. it. 'be dark'<br />
papa-: n. (I) 'father'<br />
pasoro-: n. (I) 'bachelor' (with negative connotations)<br />
rano: n. (III) 'vegetable' (as opposed to meat)<br />
reka: 1p excl. pl. pron. (acc. dah-dah)<br />
rem-: v. dt. 'give'<br />
ni: 2p. pl. pron. (acc. mun-mun)<br />
ruza: n. (IV) 'game' (as in, hunted animals)<br />
soro: v. 'be old'<br />
sum: n. (IV) 'human'<br />
sun: 2p. sg. pron. (acc. mun)<br />
sun-bu: 1p incl. pl. pron. (acc. mun-dah)<br />
ta(-bu): n. 'this'<br />
ta(-bu)ʔ-: det. 'this'<br />
ta-su: n. 'that (near you)'<br />
ta-suʔ-: det. 'that (near you)'<br />
tax-: v. mt. 'hold'<br />
vo: n. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
vovo: n. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
vovuʔ-: det. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
voʔ-: det. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
xeɦU: n. (I) insulting term for a man<br />
xi: prep. with (an additional participant)<br />
xu: n. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
xuxu: n. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuxuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
ʔUgora: n. (V) 'tree'<br />
ʔIbuɦIŋ: n. (IX) 'forest'<br />
ʔIta-ʔIta: n. (VII) 'gravel'<br />
zulaŋ: n. (IX) 'nocturnal noise' (birds chirping, etc.)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2015-03-22T03:04:31Z<p>Alces: Rewriting for better presentation. Changed the orthography a little too. Introduction and Phonology rewritten so far.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] is a language spoken in the central area of west [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. The term '''wendoth''' is a self-appellation; the Wendoth probably called their language '''ayewendoth''' ('Wendoth speech'), but we will refer to the language, and the people who spoke it, as Wendoth in this document. An earlier form of the language, [[Pre-Wendoth]], can be reconstructed which probably dates to around -3000 YP. The Wendoth are thought to have taken up agriculture around -2500 YP. 500 years later they started to migrate out of their original homeland, perhaps due to unsustainable agricultural practices. The descendants of Wendoth are referred to as the [[Wendoth languages]] and are found across a wide area of west Tuysáfa. <br />
<br />
The Wendoth languages are thought to be part of the [[Mediundic]] macrofamily. In particular, there are a number of grammatical similarities and some regular sound correspondances between Wendoth and [[Proto-Mbingmik]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Coronal<br />
! <br />
!<br />
! Dorsal<br />
!<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
!<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪ʲ/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''ny''' /ɲ/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''pt''' /t̪ʲ/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''t''' /tˠ/<br />
| '''k''' /kʲ/<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''bd''' /d̪ʲ/<br />
|colspan="2"| '''d''' /dˠ/<br />
| '''g''' /gʲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|colspan="3"| '''ts''' /tsʲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|colspan="3"| '''dz''' /dzʲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /xʲ/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /z/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ɣʲ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|colspan="3"| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /lʲ~j/<br />
| '''w''' /lˠ~w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On the basis of morphophonology, the consonants can be divided into two classes, which are known as the light consonants and the heavy consonants, so that each light consonant has a heavy consonant associated to it and vice versa. Historically, the light consonants are reflexes of palatalised Pre-Wendoth consonants and the heavy consonants are reflexes of velarised Pre-Wendoth consonants. However, the situation in Wendoth is not so simple. For example, you might expect '''pt''' and '''bd''' to be the light counterparts of '''t''' and '''d''' respectively. After all, they are phonetically different only with respect to their secondary articulations. But, in fact, as hinted at by the orthography, '''pt''' and '''bd''' are the light counterparts of '''p''' and '''b''' respectively; '''t''' and '''d''' are actually the heavy counterparts of '''ts''' and '''dz''' respectively. It appears that the palatalised Pre-Wendoth labials underwent a remarkable shift to dentals (or anterior coronals of some kind), because we likewise find that '''th''' and '''dh''' are the light counterparts of '''f''' and '''v''' respectively and '''nd''' is the light counterpart of '''m'''.<br />
<br />
The situation is, fortunately, more straightforward with the dorsals: the front dorsals ('''ny''', '''k''', '''g''', '''c''' and '''j''') are the light counterparts of the back dorsals ('''ng''', '''q''', '''h''', '''x''' and '''h''') [note that '''h''' is the heavy counterpart of both '''g''' and '''j''', due to the lenition of earlier */ɢ/]. There are some complications here ('''ng''' and '''h''' disappear in certain environments where their light counterparts are retained) which are elaborated on below. As for the approximants, '''y''' is the light counterpart of '''w''' while '''r''' is a third light counterpart of '''h'''.<br />
<br />
The reconstructed phonetic values of the consonants are, of course, somewhat uncertain. '''ng''' may have in fact been a prenasalised stop /ŋg/, like '''nd''', as many Wendoth languages have /ŋg/ as a reflex of it in at least some environments. The velarisation of '''t''' and '''d''' may, in fact, have been labialisation, or it may even have been that '''t'' and '''d''' had no secondary articulation, but were distinguished from '''pt''' and '''bd''' by retroflexion. There is evidence from the Wendoth languages for all three possibilities. It is also uncertain whether '''pt''' and '''bd''' were palatalised, as they tended to be reflected as ordinary dentals in the Wendoth languages. The palatalisation of '''ts''' and '''dz''' is more firmly established as their reflexes in many of the Wendoth languages are /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ respectively. The palatalised velars might have been full palatals, although in some Wendoth languages they are reflected as ordinary velars, which is more unlikely if they were palatal in the first place. The phonetic value of '''h''' was once uncertain, as it tended to disappear or debuccalise to [ɦ] in Wendoth languages, but as a better understanding of the morphophonology of the proto-language has emerged, it has been firmly established that it was a voiced uvular fricative / approximant, for otherwise it is difficult to explain its position as the heavy counterpart of both '''j''' and '''r'''.<br />
<br />
In many of the Wendoth languages, the reflexes of '''y''' and '''w''' are lateral in certain environments, but never prevocalically. It is therefore supposed that in the proto-language, earlier [lʲ] and [lˠ] had already become [j] and [w] respectively before vowels, but retained their lateral pronunciation elsewhere (i.e. in syllable codas). Thus '''ùìy''' 'often' was probably pronounced something like [ṳː'i̤ːlʲ] and '''zow''' 'play' was probably pronounced something like ['zolˠ].<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
Five different vowel qualities were contrasted, which are transcribed as '''i''', '''u''', '''e''', '''o''' and '''a'''. However, Wendoth did not quite have the standard five-vowel system. First of all, the contrasts of '''i''' and '''u''' with '''e''' and '''o''' are somewhat marginal; it is difficult to find minimal pairs. The reason for this is that the vast majority of occurrences of '''i''' and '''u''' are accompanied by breathy or creaky voice, while '''e''' and '''o''' are always pronounced with a modal voice. '''a''' is the only other vowel which may be accompanied by breathy or creaky voice, and even then it is much more common with modal voice, unlike '''i''' and '''u'''. The vowel system is best understood historically. It is likely that Pre-Wendoth had the standard five-vowel system, but its */i/ and */u/ were merged into central */ɨ/, and its */e/ and */o/ were merged into central */ə/, with the contrasts being preserved by palatalisation or velarisation of preceding consonants. Later on, a vowel shift occurred: */ɨ/ lowered to */ə/, */ə/ lowered to */a/ and */a/ was backed and raised to something like */o/. The vowel shift was prevented from happening before Pre-Wendoth nasal consonants (with morphophonological consequences). Wendoth '''e''', '''o''', '''a''' are the reflexes of post-vowel shift */ə/, */a/, */o/ respectively. Therefore, it is likely that '''e''' was, at least at some stage, a central schwa. This is supported by the fact that it has back reflexes in some Wendoth languages. As for '''i''' and '''u''', they mainly developed out of Pre-Wendoth sequences of the form /ʔV/ and /ɦV/; the occurrences that developed from /ʔV/ sequences have creaky voice and the occurrences that developed from /ɦV/ sequences have breathy voice. (The other occurences of '''i''' and '''u''' originate from unshifted */ɨ/ and have modal voice.) Sequences of the form /Vʔ/ and /Vɦ/, where the glottal consonant was in a syllable coda, were much rarer, and it is from these that creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced '''a''' originate. There is evidence that the phonation distinction in /a/ was accentuated by differences in quality: creaky-voiced /a/ was front, breathy-voiced /a/ was back and modal-voiced /a/ was central.<br />
<br />
It is also likely that the close vowels were lengthened, as they attracted the stress (see below).<br />
<br />
The following phonetic values of the vowels can therefore be supposed.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /iː/, '''í''' /ḭː/, '''ì''' /i̤ː/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /uː/, '''ú''' /ṵː/, '''ù''' /ṳː/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| <br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''á''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''à''' /a̤/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ appear quite frequently; these diphthongs usually have breathy or creaky voice, just like /i/ and /u/. The phenomenon of initial syllable inversion suggests that they were single segments: '''yaif''' ['jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' ['ai̤lʲfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Syllable structure ===<br />
<br />
Final syllables are of the form CVC; in fact, words tend to end in consonants more often than not. Non-final syllables are, in general, of the form CV. The initial syllable inversion phenomenon produces clusters consisting of two consonants, and there are a couple of words that may go back to the proto-language that contain clusters involving liquids, e.g. '''barqapt''' 'kneel'. There is no Pre-Wendoth source for such clusters, so these must be recent loanwords.<br />
<br />
It is sometimes necessary to distinguish clusters from digraphs used in the transcription; for this purpose, an apostrophe can be used to separate clusters. So the clusters /ndˠ/, /ngʲ/, /nj/, /ptˠ/, /bdˠ/, /tˠs/, /dˠz/, /tˠʁ/, /dˠʁ/, /sʁ/ and /zʁ/ are written '''n'd''', '''n'g''', '''p't''', '''b'd''', '''t's''', '''d'z''', '''t'h''', '''d'h''', '''s'h''' and '''z'h''' respectively.<br />
<br />
It is possible for syllables to begin with a vowel, but only at the beginning of a word or after a syllable ending in /i/, /u/ or the breathy-voiced or creaky-voiced variants of these vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
<br />
Stress is assigned regularly to the final high vowel in a word if the word contains a high vowel, otherwise to the final syllable. There is some evidence that loanwords like '''barqapt''' might have been stressed differently, in the same way as the source language, by at least some speakers.<br />
<br />
== Morphophonology ==<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| osjosh <br />
| osjoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Pre-WendothPre-Wendoth2015-03-21T23:55:40Z<p>Alces: /* Sound changes to Wendoth */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Pre-Wendoth<br />
| date = c. -3000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = [[West Tuysáfa]]<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Pre-Wendoth''' is the ancestor of the [[Wendoth]] language. Our knowledge of the language is tentative and based on internal reconstruction. Judging by the extent of the changes that occured in the course of the development into Wendoth, it was likely spoken a considerable amount of time before Wendoth, perhaps around -3000 YP. Its speakers were probably still hunter-gatherers. It may have been spoken in the central region of west Tuysáfa like its descendant, or in another region; we cannot say for certain.<br />
<br />
= Sound changes to Wendoth =<br />
<br />
{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
[+open] > [+front] / _[-syllabic][+front], _[+nasal]#<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
[a] was fronted to [æ] before syllables containing a front vowel ([i] or [e]), and also before coda nasals. Elsewhere, it was backed to [ɑ]. This alternation was, at this stage, allophonic.<br />
<br />
[+consonantal] > [+front] / _[+front], [+front]_#, [+front]_[+consonantal]<br />
[+consonantal] > [+back] / _[+back], [+back]_#, [+back]_[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Cconsonants before front vowels, or in a syllable coda following a front vowel, were allophonically palatalised and consonants before back vowels, or in a syllable coda following a back vowel, were allophonically velarised (except for [k], [g], [x] and [ɣ], which were already velar). The last change had resulted in every vowel being either front or back, so every consonant was affected by this change.<br />
<br />
In particular, consider the fate of the consonants in syllable codas after Pre-Wendoth *a. Nasals had the preceding *a fronted to [æ] by the previous change, so they were palatalised by this change. Glottals, on the other hand, had the preceding *a backed to [ɑ] (unless there was a following syllable containing Pre-Wendoth *i or *e) and therefore were velarised.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [-front, -back]<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] merged as [ɨ], [e] and [o] merged as [ə] and [æ] and [ɑ] merged as [a]. This completed the process of the transferral of the [+front] and [+back] features of vowels to surrounding consonants started by the previous change.<br />
<br />
[+syllabic] > [+creaky] / _[LARYNGEAL, -continuant]<br />
[+syllabic] > [+breathy] / _[LARYNGEAL, +continuant]<br />
<br />
Vowels before [ʔ] acquired creaky voice and vowels before [ɦ] acquired breathy voice. At this stage, this was an allophonic alternation.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > a / _[LARYNGEAL]#, _[LARYNGEAL][+consonantal]<br />
[LARYNGEAL] > ∅ / _#, _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
It is likely that [ʔ] and [ɦ] were realised as pharyngeals in syllable codas. If so, the effect of this change was to neutralise the contrast between the three vowels (by merging them into [a]) before pharyngeals. That is, [ɨ] and [ə] both become [a] before [ʔ] and [ɦ] in a syllable coda. [ʔ] and [ɦ] were subsequently deleted in the syllable coda, but Pre-Wendoth *a, *Vʔ and *Vɦ as syllable rhymes were still distinguished by the differing phonations of the remaining [a]. Every Wendoth word containing creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced /a/ either developed the phoneme by this change, or is not of Pre-Wendoth vintage.<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +front] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +back] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
[-consonantal] > [+creaky] / [+creaky]_<br />
[-consonantal] > [+breathy] / [+breathy]_<br />
<br />
The palatalised and velarised glottal consonants vocalised into vowels: [i] if palatalised, [u] if velarised. They also acquired the phonation of the preceding vowel, so that palatalised and velarised [ʔ] became creaky-voiced vowels and palatalised and velarised [ɦ] became breathy-voiced vowels. [i] and [u], of course, remained distinct from Pre-Wendoth *i and *u as those two vowels had merged into [ɨ]. By now, the language had developed a three-way phonation contrast of plain, creaky and breathy registers.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -front, -back] > ∅ / _[-consonantal, high]<br />
[+syllabic, -front, -back] > ∅ / [+syllabic, +high]_<br />
[+syllabic] > [-syllabic] / [+syllabic]_<br />
<br />
The previous change produced sequences of three vowels in a row, with the middle one being [i] or [u]. This unstable situation was resolved by this change. First, [ɨ] disappeared before [i] and [u]. Secondly, all central vowels (i.e. vowels other than [i] and [u]) disappeared after [i] and [u]. The restriction to central vowels is just there to prevent sequences of the form [Viɨi], [Viɨu], [Vuɨi] or [Vuɨu] (< Pre-Wendoth *VHiH/VHuH where H is a glottal consonant) from becoming monosyllabic [Vi] or [Vu], rather than disyllabic [Vii], [Viu], [Vui] or [Vuu]. Finally, [i] and [u] became [j] and [w] when following another vowel, producing the diphthongs [əj], [əw], [aj] and [aw].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+nasal] / _[+nasal]<br />
[+nasal] > ∅ / _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Nasals disappeared before consonants, but their former presence was betrayed by nasalisation (which also applied to vowels before remaining nasals).<br />
<br />
∅ > j / [LABIAL, +palatalised]_<br />
[+nasal] > [-continuant] / _j<br />
[CORONAL, -continuant, +front] > [+delayed release]<br />
[LABIAL] > [CORONAL, +anterior] / _j<br />
j > ∅ / [-syllabic]_<br />
<br />
This sequence of changes is behind the curious fact that in Wendoth, the dentals pattern as the palatalised versions of the labials. It is not known exactly how the Pre-Wendoth labials turned into dentals when palatalised, but this is one hypothesis: they initially changed into clusters with [j], then the labials assimilated to the following [j], taking a less anterior position in the mouth, and became coronals, although they still had a more anterior position than the other coronals, and the following [j]s were dropped. It is likely that these new coronals were still palatalised, at least at first. Therefore, the palatalised Pre-Wendoth coronal stops *t and *d were probably affricated to [tsʲ] and [dzʲ] at this time, for otherwise there would be little difference between them and the new coronals.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth [m], when palatalised, became a prenasalised stop [nd] rather than dental [n]. This is probably the result of the cluster [mj] undergoing epenthesis and becoming [mbj], with the [bj] then changing as usual to dental [d], and with the preceding [m] assimilating to the [d]'s place of articulation.<br />
<br />
[+open, +creaky] > [+front]<br />
[+open, +breathy] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a] acquired differences in quality from central, plain [a]: creaky-voiced [a] became front [a̟] and breathy-voiced [a] became back [ɑ] (while still retaining their respective phonations).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -front, -back] > ∅ / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a]) disappeared. This change must have occured after the change of palatalised labials into dentals, because clusters with [j] are unlikely to have occured word-finally. It also must have occured after the change in quality of creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced [a], because they were not affected by this change.<br />
<br />
[+open, +nasalised, -back] > [+front]<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
Nasalised and non-nasalised [a] acquired differences in quality: nasalised [a], if not already backed due to breathy voice, became front [a̘] and non-nasalised [a], if not already fronted due to creaky voice, became back [ɑ].<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, -approximant, -front] > [+low]<br />
<br />
Velar non-approximants ([k], [g], [x], [ɣ] and [ŋ]), if not palatalised, became uvular ([q], [ɢ], [χ], [ʁ] and [ɴ]).<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -sonorant] > [-voice] / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final voiced uvular obstruents ([ɢ] and [ʁ]) were devoiced.<br />
<br />
ɢ > ʁ<br />
rˠ > ʁ<br />
<br />
[ɢ] and [rˠ] merged into [ʁ], the latter probably via [ʀ].<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -approximant, +voice] > ∅ / _# [+syllabic, +high]_<br />
<br />
Voiced uvular non-approximants ([ʁ] and [ɴ]) disappeared word-finally and after [i] and [u] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
ɴ > ŋ<br />
<br />
[ɴ] merged into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -close, -open, -nasal] > [+open]<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -nasal] > [-close]<br />
[-consonantal, +open, +back] > [-open] / _[-syllabic]<br />
<br />
A vowel shift occured which affected non-nasalised vowels only. First, [ə] became [a] and [ɨ] became [ə]. This affected creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced versions of [ə] in the diphthongs [əj] and [əw] as well. Then, [ɑ], in order to contrast further with [a], raised to [o]. However, word-final [ɑ] (which was always breathy-voiced, non-breathy-voiced word-final *a having been deleted) did not become [o].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +nasal] > [-nasal]<br />
a > a̘<br />
ɨ > u / [LABIAL]_<br />
ɨ > i<br />
<br />
Nasalised vowels were denasalised. The central [a] which originated from former [ə] merged with the front [a̘] which was formerly nasalised. The vowel [ɨ], now only present where it had formerly been nasalised, as it had shifted to [ə] elsewhere, merged with either [i] or [u]: [u] after labials, [i] elsewhere. It did not, however, acquire any creaky or breathy voice. So three different phonations ended up being contrasitive on [i] and [u]: plain, creaky and breathy.<br />
<br />
lʲ > j / _[+syllabic]<br />
lˠ > w / _[+syllabic]<br />
<br />
Palatalised and velarised [l] became semivowels [j] and [w] before vowels.<br />
<br />
At some point, a change in the stress must also have occured where, in words containing [i], [u] or creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced [a], the stress was shifted to the rightmost syllable that contained one of these vowels.<br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
<br />
The following table shows the reconstructed consonants of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal<br />
Nasal *m *n *ŋ <br />
Plosive *p *b *t *d *k *g *ʔ<br />
Fricative *f *v *s *z *x *ɣ *ɦ<br />
Rhotic *r<br />
Lateral *l<br />
<br />
Before *u and *o, and also before *a if it is followed by a syllable containing *u, *o or *a (unless the *a is followed by a nasal in the syllable coda), it is impossible to distinguish Pre-Wendoth *g, *ɣ and *r. *G is used to represent an indeterminate *g, *ɣ or *r in this environment. For example, *soGo 'be old' might be *sogo, *soɣo or *soro.<br />
<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth is reconstructed with the standard five vowels.<br />
<br />
Front Central Back<br />
Close *i *u<br />
Mid *e *o<br />
Open *a<br />
<br />
It is likely that *a had a front allophone before nasals in the syllable coda and syllables containing *i or *e, and a back allophone elsewhere. After *ʔ and *ɦ and before *ʔ and *ɦ in the syllable coda, it is impossible to distinguish the front vowels and the back vowels from each other; *I is used to represent an indeterminate front vowel and *U is used to represent an indeterminate back vowel. For example, *ŋuʔU 'sweat' might be *ŋuʔu, *ŋuʔo or *ŋuʔa and *lanIɦ 'girl' might be *laniɦ or *laneɦ. *I and *U are also used to represent the final vowels of certain particles, because final vowels were lost during the development into Wendoth (this is not a problem for morphemes that take endings, but it is for particles). For example, the submissive imperative particle *nixI might be *nixi or *nixe.<br />
<br />
== Syllable structure ==<br />
<br />
As far as can be told, all syllables were of the form CV except for final syllables, which could have a final consonant: either a nasal or a glottal consonant. CVC syllables could also appear before some morpheme boundaries (e.g. before the second noun in a compound or before a classifier suffix). In this document, morpheme boundaries of this kind have been indicated by hyphens. It is possible that there were also CVC syllables, even within morphemes ending in nasals, but as nasals in syllable codas were deleted during the development into Wendoth this cannot be determined. It is, perhaps, unlikely, though; after all, there were certainly no CVC syllables within morphemes that ended in glottal consonants.<br />
<br />
== Suprasegmentals ==<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, stress probably fell without exception on the penultimate syllable if there was more than one syllable. The loss of word-final vowels during the development into Wendoth resulted in the stress falling without exception on the ultimate syllable. The movement of the stress to preceding phonated vowels is likely a later development.<br />
<br />
= Morphology =<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
<br />
Only three cases are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: nominative, accusative and dative. For nominal roots ending in a vowel, the nominative is unmarked, while the other two cases are marked by suffixes, *-ʔ and *-mo respectively. There are also some nominal roots that end in a nasal consonant; for these, the nominative is unmarked as usual, but the *-ʔ of the accusative suffix annihilates the preceding nasal, while the dative suffix is just *-o.<br />
<br />
The instrumental case of Wendoth is generally assumed to be of recent origin from a postposition *sIɦ, due to the fact that, if it was a case suffix in Pre-Wendoth, it would have to come directly after the nasal consonants that end some nominal roots. For example, the Wendoth noun *zˠəja 'night noise' (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ) is *zˠəjaʃa̤ in the instrumental case (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ-sIɦ). Pre-Wendoth *zulasIɦ would result in Wendoth *zˠəjoʃa̤.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Six personal pronominal morphemes are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: *bu '1p sg. nom.', *dUɦ '1p sg. acc.', *reka '1p excl. pl. nom.', *su(n) '2p sg. nom.', *mu(n) '2p sg. acc.' and *ni '2p pl. nom.' The first-person inclusive plural pronoun was formed by compounding the second and first-person singular pronouns: *sun-bu '1p. incl. pl. nom', *mu(n)-dUɦ '1p. incl. pl. acc'. The accusative forms of the first-person exclusive plural and second-person plural pronouns were formed by reduplication of the corresponding singular pronouns: *daɦ-daɦ '1p excl. pl. acc.', *mu(n)-mu(n) '2p pl. acc.'. The dative endings for each pronoun were formed regularly from their nominative forms.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc. Dat.<br />
1p sg. bu dUɦ bumo<br />
1p excl. pl. su(n)-bu mu(n)-dUɦ su(n)-bumo<br />
1p incl. pl. reka dUɦ-dUɦ rekamo<br />
2p sg. su(n) mu(n) sumo<br />
2p pl. ni mu(n)-mu(n) nimo<br />
<br />
The final *-n of *su(n) and *mu(n) is of uncertain status. Some of the Wendoth languages suggest *sun and *mun, some of them suggest *sun and *mu, some of them suggest *su and *mu, and some of them suggest *su and *mun. It is likely that at least one of the pronouns had a final *-n, but the final *-n of the other one, where it is evidenced, might have been in an analogical innovation.<br />
<br />
Seven different demonstratives are reconstructed: *ta(-bu) 'this (near me)', *ta-sun 'that (near you)', *diɦ 'that (around us)', *vo 'that (visible and close to us)', *vo-vo 'that (visible and far away)', *xu 'that (out of sight but close to us)', *xu-xu 'that (out of sight and far away)'. Evidence from most Wendoth languages suggests *ta for the proximal demonstrative, but evidence from North Wendoth and Mbethi suggests *ta-bu; it is impossible to tell whether the addition of *-bu is an innovation or not.<br />
<br />
Two interrogative pronouns, with an animacy distinction, are reconstructed: *mi 'who' and *mu 'what'.<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
There are two verbal tenses, past and non-past. The vast majority of reconstructed verbal roots end in a vowel or a laryngeal consonant; these are called the thematic roots, and they are unmarked in the non-past tense and take the suffix *-ŋ in the past tense. There is also a small collection of roots (*fal- 'come', *ɦis- 'go', *rem- 'give', *muʔ- 'take from', *tax- 'hold') which end in a consonant; these are called the athematic roots. They became the "irregular verbs" of Wendoth, but at the Pre-Wendoth stage they regularly took *-i in the non-past tense and *-aŋ in the past tense. There may have been more athematic roots in Pre-Wendoth which either fell out of use or were assimilated into the thematic class.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth likely made heavy use of compound verbs to convey aspectual and modal information. The head verb would follow the modifier verb, as expected given that Pre-Wendoth was, in general, a head-final language. For example, *Gahu 'begin' was used to convey the beginning of a process.<br />
<br />
*sufi niheroʔ-Gahu.<br />
sufi niheroʔ-Gahu<br />
sky be_dark-begin<br />
'It's getting dark.'<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, a switch occured from head-final to head-initial alignment, so that the head verbs in compound verbs ended up preceding their modifier verbs. But several head verbs were, instead, reanalysed as suffixes. It is likely that the subjunctive and habitual suffixes of Wendoth originated from the same source; although we do not know which verbs they originated from: the subjunctive suffix descends from *-ko and the habitual suffix descends from *-se, but the actual verbs probably had more than one syllable (like the vast majority of Pre-Wendoth verbs). Other verbs underwent the same process of reanalysis in various Wendoth languages, but *-ko and *-se are the two universally attested suffixes.<br />
<br />
Verbs also take classifier prefixes and suffixes indicating the nominal class of their subject and object. The prefixes indicate the class of the subject and the suffixes indicate the class of the object. For each class, the corresponding prefix and suffix are identical in form. The suffixes are added directly after the final -ŋ of the past suffixes.<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes in total. The associated affixes are listed below.<br />
<br />
* I (males): pa<br />
* II (females): ka<br />
* III (food): ɦi<br />
* IV: (strong animates): za<br />
* V: (weak animates): ra<br />
* VI: (instruments): xim<br />
* VII: (fluids): boʔa<br />
* VIII: (solids): ʔe<br />
* IX: (places): fiʔ <br />
* X: (feelings): ma<br />
* XI: (abstractions): dora<br />
<br />
Little can be said about which nouns were assigned to which class, because it tended to be highly variable between different Wendoth languages. In fact, different classifiers could often be used with the same noun to give different meanings. One notable phenomenon attested across the Wendoth languages is the use of the III and IV classifiers to distinguish animals from their associated meats:<br />
<br />
Nuŋ-za bu doŋuʔ.<br />
nu -ŋ -za bu doŋu-ʔ<br />
see-PAST-IV 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I saw a hare.'<br />
<br />
Hekeŋ-ɦi bu doŋuʔ.<br />
ɦeke-ŋ -ɦi bu doŋu-ʔ<br />
eat -PAST-III 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I ate hare meat'.<br />
<br />
== Determiners ==<br />
<br />
Determiner roots always end in a consonant. They are inflected so as to agree with the noun they modify with respect to both case and class. The endings for the accusative and dative cases are the same, so the agreement only distinguishes the nominative from the other cases. Similarly, the agreement only distinguishes four kinds of nouns with respect to class: nouns referring to humans (classes I-II), nouns referring to animates (classes III-V), nouns referring to inanimates (classes VI-IX) and nouns referring to abstractions (classes X-XI). The endings are as follows.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc./Dat.<br />
I-II *-i-na *-aʔ-ne<br />
III-V *-i *-iʔ<br />
VI-IX *-u *-uʔ<br />
X-XI *-u-vo *-aʔ-vo<br />
<br />
The demonstratives can also be used as determiners; for each demonstrative, one adds *-ʔ to the end of the nominal root to get the determiner, except in the case of *diɦ 'that (around us)' which already has a final consonant. There is also an interrogative determiner *m- (compare the two interrogative pronouns *mi 'who' and *mu 'what').<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
<br />
Only seven postpositions can be reconstructed: *pe 'to', *ze 'from', *ve 'of (inalienable)', *ʔe 'of (alienable)', *xi 'with (comitative), *seɦ 'with (instrumental)' and *koʔi 'for'. The meanings of the locative postpositions, *pe 'to' and *ze 'from', are only roughly indicated by their glosses. *pe is used to indicate movement towards an object, whether it is movement *within* the object or not: there is no distinction between 'in' and 'into'. Likewise, *ze is used to indicate movement away from an object, whether it is movement from within the object or not. But when there is no movement, whereas English has separate words in this case&mdash;'in' to indicate a position within the object, 'at' otherwise&mdash;Pre-Wendoth uses *ze for 'in' and *pe for 'at'.<br />
<br />
There are a variety of nouns which are used in fixed phrases with combinations of adpositions to give more specific meanings. For example, there are two nouns ɣele and todo, whose meanings can be glossed as 'the space above sth.' and 'the space below sth.', and are used to convey the meanings of 'above' and 'below'.<br />
<br />
Bu pa-niʔiŋ xele zuʔa-ʔagora ve ze.<br />
bu pa -niʔi-ŋ ɣele zuʔa-ʔagora ve ze<br />
1p.NOM.SG MASC-sit -PAST below top- tree of in.<br />
I sat under a tree.<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, the postpositions either turned into case suffixes or turned into prepositional clitics. They had different fates in different Wendoth languages, although *seɦ, in particular, turned into a case suffix in every Wendoth language, so that it can be reconstructed as a case suffix at the Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Internal reconstruction of syntax is difficult, so little is known about Pre-Wendoth syntax. It does seem that it was originally head-final, but transitioned to head-initial during the development into Wendoth (although determiners remained preceding their head nouns). The basic word order was, therefore, probably SOV.<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
<br />
{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
Glosses are for the Wendoth reflexes; we cannot tell what semantic shifts may have occured during the development into Wendoth.<br />
<br />
boʔa: n. (VII) 'litter' (as in, objects scattered on the ground)<br />
bu: 1p sg. pron. (acc. dah)<br />
daɦ: acc. form of bu<br />
daɦ-daɦ: acc. form of reka<br />
diɦ: n. 'that (around us)'<br />
diɦ-: det. 'that (around us)'<br />
fal-: v. it. 'come'<br />
feɦime: n. (II) 'woman, wife'<br />
fiʔ: v. it. 'be situated, exist'<br />
fiʔ-xim: n. (VI) 'house'<br />
fiʔ-go: n. (VI) 'leader's house'<br />
Gahu: v. 'begin'<br />
Goxeɦo: n. (I) 'man, husband'<br />
ɦika: n. (III) 'meat'<br />
ɦime: n. (II) insulting term for a woman<br />
ɦis-: v. it. 'go'<br />
ɦopo: v. mt. 'pass through'<br />
kaka-: n. (II) 'mother'<br />
kasoro-: n. (II) 'spinster' (with negative connotations)<br />
koʔi: prep. for<br />
laniɦ: n. (II) 'girl'<br />
lodo: n. (I) 'boy'<br />
-lu: reflexive clitic<br />
m-: det. 'who/what'<br />
mi: n. 'who'<br />
mu: n. 'what'<br />
mun: acc. form of sun<br />
mun-mun: acc. form of ni<br />
muʔ: v. dt. 'take from'<br />
niɦeroʔ: v. it. 'be dark'<br />
papa-: n. (I) 'father'<br />
pasoro-: n. (I) 'bachelor' (with negative connotations)<br />
rano: n. (III) 'vegetable' (as opposed to meat)<br />
reka: 1p excl. pl. pron. (acc. dah-dah)<br />
rem-: v. dt. 'give'<br />
ni: 2p. pl. pron. (acc. mun-mun)<br />
ruza: n. (IV) 'game' (as in, hunted animals)<br />
soro: v. 'be old'<br />
sum: n. (IV) 'human'<br />
sun: 2p. sg. pron. (acc. mun)<br />
sun-bu: 1p incl. pl. pron. (acc. mun-dah)<br />
ta(-bu): n. 'this'<br />
ta(-bu)ʔ-: det. 'this'<br />
ta-su: n. 'that (near you)'<br />
ta-suʔ-: det. 'that (near you)'<br />
tax-: v. mt. 'hold'<br />
vo: n. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
vovo: n. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
vovoʔ-: det. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
voʔ-: det. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
xeɦo: n. (I) insulting term for a man<br />
xi: prep. with (an additional participant)<br />
xu: n. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
xuxu: n. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuxuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
ʔagora: n. (V) 'tree'<br />
ʔebuɦaŋ: n. (IX) 'forest'<br />
ʔeta-ʔeta: n. (VII) 'gravel'<br />
zulaŋ: n. (IX) 'nocturnal noise' (birds chirping, etc.)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Pre-WendothPre-Wendoth2015-03-20T20:51:05Z<p>Alces: Fleshing out Pre-Wendoth. Also planning to update Wendoth page later so that it makes a bit more sense.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Pre-Wendoth<br />
| date = c. -3000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = [[West Tuysáfa]]<br />
| word-or = SOV<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Pre-Wendoth''' is the ancestor of the [[Wendoth]] language. Our knowledge of the language is tentative and based on internal reconstruction. Judging by the extent of the changes that occured in the course of the development into Wendoth, it was likely spoken a considerable amount of time before Wendoth, perhaps around -3000 YP. Its speakers were probably still hunter-gatherers. It may have been spoken in the central region of west Tuysáfa like its descendant, or in another region; we cannot say for certain.<br />
<br />
= Sound changes to Wendoth =<br />
<br />
{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
[+open] > [+front] / _[-syllabic][+front], _[+nasal]#<br />
<br />
[a] becomes [æ] before syllables containing a front vowel ([i] or [e]), and also before coda nasals unconditionally.<br />
<br />
[+open, -front] > [+back]<br />
<br />
[a] becomes [ɑ] in the environments where it has not already become [æ].<br />
<br />
[+consonantal] > [+front] / _[+front], [+front]_#, [+front]_[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Consonants before front vowels ([i], [e] and [æ]), and consonants after front vowels in a syllable coda, become palatalised.<br />
<br />
[+consonantal] > [+back] / _[+back], [+back]_#, [+back]_[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Consonants before back vowels ([u], [o] and [ɑ]), and consonants after back vowels in a syllable coda, become velarised (except [k], [g], [x] and [ɣ], which are already velar).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [-front, -back]<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] merge as [ɨ], [e] and [o] merge as [ə] and [æ] and [ɑ] merge as [a].<br />
<br />
The change above causes the distinction between palatalised and velarised consonants to become phonemic.<br />
<br />
[+syllabic] > [+creaky] / _[LARYNGEAL, -continuant]<br />
<br />
Vowels before [ʔ] acquire creaky voice.<br />
<br />
[+syllabic] > [+breathy] / _[LARYNGEAL, +continuant]<br />
<br />
Vowels before [ɦ] acquire breathy voice.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > a / _[LARYNGEAL]#, _[LARYNGEAL][+consonantal]<br />
<br />
[ɨ] and [ə] become [a] before [ʔ] and [ɦ] in a syllable coda.<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +front] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
<br />
[ʔʲ] and [ɦʲ] merge as [i]. (note: if the following vowel has the stress, it is passed on to the [i])<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL, +back] > [DORSAL, +syllabic, -close, -open]<br />
<br />
[ʔˠ] and [ɦˠ] merge as [u]. (note: if the following vowel has the stress, it is passed on to the [u])<br />
<br />
[LARYNGEAL] > ∅<br />
<br />
[ʔ] and [ɦ] disappear in syllable codas.<br />
<br />
The three changes above cause the distinction between creaky-voiced and breathy-voiced vowels to become phonemic.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+creaky] / [+creaky]_<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] become creaky-voiced after creaky-voiced vowels.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+breathy] / [+breathy]_<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] become breathy-voiced after breathy-voiced vowels.<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -front, -back] > ∅ / _[-consonantal, high]<br />
<br />
[ɨ] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced) disappears before [i] and [u] (whether they are creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
[+syllabic, -front, -back] > ∅ / [+syllabic, +high]<br />
<br />
Central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a], whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced) disappear after [i] and [u] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
[+syllabic, -close] > [-syllabic] / [+syllabic]_<br />
<br />
[i] and [u] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced) become [j] and [w] (with the same phonation) after non-close vowels ([[ə] and [a]).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal] > [+nasal] / _[+nasal]<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before nasals.<br />
<br />
[+nasal] > ∅ / _[+consonantal]<br />
<br />
Nasals disappear before consonants.<br />
<br />
∅ > j / [LABIAL, +palatalised]_<br />
<br />
Palatalised labials ([mʲ], [pʲ], [bʲ], [fʲ] and [vʲ]) have [j] inserted after them.<br />
<br />
[+nasal] > [-continuant] / _j<br />
<br />
[mʲj] becomes [mʲbʲj] ([mʲbʲ] is considered to be a single segment).<br />
<br />
[CORONAL, -continuant, +front] > [+delayed release]<br />
<br />
Palatalised coronal plosives ([tʲ] and [dʲ]) become affricates ([tsʲ] and [dzʲ]).<br />
<br />
[LABIAL] > [CORONAL, +anterior] / _j<br />
<br />
Labials ([mʲbʲ], [pʲ], [bʲ], [fʲ] and [vʲ]) become dentals ([nʲdʲ], [tʲ], [dʲ], [θʲ] and [ðʲ]) before [j].<br />
<br />
j > ∅ / [-syllabic]_<br />
<br />
[j] disappears after dentals ([nʲdʲ], [tʲ], [dʲ], [θʲ] and [ðʲ]).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -front, -back] > ∅ / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final central vowels ([ɨ], [ə] and [a], whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced) disappear.<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, -approximant, -front] > [+low]<br />
<br />
Velar non-approximants ([k], [g], [x], [ɣ] and [ŋ]), if not palatalised, become uvular ([q], [ɢ], [χ], [ʁ] and [ɴ]).<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -sonorant] > [-voice] / _#<br />
<br />
Word-final uvular obstruents ([q], [ɢ], [χ] and [ʁ]) are devoiced.<br />
<br />
a̰, a͂ > [+front]<br />
<br />
[a̰] and [a͂] become [æ] (and retain their creaky voice / nasalisation).<br />
<br />
a, a̤ > [+back]<br />
<br />
[a] and [a̤] become [ɑ] (and retain their non-nasalisation / breathy voice).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, -close, -open, -nasal] > [+open]<br />
<br />
Non-nasalised [ə] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced) becomes [a] (and retains its phonation).<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +close, -nasal] > [-close]<br />
<br />
Non-nasalised [ɨ] becomes [ə] (and retains its phonation).<br />
<br />
ɑ > ɔ<br />
<br />
Non-breathy-voiced [ɑ] becomes [ɔ].<br />
<br />
[-consonantal, +nasal] > [-nasal]<br />
<br />
Nasalised vowels are denasalised.<br />
<br />
ɨ > u / [LABIAL]_<br />
<br />
[ɨ] becomes [u] after labial consonants.<br />
<br />
ɨ > i<br />
<br />
[ɨ] becomes [i].<br />
<br />
[DORSAL, +back, +open, -approximant, +voice] > ∅ / #_, _# [+syllabic, +high]_<br />
<br />
Voiced uvular non-approximants ([ɢ], [ʁ] and [ɴ]) disappear word-initially, word-finally and after [i] and [u] (whether creaky-voiced or breathy-voiced).<br />
<br />
ɢ > ʁ<br />
<br />
[ɢ] becomes [ʁ].<br />
<br />
<!-- need to check that these are accurate --><br />
<br />
= Phonology =<br />
<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
<br />
The following table shows the reconstructed consonants of Pre-Wendoth.<br />
<br />
Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal<br />
Nasal *m *n *ŋ <br />
Plosive *p *b *t *d *k *g *ʔ<br />
Fricative *f *v *s *z *x *ɣ *ɦ<br />
Rhotic *r<br />
Lateral *l<br />
<br />
Before *u and *o, and also before *a if it is followed by a syllable containing *u, *o or *a (unless the *a is followed by a nasal in the syllable coda), it is impossible to distinguish Pre-Wendoth *g, *ɣ and *r. *G is used to represent an indeterminate *g, *ɣ or *r in this environment. For example, *soGo 'be old' might be *sogo, *soɣo or *soro.<br />
<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth is reconstructed with the standard five vowels.<br />
<br />
Front Central Back<br />
Close *i *u<br />
Mid *e *o<br />
Open *a<br />
<br />
It is likely that *a had a front allophone before nasals in the syllable coda and syllables containing *i or *e, and a back allophone elsewhere. After *ʔ and *ɦ and before *ʔ and *ɦ in the syllable coda, it is impossible to distinguish the front vowels and the back vowels from each other; *I is used to represent an indeterminate front vowel and *U is used to represent an indeterminate back vowel. For example, *ŋuʔU 'sweat' might be *ŋuʔu, *ŋuʔo or *ŋuʔa and *lanIɦ 'girl' might be *laniɦ or *laneɦ. *I and *U are also used to represent the final vowels of certain particles, because final vowels were lost during the development into Wendoth (this is not a problem for morphemes that take endings, but it is for particles). For example, the submissive imperative particle *nixI might be *nixi or *nixe.<br />
<br />
== Syllable structure ==<br />
<br />
As far as can be told, all syllables were of the form CV except for final syllables, which could have a final consonant: either a nasal or a glottal consonant. CVC syllables could also appear before some morpheme boundaries (e.g. before the second noun in a compound or before a classifier suffix). In this document, morpheme boundaries of this kind have been indicated by hyphens. It is possible that there were also CVC syllables, even within morphemes ending in nasals, but as nasals in syllable codas were deleted during the development into Wendoth this cannot be determined. It is, perhaps, unlikely, though; after all, there were certainly no CVC syllables within morphemes that ended in glottal consonants.<br />
<br />
== Suprasegmentals ==<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, stress probably fell without exception on the penultimate syllable if there was more than one syllable. The loss of word-final vowels during the development into Wendoth resulted in the stress falling without exception on the ultimate syllable. The movement of the stress to preceding phonated vowels is likely a later development.<br />
<br />
= Morphology =<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
<br />
Only three cases are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: nominative, accusative and dative. For nominal roots ending in a vowel, the nominative is unmarked, while the other two cases are marked by suffixes, *-ʔ and *-mo respectively. There are also some nominal roots that end in a nasal consonant; for these, the nominative is unmarked as usual, but the *-ʔ of the accusative suffix annihilates the preceding nasal, while the dative suffix is just *-o.<br />
<br />
The instrumental case of Wendoth is generally assumed to be of recent origin from a postposition *sIɦ, due to the fact that, if it was a case suffix in Pre-Wendoth, it would have to come directly after the nasal consonants that end some nominal roots. For example, the Wendoth noun *zˠəja 'night noise' (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ) is *zˠəjaʃa̤ in the instrumental case (< Pre-Wendoth *zulaŋ-sIɦ). Pre-Wendoth *zulasIɦ would result in Wendoth *zˠəjoʃa̤.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Six personal pronominal morphemes are reconstructed for Pre-Wendoth: *bu '1p sg. nom.', *dUɦ '1p sg. acc.', *reka '1p excl. pl. nom.', *su(n) '2p sg. nom.', *mu(n) '2p sg. acc.' and *ni '2p pl. nom.' The first-person inclusive plural pronoun was formed by compounding the second and first-person singular pronouns: *sun-bu '1p. incl. pl. nom', *mu(n)-dUɦ '1p. incl. pl. acc'. The accusative forms of the first-person exclusive plural and second-person plural pronouns were formed by reduplication of the corresponding singular pronouns: *daɦ-daɦ '1p excl. pl. acc.', *mu(n)-mu(n) '2p pl. acc.'. The dative endings for each pronoun were formed regularly from their nominative forms.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc. Dat.<br />
1p sg. bu dUɦ bumo<br />
1p excl. pl. su(n)-bu mu(n)-dUɦ su(n)-bumo<br />
1p incl. pl. reka dUɦ-dUɦ rekamo<br />
2p sg. su(n) mu(n) sumo<br />
2p pl. ni mu(n)-mu(n) nimo<br />
<br />
The final *-n of *su(n) and *mu(n) is of uncertain status. Some of the Wendoth languages suggest *sun and *mun, some of them suggest *sun and *mu, some of them suggest *su and *mu, and some of them suggest *su and *mun. It is likely that at least one of the pronouns had a final *-n, but the final *-n of the other one, where it is evidenced, might have been in an analogical innovation.<br />
<br />
Seven different demonstratives are reconstructed: *ta(-bu) 'this (near me)', *ta-sun 'that (near you)', *diɦ 'that (around us)', *vo 'that (visible and close to us)', *vo-vo 'that (visible and far away)', *xu 'that (out of sight but close to us)', *xu-xu 'that (out of sight and far away)'. Evidence from most Wendoth languages suggests *ta for the proximal demonstrative, but evidence from North Wendoth and Mbethi suggests *ta-bu; it is impossible to tell whether the addition of *-bu is an innovation or not.<br />
<br />
Two interrogative pronouns, with an animacy distinction, are reconstructed: *mi 'who' and *mu 'what'.<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
There are two verbal tenses, past and non-past. The vast majority of reconstructed verbal roots end in a vowel or a laryngeal consonant; these are called the thematic roots, and they are unmarked in the non-past tense and take the suffix *-ŋ in the past tense. There is also a small collection of roots (*fal- 'come', *ɦis- 'go', *rem- 'give', *muʔ- 'take from', *tax- 'hold') which end in a consonant; these are called the athematic roots. They became the "irregular verbs" of Wendoth, but at the Pre-Wendoth stage they regularly took *-i in the non-past tense and *-aŋ in the past tense. There may have been more athematic roots in Pre-Wendoth which either fell out of use or were assimilated into the thematic class.<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth likely made heavy use of compound verbs to convey aspectual and modal information. The head verb would follow the modifier verb, as expected given that Pre-Wendoth was, in general, a head-final language. For example, *Gahu 'begin' was used to convey the beginning of a process.<br />
<br />
*sufi niheroʔ-Gahu.<br />
sufi niheroʔ-Gahu<br />
sky be_dark-begin<br />
'It's getting dark.'<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, a switch occured from head-final to head-initial alignment, so that the head verbs in compound verbs ended up preceding their modifier verbs. But several head verbs were, instead, reanalysed as suffixes. It is likely that the subjunctive and habitual suffixes of Wendoth originated from the same source; although we do not know which verbs they originated from: the subjunctive suffix descends from *-ko and the habitual suffix descends from *-se, but the actual verbs probably had more than one syllable (like the vast majority of Pre-Wendoth verbs). Other verbs underwent the same process of reanalysis in various Wendoth languages, but *-ko and *-se are the two universally attested suffixes.<br />
<br />
Verbs also take classifier prefixes and suffixes indicating the nominal class of their subject and object. The prefixes indicate the class of the subject and the suffixes indicate the class of the object. For each class, the corresponding prefix and suffix are identical in form. The suffixes are added directly after the final -ŋ of the past suffixes.<br />
<br />
There are eleven noun classes in total. The associated affixes are listed below.<br />
<br />
* I (males): pa<br />
* II (females): ka<br />
* III (food): ɦi<br />
* IV: (strong animates): za<br />
* V: (weak animates): ra<br />
* VI: (instruments): xim<br />
* VII: (fluids): boʔa<br />
* VIII: (solids): ʔe<br />
* IX: (places): fiʔ <br />
* X: (feelings): ma<br />
* XI: (abstractions): dora<br />
<br />
Little can be said about which nouns were assigned to which class, because it tended to be highly variable between different Wendoth languages. In fact, different classifiers could often be used with the same noun to give different meanings. One notable phenomenon attested across the Wendoth languages is the use of the III and IV classifiers to distinguish animals from their associated meats:<br />
<br />
Nuŋ-za bu doŋuʔ.<br />
nu -ŋ -za bu doŋu-ʔ<br />
see-PAST-IV 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I saw a hare.'<br />
<br />
Hekeŋ-ɦi bu doŋuʔ.<br />
ɦeke-ŋ -ɦi bu doŋu-ʔ<br />
eat -PAST-III 1p.SG.NOM hare-ACC<br />
'I ate hare meat'.<br />
<br />
== Determiners ==<br />
<br />
Determiner roots always end in a consonant. They are inflected so as to agree with the noun they modify with respect to both case and class. The endings for the accusative and dative cases are the same, so the agreement only distinguishes the nominative from the other cases. Similarly, the agreement only distinguishes four kinds of nouns with respect to class: nouns referring to humans (classes I-II), nouns referring to animates (classes III-V), nouns referring to inanimates (classes VI-IX) and nouns referring to abstractions (classes X-XI). The endings are as follows.<br />
<br />
Nom. Acc./Dat.<br />
I-II *-i-na *-aʔ-ne<br />
III-V *-i *-iʔ<br />
VI-IX *-u *-uʔ<br />
X-XI *-u-vo *-aʔ-vo<br />
<br />
The demonstratives can also be used as determiners; for each demonstrative, one adds *-ʔ to the end of the nominal root to get the determiner, except in the case of *diɦ 'that (around us)' which already has a final consonant. There is also an interrogative determiner *m- (compare the two interrogative pronouns *mi 'who' and *mu 'what').<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
<br />
Only seven postpositions can be reconstructed: *pe 'to', *ze 'from', *ve 'of (inalienable)', *ʔe 'of (alienable)', *xi 'with (comitative), *seɦ 'with (instrumental)' and *koʔi 'for'. The meanings of the locative postpositions, *pe 'to' and *ze 'from', are only roughly indicated by their glosses. *pe is used to indicate movement towards an object, whether it is movement *within* the object or not: there is no distinction between 'in' and 'into'. Likewise, *ze is used to indicate movement away from an object, whether it is movement from within the object or not. But when there is no movement, whereas English has separate words in this case&mdash;'in' to indicate a position within the object, 'at' otherwise&mdash;Pre-Wendoth uses *ze for 'in' and *pe for 'at'.<br />
<br />
There are a variety of nouns which are used in fixed phrases with combinations of adpositions to give more specific meanings. For example, there are two nouns ɣele and todo, whose meanings can be glossed as 'the space above sth.' and 'the space below sth.', and are used to convey the meanings of 'above' and 'below'.<br />
<br />
Bu pa-niʔiŋ xele zuʔa-ʔagora ve ze.<br />
bu pa -niʔi-ŋ ɣele zuʔa-ʔagora ve ze<br />
1p.NOM.SG MASC-sit -PAST below top- tree of in.<br />
I sat under a tree.<br />
<br />
During the development into Wendoth, the postpositions either turned into case suffixes or turned into prepositional clitics. They had different fates in different Wendoth languages, although *seɦ, in particular, turned into a case suffix in every Wendoth language, so that it can be reconstructed as a case suffix at the Wendoth stage.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Internal reconstruction of syntax is difficult, so little is known about Pre-Wendoth syntax. It does seem that it was originally head-final, but transitioned to head-initial during the development into Wendoth (although determiners remained preceding their head nouns). The basic word order was, therefore, probably SOV.<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
<br />
{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
Glosses are for the Wendoth reflexes; we cannot tell what semantic shifts may have occured during the development into Wendoth.<br />
<br />
boʔa: n. (VII) 'litter' (as in, objects scattered on the ground)<br />
bu: 1p sg. pron. (acc. dah)<br />
daɦ: acc. form of bu<br />
daɦ-daɦ: acc. form of reka<br />
diɦ: n. 'that (around us)'<br />
diɦ-: det. 'that (around us)'<br />
fal-: v. it. 'come'<br />
feɦime: n. (II) 'woman, wife'<br />
fiʔ: v. it. 'be situated, exist'<br />
fiʔ-xim: n. (VI) 'house'<br />
fiʔ-go: n. (VI) 'leader's house'<br />
Gahu: v. 'begin'<br />
Goxeɦo: n. (I) 'man, husband'<br />
ɦika: n. (III) 'meat'<br />
ɦime: n. (II) insulting term for a woman<br />
ɦis-: v. it. 'go'<br />
ɦopo: v. mt. 'pass through'<br />
kaka-: n. (II) 'mother'<br />
kasoro-: n. (II) 'spinster' (with negative connotations)<br />
koʔi: prep. for<br />
laniɦ: n. (II) 'girl'<br />
lodo: n. (I) 'boy'<br />
-lu: reflexive clitic<br />
m-: det. 'who/what'<br />
mi: n. 'who'<br />
mu: n. 'what'<br />
mun: acc. form of sun<br />
mun-mun: acc. form of ni<br />
muʔ: v. dt. 'take from'<br />
niɦeroʔ: v. it. 'be dark'<br />
papa-: n. (I) 'father'<br />
pasoro-: n. (I) 'bachelor' (with negative connotations)<br />
rano: n. (III) 'vegetable' (as opposed to meat)<br />
reka: 1p excl. pl. pron. (acc. dah-dah)<br />
rem-: v. dt. 'give'<br />
ni: 2p. pl. pron. (acc. mun-mun)<br />
ruza: n. (IV) 'game' (as in, hunted animals)<br />
soro: v. 'be old'<br />
sum: n. (IV) 'human'<br />
sun: 2p. sg. pron. (acc. mun)<br />
sun-bu: 1p incl. pl. pron. (acc. mun-dah)<br />
ta(-bu): n. 'this'<br />
ta(-bu)ʔ-: det. 'this'<br />
ta-su: n. 'that (near you)'<br />
ta-suʔ-: det. 'that (near you)'<br />
tax-: v. mt. 'hold'<br />
vo: n. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
vovo: n. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
vovoʔ-: det. 'that (visible and far away)'<br />
voʔ-: det. 'that (visible and close to us)'<br />
xeɦo: n. (I) insulting term for a man<br />
xi: prep. with (an additional participant)<br />
xu: n. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
xuxu: n. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuxuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and far away)'<br />
xuʔ-: det. 'that (out of sight and close to us)'<br />
ʔagora: n. (V) 'tree'<br />
ʔebuɦaŋ: n. (IX) 'forest'<br />
ʔeta-ʔeta: n. (VII) 'gravel'<br />
zulaŋ: n. (IX) 'nocturnal noise' (birds chirping, etc.)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/%C3%8Cletl%C3%A9gb%C3%A0ku/Pigbaye_dialectÌletlégbàku/Pigbaye dialect2012-03-30T15:01:41Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
<br />
'''Pigbaye''' is the Ìletlégbàku rendering of the [[Lukpanic languages/Naəgbum dialect|Naəgbum Lukpanic]] word '''Pigwaea''', a compound formed from '''pigwa''' 'lake' + '''ea''' 'stop'. This name reflects how Pigbaye began, as a small trading post between the city of Naəgbum and the Wañelinlawag Empire on the Wañelin lake. Over the centuries it grew into a thriving city, eventually surpassing Naəgbum in power and becoming the one of the chief land-oriented cities on the Lukpanic coast.<br />
<br />
The Pigbaye dialect has a mix of features from all over the immediate area; since the city was a trading post a variety of different languages have left their mark on it. It is most fundamentally a descendant of eastern dialects of the Ìletlégbàku continuum; it has also been influenced heavily by the Ìletlégbàku of Naəgbum, the [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] of Isi, and the [[Šetâmol]] of the Wañelinlawag Empire.<br />
<br />
== Sound changes ==<br />
<br />
In -900 BP, the dialects which the dialect of Pigbaye had a few differences from Ìletlégbàku:<br />
* Former /xʷ ɣʷ/ are reflected as /ɸ β/.<br />
* /s z/ never merged.<br />
* /x/ and /ɬ/ are not voiced intervocalically.<br />
* All clusters with /ɬ/ merge into the affricate /tɬ/.<br />
<br />
Pigbaye, however, was not around then; it was only a fully-developed city by around -300 BP. By then the language had changed quite a bit:<br />
* Adjacent identical vowels collapse into a long vowel. The tone resolves into rising, falling, or a static tone.<br />
* High-tone vowels shift as follows: [ɛ] > [e], [ɑ] > [a], [u] > [o], [i] > [ɪj], while low-tone vowels lengthen.<br />
* [ɬ] becomes [l] intervocalically.<br />
* Diphthongs beginning with [i] (not [ɪj]) have this [i] turn into [j], while the second vowel is lengthened and gains a tone contour from the previous vowel's tone and its own. The same happens with [u] (not [o]), which turns into [w].<br />
* Other diphthongs (except [ɪj]) monophthongise to long vowels, but acquire a tone contour based on the combination of the two tones. Normally the quality is that of the first vowel, but [ai] or [aɪj] monophthongises to [eː] while [ɑu] or [ɑo] monophthongises to [oː].<br />
* High and mid-tone vowels are lost word-finally, while low-tone vowels are shortened (long vowels arising from vowel sequences are not shortened, suggesting that these may have initially been longer than the low-tone lengthened vowels). However, high-tone vowels are not lost in words with less than three syllables. Initially, only mid-tone vowels are lost and no shortening occurs. Adjacent vowels acquire tone contours. [ɪj] is not affected.<br />
* [g] becomes [ɣ] and [gb] becomes [β].<br />
* Labial-velars become labialised consonants initially, and plain labials finally.<br />
* Long vowels are de-lengthened when another long vowel is in the previous syllable. (persistent rule)<br />
* Non-long vowels are lost when a reasonable cluster can be formed, but there is some irregularity. Generally, a max of 2 vowels are dropped per word. Adjacent vowels acquire tone contours based on the vowel that was dropped's tone. The clusters that are forbidden are:<br />
** All geminates and clusters of two consonants identical except for voicing<br />
** Clusters where the consonants have differing voice and each are distinguished phonemically by voice. Clusters like /bʃ/, where voice is not phonemic on an obstruent, assimilate to have the voicing of the consonant with phonemic voicing: [bʒ].<br />
** /pf bv pm bm pw bw kx kɣ kŋ/<br />
** /tts dts ttɬ dtɬ ttʃ dtʃ ts dz tɬ dɬ tʃ dʃ/<br />
** /tstʃ tss tsz tsɬ tsʃ tsx tsɣ tsn tʃts tʃs tʃz tʃʃ tʃx tʃɣ/<br />
** /tɬ/ followed by any consonant other than /m n ŋ j w/<br />
** /fx vɣ fm vm fw vw xk ɣk xs ɣz xʃ ɣʃ xŋ ɣŋ ʃj tʃj/<br />
** /sts zts sɬ zɬ sʃ zʃ sx zɣ ʃs ʃz ʃx ʃɣ/<br />
** /ɬs ɬz ɬx ɬɣ ɬl lɬ/<br />
** /mt md mk mts mtɬ mtʃ mf mv mx mɣ ŋp ŋb ŋt ŋd ŋts ŋtɬ ŋtʃ ŋf ŋv ŋx ŋɣ/<br />
** /np nb nk nf nv nx nɣ/<br />
** Word-initially, all clusters were disallowed except /pj bj tj dj tw dw kw xw ɣw ŋw/. Word-finally, no clusters were allowed.<br />
* [e ɪj] become [ej].<br />
* [ɛː ɑː] merge into [aː].<br />
* High tone merges into mid tone, except on monosyllables, where it becomes rising tone. This creates phonemic new vowels /ej a o/.<br />
* Low tone merges into mid tone, except on monosyllables, where it becomes falling tone. This creates phonemic long vowels /aː iː uː/.<br />
* All vowels with a contour tone become long (unless a long vowel is in the next syllable), making the long/short distinction irrelevant on these vowels.<br />
<br />
The most striking result of these changes was the simplification of the tone system. Only a few syllables carried distinctive tone, which was based on rising/static/falling rather than high/low/mid. This may be due to Pigbaye's status as a trading centre, where many people with non-tonal languages were present.<br />
<br />
== Phonology == <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Lateral<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t/<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''k''' /k/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
| <br />
| '''c''' /ts/<br />
| '''tl''' /tɬ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /ɸ/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''ł''' /ɬ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''x''' /x/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /β/<br />
| '''z''' /z/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɣ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''l''' /l/<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(Labial-velars apart from /gb/ were still around, but only intervocalically, and can be analysed as clusters).<br />
<br />
As for the vowels:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i/<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ä''' /a/<br />
| '''a''' /ɑ/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There is also a common dipthong '''ei''' /ei/, and three long vowels: '''ii''' /iː/, '''uu''' /uː/, '''aa''' /aː/, plus a long version of the diphthong '''éi''' /eːi/. Note that /ei/ is distinct from /ɛj/. Long vowels never appear before another long vowel in the next syllable.<br />
<br />
There are three possible tones: rising, indicated by an acute, falling, indicated by a grave, and static, unmarked. Most vowels are static. Tone is usually lower in final syllables than in previous ones, when static.<br />
<br />
The Pigbaye dialect permits much more consonant clusters than ''Ìletlégbàku''.<br />
<br />
Some example words:<br />
* ''Ìletlégbàku'' > '''Íltleivák''' [ĭltɬejβăk]<br />
* ''Pigbaye'' > '''Pivay''' [piβɑj]<br />
* ''Nugbù'' > '''Nuvu''' [nuβu]<br />
* ''lukpài'' > '''łukpá''' [ɬukpă]<br />
<!--<br />
== Morphological processes ==<br />
<br />
I-affection is a process caused by suffixes, usually containing '''i''' but not always. It changes the vowel in the previous syllable according to this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" I-affection<br />
!colspan="2" U-affection<br />
|-<br />
! Initial syllables<br />
! Elsewhere<br />
! Initial syllables<br />
! Elsewhere<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first sentence of 'The horse and the sheep' (only phonological change accounted for): '''Vuudu sheyàk łeshii muuxucheedebgét''' [βuːdu shɛyâk ɬɛshiː muːxuchɛːdɛbɣɛ̆ːt].<br />
<br />
(From older ''Gbùdù sheyáku leshì mùxùcheidèbègète''.)--></div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/%C3%8Cletl%C3%A9gb%C3%A0ku/Pigbaye_dialectÌletlégbàku/Pigbaye dialect2012-01-19T20:52:09Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
<br />
'''Pigbaye''' is the Ìletlégbàku rendering of the [[Lukpanic languages/Naəgbum dialect|Naəgbum Lukpanic]] word '''Pigwaea''', a compound formed from '''pigwa''' 'lake' + '''ea''' 'stop'. This name reflects how Pigbaye began, as a small trading post between the city of Naəgbum and the Wañelinlawag Empire on the Wañelin lake. Over the centuries it grew into a thriving city, eventually surpassing Naəgbum in power and becoming the chief land-oriented city on the Lukpanic coast.<br />
<br />
The Pigbaye dialect has a mix of features from all over the immediate area; since the city was a trading post a variety of different languages have left their mark on it. It is most fundamentally a descendant of eastern dialects of the Ìletlégbàku continuum; it has also been influenced heavily by the Ìletlégbàku of Naəgbum, the [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] of Isi, and the [[Šetâmol]] of the Wañelinlawag Empire.<br />
<br />
== Sound changes ==<br />
<br />
In -900 BP, the dialects which the dialect of Pigbaye had a few differences from Ìletlégbàku:<br />
* Former /xʷ ɣʷ/ are reflected as /ɸ β/.<br />
* /s z/ never merged.<br />
* /x/ and /ɬ/ are not voiced intervocalically.<br />
* All clusters with /ɬ/ merge into the affricate /tɬ/.<br />
<br />
Pigbaye, however, was not around then; it was only a fully-developed city by around -300 BP. By then the language had changed quite a bit:<br />
* Adjacent identical vowels collapse into a long vowel. The tone resolves into rising, falling, or a static tone.<br />
* High-tone vowels shift as follows: [ɛ] > [e], [ɑ] > [a], [u] > [o], [i] > [ɪj], while low-tone vowels lengthen.<br />
* [ɬ] becomes [l] intervocalically.<br />
* Dipthongs (except [ɪj]) monopthongise to the first vowel lengthened, but acquire a tone contour based on the combination of the two tones.<br />
* High and mid-tone vowels are lost word-finally, while low-tone vowels are shortened (long vowels arising from diphthongs are not shortened, suggesting that these may have initially been longer than the low-tone lengthened vowels). However, high-tone vowels are not lost in words with less than three syllables. Initially, only mid-tone vowels are lost and no shortening occurs. Adjacent vowels acquire tone contours. Vowels in diphthongs are not lost in this change.<br />
* [g] becomes [ɣ] and [gb] becomes [β].<br />
* Labial-velars become labialised consonants initially, and plain labials finally.<br />
* Long vowels are de-lengthened when another long vowel is in the previous syllable. (persistent rule)<br />
* Non-long vowels are lost when a reasonable cluster can be formed, but there is some irregularity. Generally, a max of 2 vowels are dropped per word. Adjacent vowels acquire tone contours based on the vowel that was dropped's tone. The clusters that are forbidden are:<br />
** All geminates and clusters of two consonants identical except for voicing<br />
** Clusters where the consonants have differing voice and each are distinguished phonemically by voice. Clusters like /bʃ/, where voice is not phonemic on an obstruent, assimilate to have the voicing of the consonant with phonemic voicing: [bʒ].<br />
** /pf bv pm bm pw bw kx kɣ kŋ/<br />
** /tts dts ttɬ dtɬ ttʃ dtʃ ts dz tɬ dɬ tʃ dʃ/<br />
** /tstʃ tss tsz tsɬ tsʃ tsx tsɣ tsn tʃts tʃs tʃz tʃʃ tʃx tʃɣ/<br />
** /tɬ/ followed by any consonant other than /m n ŋ j w/<br />
** /fx vɣ fm vm fw vw xk ɣk xs ɣz xʃ ɣʃ xŋ ɣŋ ʃj tʃj/<br />
** /sts zts sɬ zɬ sʃ zʃ sx zɣ ʃs ʃz ʃx ʃɣ/<br />
** /ɬs ɬz ɬx ɬɣ ɬl lɬ/<br />
** /mt md mk mts mtɬ mtʃ mf mv mx mɣ ŋp ŋb ŋt ŋd ŋts ŋtɬ ŋtʃ ŋf ŋv ŋx ŋɣ/<br />
** /np nb nk nf nv nx nɣ/<br />
** Word-initially, all clusters were disallowed except /pj bj tj dj tw dw kw xw ɣw ŋw/. Word-finally, no clusters were allowed.<br />
* [e ɪj] become [ej].<br />
* [ɛː ɑː] merge into [aː].<br />
* High tone merges into mid tone, except on monosyllables, where it becomes rising tone. This creates phonemic new vowels /ej a o/.<br />
* Low tone merges into mid tone, except on monosyllables, where it becomes falling tone. This creates phonemic long vowels /aː iː uː/.<br />
* All vowels with a contour tone become long (unless a long vowel is in the next syllable), making the long/short distinction irrelevant on these vowels.<br />
<br />
The most striking result of these changes was the simplification of the tone system. Only a few syllables carried distinctive tone, which was based on rising/static/falling rather than high/low/mid. This may be due to Pigbaye's status as a trading centre, where many people with non-tonal languages were present.<br />
<br />
== Phonology == <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Lateral<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t/<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''k''' /k/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
| <br />
| '''c''' /ts/<br />
| '''tl''' /tɬ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /ɸ/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''ł''' /ɬ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''x''' /x/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /β/<br />
| '''z''' /z/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɣ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''l''' /l/<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(Labial-velars apart from /gb/ were still around, but only intervocalically, and can be analysed as clusters).<br />
<br />
As for the vowels:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i/<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| '''ä''' /a/<br />
| '''a''' /ɑ/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There is also a common dipthong '''ei''' /ei/, and three long vowels: '''ii''' /iː/, '''uu''' /uː/, '''aa''' /aː/, plus a long version of the diphthong '''éi''' /eːi/. Note that /ei/ is distinct from /ɛj/. Long vowels never appear before another long vowel in the next syllable.<br />
<br />
There are three possible tones: rising, indicated by an acute, falling, indicated by a grave, and static, unmarked. Most vowels are static. Tone is usually lower in final syllables than in previous ones, when static.<br />
<br />
The Pigbaye dialect permits much more consonant clusters than ''Ìletlégbàku''.<br />
<br />
Some example words:<br />
* ''Ìletlégbàku'' > '''Íltleivák''' [ĭltɬejβăk]<br />
* ''Pigbaye'' > '''Pivay''' [piβɑj]<br />
* ''Nugbù'' > '''Nuvu''' [nuβu]<br />
* ''lukpài'' > '''łukpá''' [ɬukpă]<br />
<!--<br />
== Morphological processes ==<br />
<br />
I-affection is a process caused by suffixes, usually containing '''i''' but not always. It changes the vowel in the previous syllable according to this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" I-affection<br />
!colspan="2" U-affection<br />
|-<br />
! Initial syllables<br />
! Elsewhere<br />
! Initial syllables<br />
! Elsewhere<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first sentence of 'The horse and the sheep' (only phonological change accounted for): '''Vuudu sheyàk łeshii muuxucheedebgét''' [βuːdu shɛyâk ɬɛshiː muːxuchɛːdɛbɣɛ̆ːt].<br />
<br />
(From older ''Gbùdù sheyáku leshì mùxùcheidèbègète''.)--></div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2012-01-10T16:34:59Z<p>Alces: /* Examples */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| osjosh <br />
| osjoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2012-01-09T22:39:06Z<p>Alces: /* Determiners */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''dih''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhi-''' (< PW '''dih-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2012-01-09T22:05:35Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| uc-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in(o)<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn(o)<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in(o)<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh(a)<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn(o)<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals, as well as '''ndai-''', the interrogative determiner, take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier suffix used for verbs. <br />
<br />
These demonstratives and '''ndai-''' can also be used as nouns (sometimes with slightly different stems). When used as nouns, one of the primary determiner suffixes must be added. Classifier suffixes are optional. For example:<br />
* '''ndain''' 'who (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainop''' 'which man (nom.)'<br />
* '''ndainoq''' 'which woman (nom.)'<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toinop|toį-no-po|this-I-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2012-01-09T21:33:54Z<p>Alces: /* Interrogatives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the same classifier suffixes used on verbs to narrow them down. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndai-''' 'which' on a thing in the sentence you don't know. This takes classifier suffixes, and the head noun can be left out, as with the demonstratives.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2012-01-09T18:38:15Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the same classifier suffixes used on verbs to narrow them down. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; however they take no inflection.<br />
* 'Here' and 'there' can be indicated with demonstratives plus the IX classifier: '''ṭoth''', and the preposition '''-t'''. E.g. '''be ut ṭoth''' 'I'm here'.<br />
* 'Now' and 'then' are indicated with the adverbs '''qem''' and '''ngar'''.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/DiachronicsWendoth/Diachronics2012-01-01T13:55:18Z<p>Alces: /* Wendoth to Proto-Southwestern Wendoth (-2000 to -1500 YP) */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
The Wendoth language broke up in two waves, so there is a division between Nuclear and Peripheral Wendoth. The Peripheral speakers originally moved towards the mountains in the southwest, and were the ones who came in contact with Proto-Isles. The group is paraphyletic and mainly characterised by grammatical innovations which are probably due to language contact. The Nuclear group, which spread out more to the west and north, was characterised by the full transfer of phonation contrasts away from the vowels.<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Southwestern Wendoth (-2000 to -1500 YP) =<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [ɪʔ ʊʔ aʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iː uː oː].<br />
# [ʔ] before an obstruent disappears, and geminates the obstruent, if it is not word-final.<br />
# [ʔ] is dropped word-finally.<br />
# [ə] is deleted if it is in a syllable preceding the stressed syllable, and it is not adjacent to a consonant cluster.<br />
# [f v] become [p b] if not before a consonant. They do not merge with /p b/ due to the velarisation on these phonemes.<br />
# [pˠ bˠ] become [x ɣ] when they precede a consonant, and elsewhere [p b].<br />
# [θ ð] merge with dental [t d] before a vowel, while [t d] merge with [θ ð] before a vowel.<br />
# [ʁ] is deleted before a following obstruent.<br />
# Elsewhere, [χ ʁ] merge with [x ɣ].<br />
# Remaining [ə] merges with [ɪ] finally and [a] elsewhere.<br />
# [ʎ ɫ] merge with [j w] everywhere, and [ɪ ʊ] in coda.<br />
# When not before a vowel, [aiː auː oiː ouː] become [ai au oi ou]. They do not merge with [aɪ aʊ oɪ oʊ], as those have a glottal stop between them and the consonant. [aiː auː oiː ouː] can now be analysed where they remain as [aɪj aʊw oɪj oʊw].<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ Proto-Southwestern Wendoth vowel system<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| /i iː/<br />
|<br />
| /u uː/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| /o oː/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| /a aː/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-South Central Wendoth (-2000 to -1600 YP) =<br />
# Phonated vowels in syllables directly preceding a stressed phonated vowel acquire the same phonation as that stressed vowel.<br />
# Creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ] lower to [e̤ o̤].<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [iʔ uʔ æʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ ɑɦ].<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Southeastern Wendoth (-2000 to -1200 YP) = <br />
# Creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ] lower to [ḛ o̰].<br />
# Phonated vowels in syllables directly preceding a stressed phonated vowel acquire the same phonation as that stressed vowel, without changing quality.<br />
# [ḭ ṵ ḛ o̰ a̰ ɑ̰] become [iʔ uʔ eʔ oʔ aʔ ɑʔ], and [i̤ ṳ e̤ o̤ a̤ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ eɦ oɦ aɦ ɑɦ].<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Nuclear Wendoth (-2000 to -1750 YP) =<br />
<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [iʔ uʔ æʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ ɑɦ].<br />
# [ʎ ɫ] become [j w] after [ʔ ɦ] and before a vowel.<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiceless plosive become ejectives.<br />
# Clusters of [ɦ] + voiceless plosive become pre-aspirated stops.<br />
# [ɦ] is deleted before nasals.<br />
# [ɑ a] merge as [a].<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ Proto-Nuclear Wendoth vowel system<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| /i/<br />
|<br />
| /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
| /ə/<br />
| /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| /æ/<br />
| /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Proto-Nuclear Wendoth to Proto-Northwestern Wendoth (-1750 YP to -1300 YP) ==<br />
<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiced consonant become a single creaky-voiced consonant, and [ɦ] + voiced obstruent becomes a single breathy-voiced consonant.<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiceless fricative become ejective fricatives, and clusters of [ɦ] + voiceless fricative become preaspirated fricatives.<br />
# [q] becomes [ʔ].<br />
# Creaky-voiced nasals following the stressed syllable fortify to creaky-voiced stops.<br />
<br />
== Proto-Nuclear Wendoth to Proto-Northern Wendoth (-1750 YP to -1500 YP) ==<br />
<br />
([ʁ] had already become [ɦ] in the dialect)<br />
<br />
# [ʔ] is deleted before voiced obstruents with compensatory lengthening.<br />
# [q qʼ qʰ] move forward to [k kʼ kʰ]. The other velar stops become definite palatals.<br />
# [θ ð] merge with [f v].</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/DiachronicsWendoth/Diachronics2011-12-30T16:09:00Z<p>Alces: New page: {{Tbc|Alces}} The Wendoth language broke up in two waves, so there is a division between Nuclear and Peripheral Wendoth. The Peripheral speakers originally moved towards the mountains in ...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Tbc|Alces}}<br />
<br />
The Wendoth language broke up in two waves, so there is a division between Nuclear and Peripheral Wendoth. The Peripheral speakers originally moved towards the mountains in the southwest, and were the ones who came in contact with Proto-Isles. The group is paraphyletic and mainly characterised by grammatical innovations which are probably due to language contact. The Nuclear group, which spread out more to the west and north, was characterised by the full transfer of phonation contrasts away from the vowels.<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Southwestern Wendoth (-2000 to -1500 YP) =<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [ɪʔ ʊʔ aʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iː uː oː].<br />
# [ʔ] before an obstruent disappears, and geminates the obstruent.<br />
# [ə] is deleted if it is in a syllable preceding the stressed syllable, and it is not adjacent to a consonant cluster.<br />
# [f v] become [p b]. They do not merge with /p b/ due to the velarisation on these phonemes.<br />
# [pˠ bˠ] become [x ɣ] when they precede a consonant.<br />
# [θ ð] merge with dental [t d] before a vowel, while [t d] merge with [θ ð] before a vowel.<br />
# [ʁ] is deleted before a following obstruent, but makes it geminated.<br />
# Elsewhere, [χ ʁ] merge with [x ɣ].<br />
# Remaining [ə] merges with [i] finally and [a] elsewhere.<br />
# [ʎ ɫ] merge with [j w] everywhere, and [ɪ ʊ] in coda.<br />
# The sequences [aɪ aʊ oɪ oʊ] become [aː aː oː oː], while [aiː auː oiː ouː] become [iː aː iː oː].<br />
# [ʔ] is deleted if before a consonant and after a long vowel.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ Proto-Southwestern Wendoth vowel system<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| /i iː/<br />
|<br />
| /u uː/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| /o oː/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| /a aː/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-South Central Wendoth (-2000 to -1600 YP) =<br />
# Phonated vowels in syllables directly preceding a stressed phonated vowel acquire the same phonation as that stressed vowel.<br />
# Creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ] lower to [e̤ o̤].<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [iʔ uʔ æʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ ɑɦ].<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Southeastern Wendoth (-2000 to -1200 YP) = <br />
# Creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ] lower to [ḛ o̰].<br />
# Phonated vowels in syllables directly preceding a stressed phonated vowel acquire the same phonation as that stressed vowel, without changing quality.<br />
# [ḭ ṵ ḛ o̰ a̰ ɑ̰] become [iʔ uʔ eʔ oʔ aʔ ɑʔ], and [i̤ ṳ e̤ o̤ a̤ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ eɦ oɦ aɦ ɑɦ].<br />
<br />
= Wendoth to Proto-Nuclear Wendoth (-2000 to -1750 YP) =<br />
<br />
# [ḭ ṵ a̰] become [iʔ uʔ æʔ], and [i̤ ṳ ɑ̤] become [iɦ uɦ ɑɦ].<br />
# [ʎ ɫ] become [j w] after [ʔ ɦ] and before a vowel.<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiceless plosive become ejectives.<br />
# Clusters of [ɦ] + voiceless plosive become pre-aspirated stops.<br />
# [ɦ] is deleted before nasals.<br />
# [ɑ a] merge as [a].<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ Proto-Nuclear Wendoth vowel system<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Central<br />
! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| /i/<br />
|<br />
| /u/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
| /ə/<br />
| /o/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| /æ/<br />
| /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Proto-Nuclear Wendoth to Proto-Northwestern Wendoth (-1750 YP to -1300 YP) ==<br />
<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiced consonant become a single creaky-voiced consonant, and [ɦ] + voiced obstruent becomes a single breathy-voiced consonant.<br />
# Clusters of [ʔ] + voiceless fricative become ejective fricatives, and clusters of [ɦ] + voiceless fricative become preaspirated fricatives.<br />
# [q] becomes [ʔ].<br />
# Creaky-voiced nasals following the stressed syllable fortify to creaky-voiced stops.<br />
<br />
== Proto-Nuclear Wendoth to Proto-Northern Wendoth (-1750 YP to -1500 YP) ==<br />
<br />
([ʁ] had already become [ɦ] in the dialect)<br />
<br />
# [ʔ] is deleted before voiced obstruents with compensatory lengthening.<br />
# [q qʼ qʰ] move forward to [k kʼ kʰ]. The other velar stops become definite palatals.<br />
# [θ ð] merge with [f v].</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-30T13:25:15Z<p>Alces: /* The past */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
==== The past ====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/User_talk:AlcesUser talk:Alces2011-12-30T13:19:40Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>Regarding the descendants of Wendoth: for what it's worth, Blevins says in ''Evolutionary phonology: the emergence of sound patterns'' that she knows of no instances in natlangs where breathiness or creakiness has transferred from vowels to adjacent consonants, as opposed to from C to V... [[User:4pq1injbok|4pq1injbok]] 04:28, 30 December 2011 (UTC)<br />
:I'll bear that in mind. For the descendants, I've been imagining a sort of two-step process of V[+creaky] > Vʔ etc., with the resulting ʔC clusters merging. I think that seems plausible enough. [http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/research/Peterson_vol15.PDF This paper] shows that Vʔ sequences can vary with V[+creaky] sequences. [[User:Alces|Alces]] 13:19, 30 December 2011 (UTC)</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/LexiconWendoth/Lexicon2011-12-27T17:09:32Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>The first column gives the form of the stem with no suffix attached. The second gives it with a suffix attached. For each stem type, the text in the second column will look like this:<br />
* breathy and creaky stems: torã-, tori-, toru-, torą, torį, torų-, <br />
* variable breathy and creaky stems: toru-/i-, torų-/į-<br />
* e-stems with final consonant: tor(e)-<br />
* e-stems with final vowel: toranj(e)-, torah(e)-, tori(e)-<br />
* a-stems with final consonant: tora-<br />
* a-stems with final vowel: toranja-, toraha-, toria-<br />
* o-stems with final consonant: toho-/ro-<br />
* o-stems with final vowel: toraho-/njo-, torio-/njo-<br />
* nasal stems: tora(m)-, tora(nd)-, tora(n)-, tora(ng)-<br />
* nasal stems with alternating u: toru(m)-/i-<br />
* nasal stems with alternating i: tori(nd)-/u-, tori(n)-/u-, tori(ng)-/u-<br />
* dropped nasal stems: tora(nj)-, tora(h)-<br />
* dropped nasal stems with alternating i: tori(nj)-/u-, tori(h)-/u- tori-/u-<br />
<br />
The third column gives notes on morphology. It gives the transformed form, if irregular. It shows the past form for verbs, and what would be the past form for nouns (for when you derive a verb from a noun). For words that have an initial '''h''' appearing only when a prefix is added, it is marked here by adding [h].<br />
<br />
The fourth column gives whether the root palatalises or velarising preceding prefixes.<br />
<br />
The fifth column gives the gloss.<br />
<br />
The sixth column gives the part of speech, which may be:<br />
* n. - noun<br />
* v.it - intransitive verb (no obligatory object)<br />
* v.mt - monotransitive verb (obligatory accusative object)<br />
* v.dt - ditransitive verb (obligatory accusative and dative objects)<br />
* d. - determiner<br />
* par. - particle<br />
* prep. - preposition clitic<br />
* For verbs, any notes about the case of its arguments may also be added.<br />
<br />
The seventh column gives additional information about the part of speech.<br />
* For nouns, it gives the noun class as a Roman numeral.<br />
* For verbs, it says whether it's static or dynamic and the conjugation if it's not the first one.<br />
<br />
The eighth column gives the word's Pre-Wendoth root.<br />
<br />
This does not include transparent derivations.<br />
<br />
''330 words''<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}<br />
|-<br />
! Standalone<br />
! Stem<br />
! Morphology<br />
! Prefix effect<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Type<br />
! Class<br />
! Pre-Wendoth<br />
|-<br />
| acau || acau- || [h] || vel. || man || n. || I || goxeho<br />
|-<br />
| ahezh || ahezh(e)- || [h] || vel. || fog, mist || n. || VII || goɣuzi<br />
|-<br />
| atįv || atįva- || atįve [h] || vel. || press || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣopiʔevo<br />
|-<br />
| au || au(h)- || auu [h] || vel. || touch, affect || v.mt. || dyn. || gohoŋ <br />
|-<br />
| avex || aveha- || avehe [h] || vel. || trust || v.mt. || stat. || rovuro<br />
|-<br />
| awex || awexo-/co- || awexa [h] || vel. || moon || n. || IV || golura<br />
|-<br />
| azhesang || azhesa(ng)- || azhesou [h] || vel. || crawl || v.it. || dyn. 2 || gozisan<br />
|-<br />
| baḍauin || baḍaui(n)- || baḍauiu || vel. || battle || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || bodohahin<br />
|- <br />
| barqat || barqata- || barqate || vel. || kneel || v.it. || dyn. || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| baw || bawa- || bawe || vel. || carry || v.mt. || dyn. || bolo<br />
|-<br />
| be || b(e)- || || vel. || I || pron. || || bu<br />
|-<br />
| bechep || bechepa- || || vel. || hip || n. || VIII || butipo<br />
|-<br />
| bengaq || bengaha- || || vel. || shit || n. || VIII || bonogo<br />
|-<br />
| bodhoth || bodhoth(e)- || || vel. || wilderness || n. || IX || bavafi<br />
|-<br />
| boj || boj(e)- || || vel. || penis || n. || V || baɣi<br />
|-<br />
| bųdh || bųdha- || || vel. || chin || n. || VIII || buʔove<br />
|-<br />
| buim || bui(m)- || buįu || vel. || shine || v.it. || stat || buhuʔem<br />
|-<br />
| bunjių || bunjių- || bunjiu || vel. || dream || v.mt. || stat. || buŋiʔoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| -c || -ce || || pal. || with, and || prep. || || -xi<br />
|-<br />
| cai || cai || || vel. || but || par. || || xahe<br />
|-<br />
| canaceth || canaceth(e)- || || vel. || itch || n. || X || xanexifi<br />
|-<br />
| capang || capa(ng)- || || pal. || armpit, back of knee || n. || VIII || xepan<br />
|-<br />
| cawųã || cawųã- || || pal. || clan || n. || XI || xeluʔah<br />
|-<br />
| cecum || cecum(e)- || || pal. || settlement, village || n. || IX || xihumu (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| cedhung || cedhu(ng)- || cedhuu || pal. || lift || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || xivihan<br />
|-<br />
| cendoi || cendoi- || ecndoi || pal. || be brave || v.it. || stat. || xemahi<br />
|-<br />
| cexeų || cexeų- || cexeu || vel. || stir || v.mt. (obj. takes dat.) || dyn. || xexoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| cha || cha- || che || pal. || be beside || v.mt. || stat. || te<br />
|-<br />
| chasum || chasu(m)-/i- || || pal. || neighbour || n. || I/II || te + sum<br />
|-<br />
| cheg || cheg(e)- || chegi || pal. || be after, follow || v.mt. || stat. || tigi<br />
|-<br />
| chex || cheho-/jo- || || pal. || eye || n. || IV || tiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| chi || chi(nj)-/u- || chu || pal. || say || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiŋ<br />
|- <br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chiu || pal. || remember, know (a person) [when habitual] || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiʔeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| chųiã || chųiã- || chųii || pal. || tear || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || tiʔuheʔ<br />
|-<br />
| cind || cindi(nj)-/u- || cindu || pal. || kill || v.mt. || dyn || ximiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| coįã || coįã- || || vel. || foreigner || n. || I/II || xaʔeh<br />
|-<br />
| coj || coj(e)- || coji || vel. || be dry || v.it. || stat. || xaɣi<br />
|-<br />
| cuį || cuį- || cui || pal. || to lack || v.mt. || stat. || xiʔoʔi<br />
|-<br />
| cum || cum(e)- || cumu || pal. || set up camp || v.it. || dyn. || xihumu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍã || ḍã- || || vel. || me || pron. || || doh<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaceting || ḍacetingo-/no- || ḍacetinga || vel. || be tired || v.it. || dyn. || doxipina<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaḍã || ḍaḍã- || || vel. || us (exclusive) || pron. || || dodoh (redup. doh)<br />
|-<br />
| dajaįf || dajaįf(e)- || dajaįfu || pal. || split || v.mt. || dyn. || beɣeʔifu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaų || ḍaų-/į- || || vel. || rock || n. || VIII || doʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaxemam || ḍaxema(m)- || ḍaxemou || vel. || lie (down) || v.it. || dyn. || doxomam<br />
|-<br />
| ḍejh || ḍejha- || ḍejhe || vel. || lie (speak falsely) || v.it. || dyn. || dude<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeng || ḍe(ng)- || ḍau || vel. || want to do (mildly) || v.mt. || stat. 2 || don<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeveṭinen || ḍeveṭine- || ḍeveṭinau || vel. || destroy || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || duvutunen <br />
|-<br />
| dhaceqaḍ || dhaceqaḍa- || dhaceqaḍe || pal. || swallow || v.mt. || dyn. || vexikodo<br />
|-<br />
| dhain || dhai(n)- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || vaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| dheci || dheci(nj)-/u- || dhecu || pal. || swell, enlarge || v.it. || dyn. 2. || vixiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| dhemer || dhemer(e)- || dhemeri || pal. || move away from || v.mt. || dyn. || vemuri<!-- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --><br />
|-<br />
| dhįuą || dhįuą- || dhįui || pal. || be in pain || v.it. || dyn. || viʔihaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| dį || dį- || di || pal. || take off, remove || v.mt. || dyn. || bihe<br />
|-<br />
| ḍįj || ḍįja- || || vel. || sun || n. || IV || duʔaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| dindezh || dindezh(e)- || dindezhi || pal. || buzz, groan, mumble || v.it. || dyn. || bimizi<br />
|-<br />
| dochof || dochofo-/tho- || || pal. || meal || n. || III || betefa<br />
|-<br />
| doku || doku-/i- || || vel. || earth, soil || n. || VIII || bakiha<br />
|-<br />
| eq || eqo-/ko- || || vel. || we (exclusive) || pron. || || ruka<br />
|-<br />
| ewaį || ewaį- || [h] ewai || vel. || be friendly || v.it. || stat. || ɣuloʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ezex || ezexo-/co- || [h] ezexa || vel. || kill in battle, slay || v.mt. || dyn. || guzuxa<br />
|-<br />
| faįx || faįho-/ro- || faįha || vel. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || foʔira<br />
|-<br />
| famį || famį- || fami || vel. || cook || v.mt. || dyn. || famuʔe<br />
|-<br />
| fehį || fehį- || fehi || vel. || be to the east || v.it. || stat. || foɣuhe<br />
|-<br />
| gaxaihi || gaxaihi(h)-/u- || || pal. || be respected, renowned || v.it. || stat. || gexohiguŋ<br />
|-<br />
| gayaį || gayaį- || gayai || pal. || urinate || v.it. || dyn. || gelehe<br />
|-<br />
| gazou || gazou- || || pal. || ancestor, grandfather, grandmother || n. || I/II || gezaho<br />
|-<br />
| gehaq || gehaho-/go- || || pal. || seed || n. || III || giroga<br />
|-<br />
| gemahing || gemahi(ng)- || gemahu || pal. || enjoy || v.mt. || stat. || gemoɣun<br />
|-<br />
| genoį || genoį- || || pal. || fingernail, toenail || n. || VIII || ginaʔi<br />
|-<br />
| geṭep || geṭepo-/to- || geṭepa || pal. || yawn || v.it. || dyn. || gitupa<br />
|-<br />
| i || ihe- || [h] || vel. || knee, elbow, shoulder, heel || n. || VIII || ruʔeŋu<br />
|-<br />
| iã || iã- || i'i || pal. || be above || v.mt. || stat. 3 || heh<br />
|-<br />
| įą || įą- || || pal. || hand, foot || n. || VIII || ʔiʔ <br />
|-<br />
| įb || įbo-/do- || įba || pal. || be foolish || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiba<br />
|-<br />
| ibą || ibą- || || pal. || cheek || n. || VIII || hebaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įbung || įbu(ng)- || įbuu || pal. || forest || n. || V || ʔebuhan<br />
|-<br />
| įce || įceho-/njo- || || pal. || sea || n. || IV || ʔexeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| įcebengaq || įcebengaha- || || pal. || swamp || n. || IV || įc 'sea' + bengaq 'shit'<br />
|-<br />
| įdh || įdha- || įdhi || pal. || be unreal, imaginary || v.it. || stat. || ʔive<br />
|-<br />
| įdodh || įdodha- || įdhodhi || pal. || construct || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔevave<br />
|-<br />
| įhą || įhą- || || pal. || arm, leg || n. || VIII || ʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įhoq || įhoqa- || įhoqe || pal. || be small || v.it. || stat. || ʔegako<br />
|-<br />
| įk || įke- || įki || vel. || bite || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔaki<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho-/go- || įkaha || vel. || make noise || v.it. || dyn. || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho-/go- || || vel. || sound || n. || XI || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaų || įkaų- || įkau || vel. || be wet || v.it. || stat. || ʔakeʔu<br />
|-<br />
| indaį || indaį- || indai || pal. || hold || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔemahe<br />
|-<br />
| indaįk || indaįka- || [h] indaįke || vel. || bend || v.it. || dyn. || gumeʔake<br />
|-<br />
| įndendoy || įndendoy(a)- || įndendoye || pal. || sense, know intuitively || v.mt. || stat. || ʔimemale<br />
|-<br />
| inding- || indin- || || vel. || high || det. || || hamin<br />
|-<br />
| ingi || ingi- || || pal. || food || n. || III || ʔenuhe<br />
|-<br />
| inem || ine(m)- || || pal. || container || n. || VI || henem<br />
|-<br />
| įraį || įraį- || įrai || vel. || faint, fall unconscious || v.it. || dyn. || ʔareʔi<br />
|-<br />
| įuį || įuį- || įui || pal. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔehohi<br />
|-<br />
| iuk || iuka- || iuke || vel. || crack || v.it. || dyn. || huhoke<br />
|-<br />
| iutum || iutuma- || iutume || vel. || valley || n. || IX || ʔuhupimo<br />
|-<br />
| iųvam || iųva(m)- || iųvou || vel. || be narrow || v.it. || stat. || huʔuvam<br />
|-<br />
| id- || ib- || || vel. || many || det. || || hab-<br />
|-<br />
| įdh- || įv- || || pal. || far || det. || || ʔiv-<br />
|-<br />
| įw || įwo-/yo- || įwa || pal. || be white || v.it. || stat. || ʔila<br />
|-<br />
| ix || iho-/jo- || || pal. || water (not for drinking) || n. || VII || heɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įx || įho-/jo- || įha || pal. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įyen || įyen(e)- || įyeni || vel. || blink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔaleni<br />
|-<br />
| izhebã || izhebã- || izhebi || pal. || exchange, trade || v.dt. (indirect object is person you're trading with; other item being exchanged takes benefactive) || dyn. 3 || hezibuh<br />
|-<br />
| jaxaz || jaxaz(e)- || jaxazi || pal. || be thin || v.it. || stat. || ɣexozu<br />
|-<br />
| jehahou || jehahou-/i- || || pal. || spot, boil || n. || VIII || ɣigaŋaha<br />
|-<br />
| jenaum || jenau(m)- || jenaųu || pal. || be in the middle of; during || v.mt. || stat. || ɣeneʔum<br />
|-<br />
| jenjog || jenjog(e)- || || pal. || flower || n. || V || ɣeŋagi<br />
|-<br />
| jez || jezo-/zho- || jeza || pal. || reach (for) || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣiza<br />
|-<br />
| jhaįcheją || jhaįcheją- || || pal. || ashes || n. || VIII || deʔatiɣeʔ <br />
|-<br />
| jhebou || jhebou- || || pal. || dye, paint || n. || VI || dibahe<br />
|-<br />
| jhexaųs || jhexaųso-/sho- || || pal. || palm of hand, sole of foot || n. || VIII || dixoʔusa<br />
|-<br />
| jhezh || jhezh(e)- || jhezhi || pal. || exist, be true || v.it. || stat. || dizi<br />
|-<br />
| jhihax || jhihaho-/ro- || || pal. || club, staff || n. || VI || diŋora<br />
|-<br />
| jinaų || jinaų- || jinau || pal. || wipe || v.mt. || dyn || ɣinehu<br />
|-<br />
| jinehą || jinehą- || jinehai || pal. || heal || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣineŋoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| jojax || jojaho-/ro- || jojaha || vel. || be hot || v.it. || stat. || ɣaɣera<br />
|-<br />
| jųbov || jųbovo-/dho- || jųbodha || pal. || corner || n. || XI || ɣiʔabava<br />
|-<br />
| kain || kain(e)- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || kaʔini<br />
|-<br />
| kash || kash(e)- || || pal. || blood || n. || VII || kesi<br />
|-<br />
| kaukau || kaukau- || || vel. || crow || n. || IV || onomatopoeic<br />
|-<br />
| kej || keja- || keje || pal. || keep || v.mt. || stat. || kiɣe<br />
|-<br />
| kįd || kįda- || kįde || pal. || think, feel || v.mt. || stat. || kiʔabe<br />
|-<br />
| kochum || kochumo-/ndo- || || vel. || tongue || n. || IV || katima<br />
|-<br />
| kųq || kųha- || kųhe || pal. || be to the west || v.it. || stat. || kiʔago<br />
|-<br />
| mahoj || mahoja- || mahoje || vel. || breathe || v.it. || dyn. || mogaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| mang || ma(ng)- || || vel. || one || n. || XI || man<br />
|-<br />
| maner- || maneh- || || vel. || only || det. || || manir-<br />
|-<br />
| matanje || matanje(nj)- || || vel. || skin || n. || IX || mopaŋeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| medų || medų- || || vel. || forehead || n. || VIII || mubiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| megį || megį- || (ingį) megi || vel. || take || v.mt. || dyn. || mugiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| mepox || mepoha- || mepohe || vel. || horn || n. || VIII || muparo<br />
|-<br />
| meqey || meqeya- || || vel. || beard || n. || VIII || mukule<br />
|-<br />
| meqong || meqongo-/no- || meqonga || vel. || kick || v.mt. || dyn. || mukana<br />
|-<br />
| mitur || mitur(e)- || || pal. || boat || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| modhai || modhai(nj)- || modhaįu || vel. || shrivel, shrink, decay || v.it. || dyn. || mavaʔiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| mop || mop(e)- || || vel. || sea creature; covers fish, crabs etc. || n. || IV || mapu<br />
|-<br />
| mu || mu || || vel. || you (sing.) (acc.) || pron. || || muhu<br />
|-<br />
| mumã || mumã- || ummã || vel. || you (plural) (acc.) || pron. || || mumuh<br />
|-<br />
| naketh || naketh(e)- || || pal. || animal || n. || IV || nekifi<br />
|-<br />
| nafam || nafama- || nafame || pal. || wash || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ndaųį || ndaųį || ndaųi || pal. || bleat || v.it. || dyn. || meʔeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ndajeb || ndajebo-/do- || ndajeba || pal. || be dirty || v.it. || stat. || meɣiba<br />
|-<br />
| ndator || ndator(e)- || || pal. || art || n. || XI || mepare<br />
|-<br />
| ndedh || ndedha- || ndedhe || pal. || be rotten || v.it. || stat. || mive<br />
|-<br />
| ndewįth || ndewįth(e)- || ndewįthi || pal. || sword || n. || VI || miluʔafi<br />
|-<br />
| ndochã || ndochã- || || vel. || a while; a long span of time || n. || X || mateh<br />
|-<br />
| ndotaų || ndotaų- || ndotau || vel. || be cruel || v.it. || dyn. || mapeho<br />
|-<br />
| ndoth || ndotha- || ndothe || vel. || make sth. turn into sth. || v.dt (indirect object = thing being transformed) || dyn. || mafe<br />
|-<br />
| ndųbą || ndųbą- || ndųbai || pal. || bend || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || miʔoboʔ<br />
|-<!-- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --><br />
| newaų || newaų- || (newaį) || pal. || star || n. || XI || niloʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngaįv || ngaįva- || eįngva- || vel. || blow || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ngasazhin || ngasazhi- || esazhin || vel. || claw, talon || n. || VIII || ŋosozin<br />
|-<br />
| ngasoq || ngasohe- || angsoq || vel. || complete || v.mt. || dyn || nosagu<br />
|-<br />
| ngaųi || ngaųi- || || vel. || breast || n. || VIII || naʔohi<br />
|-<br />
| ngax || ngahe- || || vel. || guts, entrails || n. || VIII || noru<br />
|-<br />
| nge || nge- || || vel. || see || v.mt. || dyn. || nu<br />
|-<br />
| ngek || ngeke- || || vel. || head, face || n. || IV || noki<br />
|-<br />
| ngeyem || ngeye- || iyem || vel. || be ill || v.it. || stat. 2 || ŋulem<br />
|-<br />
| ngįą || ngįą- || (past: ngųį) || vel. || be big || v.it. || stat. 3 || ŋuʔeʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ngin || ngi- || || vel. || use || v.mt. || dyn. 2. || ŋun<br />
|-<br />
| nginin || ngini- || || vel. || steal || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || ŋunin<br />
|-<br />
| ngoḍox || ngoḍohe- || || vel. || nickname || n. || XI || nadaru<br />
|-<br />
| ngopoų || ngopoų- || ampoų (ngopoį-) || vel. || walk || v.it. || dyn. || ŋapaʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngozhebe || ngozhebe- || azhebe || vel. || squeeze || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋaziboŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ni || ni- || || pal. || you (plural) || pron. || || niŋ<br />
|-<br />
| njehaų || njehaų- || ihaų (njehaį-) || pal. || hair, fur || n. || VIII || ŋigoʔa<br />
|-<br />
| njeįrum || njeįri- || || pal. || be weak || v.it. || stat. || ŋeʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| nordan || norda- || || vel. || bow || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| njoįth || njoįtha- || aįnth || vel. || be clean || v.it. || stat. || ŋaʔife<br />
|-<br />
| njoix || njoihe- || || vel. || approach || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋahiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| njįp || njįpe- || įmpe- || pal. || be grieving || v.it. || stat. || ŋiʔipu<br />
|-<br />
| noiji || noiji- || ainji- || vel. || lip || n. || VIII || naheɣih<br />
|-<br />
| nojem || noje || anjjem || vel. || suck || v.mt. || dyn. || naɣem<br />
|-<br />
| nuhedh || nuhedha- || || pal. || lake || n. || VII || nihoruve<br />
|-<br />
| o || o- || [h] || vel. || be before, precede || v.mt. || stat. || ɣa<br />
|-<br />
| oqajhi || oqajhinja- || [h] || vel. || family || n. || XI || rakodiŋo<br />
|-<br />
| oich || oicha- || [h] || vel. || ant or other tiny creature || n. || IV || rahate<br />
|-<br />
| oiup || oiupa- || [h] || vel. || enter || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu 'start' + hopo 'pass through'<br />
|-<br />
| omban || ombane- || [h] || pal. || flower || n. || V || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| ou || ou- || [h] || vel. || begin, start || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu<br />
|-<br />
| ouiã || ouiã- || (past: oui) || vel. || climb || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu + heh<br />
|-<br />
| ov || ovo- || || vel. || get, obtain || v.mt. || dyn. || gava<br />
|-<br />
| ovum || ovi- || || vel. || belly || n. || VIII || gavum<br />
|-<br />
| paun- || paung- || || vel. || all || det. || || pahon-<br />
|-<br />
| paųze || paųze- || || vel. || be round || v.it. || stat. 2 || paʔazuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| pawazą || pawazą- || apwazą || vel. || stab || v.mt. || dyn. || palazoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| pehez || peheza- || || vel. || be satisfied with || v.mt. || stat. || puɣuzo<br />
|-<br />
| per || pere- || epre- || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || puri<br />
|-<br />
| poher || pohere- || || vel. || be to the south || v.it. || stat. || paɣuri<br />
|-<br />
| pof || pofo- || (potho-) || vel. || be full || v.it. || stat || pafa<br />
|-<br />
| qahen || qahena- || || vel. || help || v.it. || dyn. || kogone<br />
|-<br />
| qawang || qawange- || oqwang || vel. || explore, wander || v.it. || dyn. || kolanu<br />
|-<br />
| qe || qe- || || vel. || thing || n. || (varies) || ku<br />
|-<br />
| qec || qece- || ekce- || vel. || soft object || n. || VIII || kuxi<br />
|-<br />
| qehoq || qehoqe- || || vel. || grunt || v.it. || dyn. || kuraku<br />
|-<br />
| qing || qinge- || || vel. || gravel || n. || VIII || kunu<br />
|-<br />
| qiu || qiu- || || vel. || jump || v.it. || dyn. || kuʔaho<br />
|-<br />
| qoḍex || qoḍeha- || || vel. || spit || v.it. || dyn. || kaduro<br />
|-<br />
| rang || ranga- || || pal. || be straight || v.it. || stat. || rano<br />
|-<br />
| rauį || rauį- || || pal. || be red || v.it. || stat. || rehiʔi<br />
|-<br />
| reįb || reįbe- || || pal. || be black || v.it. || stat. || riʔebu<br />
|-<br />
| reim || reime- || || pal. || give || v.dt. || dyn. || reʔimu<br />
|-<br />
| reqeyą || reqeyą- || erqeyą (past: erqeyai) || pal. || join to, marry || v.mt. || dyn. || rekoleʔ<br />
|-<br />
| redh- || rev- || || pal. || few || det. || || riv-<br />
|-<br />
| rokex || rokehe- || orkex || vel. || float || v.it. || dyn. || rakiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| saḍã || saḍã- || azḍã (past: saḍai)|| vel. || slip || v.it. || dyn. 3. || sodoh<br />
|-<br />
| saḍajheų || saḍajheų- || azḍajheų || vel. || hide, fur || n. || VIII || sododiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| sang || sange- || || vel. || cry || v.it. || dyn. || sanu<br />
|-<br />
| Sąr || Sąre- || || pal. || a tree goddess || n. || IV || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || fulfill (an intended action) || v.mt. || dyn. || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || success || n. || XI || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sasath || sasathe- || assath || vel. || understand || v.mt. || dyn. || redup. sofi 'hear'<br />
|-<br />
| sated || sateda- || || vel. || learn || v.mt. || dyn. || sopibe<br />
|-<br />
| sath || sathe- || || vel. || hear || v.mt. || dyn. || sofi<br />
|-<br />
| seṭ || seṭo- || (secho-) || vel. || exceed || v.mt. || stat || suta<br />
|-<br />
| seth || sethe- || || vel. || sky || n. || IX || sufi<br />
|-<br />
| sheḍaq || sheḍaho- || ezhḍax || pal. || complete, accomplish || v.mt. || dyn || sidoga<br />
|-<br />
| shehumuįhą || shehumuįhą- || (past: shehumuįhi) || pal. || summon || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || sigumuŋ 'bring' + huʔeɣuʔ 'ask'<br />
|-<br />
| shehumu || shehumu- || ezh'humu || pal. || bring || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || sigumuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| shek || sheka- || || pal. || be more || v.it. || stat. || sike<br />
|-<br />
| shexaung || shexaungo- || eshxaung || pal. || spear || n. || VI || sixaʔuna<br />
|-<br />
| shez || shezo- || (shezho-) || pal. || dog || n. || IV || seza<br />
|-<br />
| shaqath || shaqathe- || ashkath || pal. || fight || v.mt. || dyn. || sekofi<br />
|-<br />
| shu || shu- || || pal. || take (a time), span (a length) || v.mt. || stat. || sihu<br />
|-<br />
| shum || shu- || || pal. || happen || v.it. || dyn. 2 || sim<br />
|-<br />
| sing || si- || || vel. || you (sing.) || pron. || || sun<br />
|-<br />
| souhash || souhashe- || || vel. || egg || n. || III || sahuɣose<br />
|-<br />
| sub || sube- || uzbe- || vel. || we (inclusive) || pron. || || sun + bu<br />
|-<br />
| sum || su- || || vel. || human being || n. || I/II || sum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭa || ṭa- || (cha-) || vel. || if || par. || || taŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭahes || ṭahese- || || vel. || craft (a tool) || v.mt. || dyn. || torusu<br />
|-<br />
| tan || tane- || || vel. || put somewhere || v.dt. (indirect object = thing you're putting, direct object = where you're putting it) || dyn. || pani<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || be within || v.mt. || stat. || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || womb || n. || IX || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| ṭare || ṭare- || aṭre || vel. || sibling, cousin || n. || I/II || toreŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭaseq || ṭaseha- || aṭseq || vel. || wear || v.mt. || dyn. || tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| ṭasehak || ṭasehake- || aṭsehak || vel. || clothes || n. || VI || from tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| tau || tau- || (tai-) || pal. || heart || n. || VI || pehaŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭauzind || ṭauzinda- || auḍzind || vel. || ride || v.it. || dyn. || tohazume<br />
|-<br />
| tegi || tegi- || eggi- || pal. || mouth || n. || IV || pigiŋ <br />
|-<br />
| ṭekaį || ṭekaį- || ekkaį- || vel. || older brother || n. || I || tukeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| tepum || tepi- || eppum || pal. || ear || n. || IV || pipum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭeq || ṭeqahe- || eqqa || vel. || hurt || v.mt. || dyn. || tukaŋu<br />
|-<br />
| tha || tha- || || pal. || come || v.it. || dyn. || fe<br />
|-<br />
| thakad || thakade- || || pal. || work || v.it. || dyn. || fekebi<br />
|-<br />
| thehesh || thehesha- || || pal. || wasp, bee or other stinging creature || n. || IV || fiɣusi<br />
|-<br />
| thetaw || thetawo- || ethtaw (thetayo-) || pal. || seek, search for || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fipela<br />
|-<br />
| thind || thinda- || || pal. || woman || n. || II || fihime<br />
|-<br />
| thųṭum || thųṭu- || || pal. || lick || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fiʔutum<br />
|-<br />
| tojadhing || tojadhinge- || odjadhing || vel. || mix || v.mt. (one thing being mixed takes dative, other thing takes comitative) || dyn. || paɣevinu <br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || ṭoho- || (ṭogo-) || vel. || cliff, edge || n. || VIII || taga<br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || toqa- || oqqa- || vel. || drinking water || n. || III || tako<br />
|-<br />
| ṭųpau || ṭųpau- || ųppau || vel. || be to the north || v.it. || stat. || tuʔupahu<br />
|-<br />
| ug || uge- || || vel. || hill or single mountain || n. || VIII || hogi<br />
|-<br />
| unjã || unjã- || (past: unjai) || vel. || make dirty || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. 3 || ʔuŋeh<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: iu) || vel. || cause || v.mt. || dyn. 2 (irregular) || ʔoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: įdha) || vel. || exist, be, be true || v.it. || stat. || ho<br />
|-<br />
| ųc || ųce- || || vel. || be unfortunate, unlucky || v.it. || stat. || ʔoxi<br />
|-<br />
| uchand || uchanda- || || vel. || fart || v.it. || dyn. || hutame<br />
|-<br />
| ufox || ufohe- || || vel. || bark, complain || v.it. || dyn. || hufaru<br />
|-<br />
| uhoqeq || uhoqeqa- || || vel. || burn, boil || v.it. || dyn. || huŋakuko<br />
|-<br />
| ųhu || ųhu- || (ųhi-) || vel. || grip || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔuruha<br />
|-<br />
| uįhą || uįhą- || (past: uįhi) || vel. || ask || v.mt. || dyn. || huʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| uim || ui- || || vel. || side || n. || XI || hahim <br />
|-<br />
| uįm || uįmo- || (uįndo-) || pal. || be sweet || v.it. || stat. || heʔima<br />
|-<br />
| uįqu || uįqu- (past: uįqui) || || vel. || split || v.dt. || dyn. 3 || huʔekuh<br />
|-<br />
| uįrum || uįri- || || vel. || be wise || v.it. || stat. 2 || hoʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| uiy- || uiw- || || pal. || single || det. || || hihal-<br />
|-<br />
| uiy || uiy || || pal. || often || par. || || heheli-<br />
|-<br />
| uiyenã || uiyenã- || || pal. || a single hair or whisker || n. || VIII || hihaleneh<br />
|-<br />
| uizh || uizhe- || || vel. || neck || n. || VIII || huhizi<br />
|-<br />
| ųk || ųka- || || vel. || laugh || v.it. || dyn. || ʔake<br />
|-<br />
| ųkoth || ųkothe- || || vel. || mountains || n. || IX || ʔokafi<br />
|-<br />
| umejh || umejha- || || vel. || have honour || v.it. || stat. || humude<br />
|-<br />
| ųm || ųme- || || vel. || hit || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔamu<br />
|-<br />
| ųmų || ųmų- || [h] (ųmį-) || vel. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ruʔomuʔa<br />
|-<br />
| unajh || unajha- || || vel. || be dull (i.e. not shiny) || v.it. || stat. || ʔonode<br />
|-<br />
| ųnjaįn || ųnjaį- || || vel. || eat or drink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔuŋaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| up || upa- || || vel. || pass through || v.mt. || dyn. || hopo<br />
|-<br />
| us || use- || || vel. || be young || v.it. || stat. 2 || husoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ut || ute- || || vel. || be strong || v.it || stat. || hopi<br />
|-<br />
| ųyį || ųyį- || || vel. || rub || v.mt. || dyn. || rub<br />
|-<br />
| ųzeng || ųze- || || vel. || sand || n. || VIII || ʔazon<br />
|-<br />
| uzhec || uzheca- || || vel. || travel || v.it. || dyn. || huzixe<br />
|-<br />
| vaheḍaḍ || vaheḍaḍe- || || vel. || attack, strike || v.mt. || dyn. || vaŋudodo<br />
|-<br />
| vaib || vaibo- || || vel. || sing || v.it. || dyn. || vohibo<br />
|-<br />
| vaw || vawe- || avwe- || vel. || name || v.dt. (person being named takes dative) || dyn. || volu<br />
|-<br />
| vayash || vayasha- || avyash || pal. || quarrel, dispute, argue || v.it. || dyn. || volese<br />
|-<br />
| vepeuqã || vepeuqã- || || vel. || testicles || n. || VIII || vupuhokoh<br />
|-<br />
| veqew || veqewo-/yo- || || vel. || be cold || v.it. || stat. || vukula<br />
|-<br />
| vex || veho- || (vero-) || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || vura<br />
|-<br />
| vį || vį- || || pal. || do, perform || v.mt. || dyn. || vuʔi<br />
|-<br />
| vobaub || vobaube- || || vel. || be satisified, content, happy || v.it. || stat. || vabohobu<br />
|-<br />
| wamer || wamere- || awmer || vel. || dusk || n. || XI || lomuri<br />
|-<br />
| wangox || wangoxo- || (wangoco-) || vel. || hide || v.it. || dyn. || lanaxa<br />
|-<br />
| weun || weu- || || vel. || lie || v.it. || dyn. || lohun<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhã || wefezhã- || (past: wefezhei) || vel. || dig || v.it. || dyn. || lufuzeh<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhãsh || wefezhãsha- || || vel. || worm || n. || IV || from lufuzeh 'dig'<br />
|-<br />
| wo || wo- || || vel. || resemble, be similar to || v.mt. || stat. || la<br />
|-<br />
| woḍe || woḍenja- || || vel. || rest || v.it. || dyn. || ladoŋe<br />
|-<br />
| wosh- || wos- || || vel. || other || det. || || las<br />
|-<br />
| wot || wop- || || vel. || close || det. || || lap<br />
|-<br />
| wopaṭi || wopaṭi- || || vel. || protect || v.mt. || stat. 2 || lapotuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| xachez || xacheze- || || vel. || root || n. || V || xotizu<br />
|-<br />
| xaḍi || xaḍi- || || vel. || teach || v.mt. || dyn. || xaduhi<br />
|-<br />
| xahes || xahesa- || || vel. || be angry || v.it. || dyn. || xoruso<br />
|-<br />
| xeng || xengo- || || vel. || small stick, arrow || n. || VIII || xona<br />
|-<br />
| xepad || xepada- || || vel. || leave || v.it. || dyn. || xupobe<br />
|-<br />
| xip || xipa- || || vel. || stretch || v.it. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xuhepo<br />
|-<br />
| xob || xobe- || || vel. || dust || n. || VIII || xabu<br />
|-<br />
| xohox || xohoxe- || || vel. || chant || v.it. || dyn. || xararu<br />
|-<br />
| xoṭ || xoṭa- || || vel. || put down, place || v.mt. || dyn. || xato<br />
|-<br />
| xou || xou || || vel. || then || par. || || xaho <br />
|-<br />
| xurs || xurs || || pal. || obligation, promise || n. || XI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| yaif || yaifa- || || pal. || child || n. || I || lehifo<br />
|-<br />
| yatorą || yatorą- || || pal. || wake up || v.it. || stat. || lepareʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yecahen || yecahe- || || pal. || bank, shore || n. || IX || lixeɣon<br />
|-<br />
| yedaz || yedaze- || || pal. || attach || v.dt. (thing you're attaching it to takes dative) || dyn. || libezu<br />
|-<br />
| yehą || yehą- || (yegą-; past: yehoi) || pal. || be dead || v.it. || stat. 3 || ligaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yehu || yehu- || || pal. || older sister || n. || II || liguhu<br />
|-<br />
| yeį || yeį- || || pal. || grow || v.it. || dyn. || leheʔi<br />
|-<br />
| yį || yį- || || pal. || fire || n. || IV || liʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zashą || zashą- || asshą (past: zashai) || vel. || fall || v.it. || dyn. 3 || zaseʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zave || zave- || azve || vel. || drink || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || zovun <br />
|-<br />
| zeį || zeį- || || vel. || smell || v.mt. || dyn. || zoʔe<br />
|-<br />
| zhate || zhateho- || ashte || pal. || endure, suffer || v.mt. || dyn. || zepeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| zhateshų || zhateshų- || ashteshų || pal. || be ashamed || v.it. || stat. || zepisiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| zhe || zhe- || || pal. || be the same as || v.mt. || stat. || zi<br />
|-<br />
| zheįg || zheįga- || || pal. || boulder || n. || VIII || zeʔige<br />
|-<br />
| zheqof || zheqofe- || eshkof || pal. || smoke || n. || IV || zikafu<br />
|-<br />
| zheṭ || zheṭe- || || pal. || be over || v.mt. || stat. || zitu<br />
|-<br />
| zhey- || zhew- || || pal. || same || det. || || zil-<br />
|-<br />
| zhum || zhu- || || pal. || nose || n. || IV || zihom<br />
|-<br />
| zocachex || zocachehe- || || vel. || rule, have power over || v.mt. || stat. || zaxetiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| zoq || zohe- || || vel. || follow (as in be guided) || v.mt. || dyn. || zagu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lexicography]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T16:24:45Z<p>Alces: /* Derivation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Note on irregularities ===<br />
<br />
When deriving a nasal stem noun with '''i u''' before the nasal to a verb, the past is formed by simply adding '''u'''; the '''i u''' remain.<br />
<br />
When deriving a noun ending in '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' to a verb:<br />
* If '''i u''' or '''į ų''' precede the verb, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
* Otherwise, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''ai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verbal Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Any verb can be derived into a noun meaning the act of doing the verb. The verb can have argument markers, or the habitual suffix, or the past suffix. Examples:<br />
* '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'to heal'<br />
* '''jinehąw''' 'heal + REFL' > '''jinehąw''' 'to heal oneself'<br />
* '''ųci''' 'be unfortunate (past)' > '''ųc''' 'to have been unfortunate'<br />
<br />
You can specify a direct object for this verb using the preposition clitic '''-dh(a)''' 'of'. Its object takes the nominative:<br />
* '''jinehądh sum''' 'to heal people'<br />
<br />
This works for verbs that take both accusative and dative objects. There is no way to specify the subject or indirect object of the verb when made into a noun.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'misfortune'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -nu<br />
| -nih<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| -ką<br />
| -ka?<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne-<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| megį- (tr. ingį-)<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| (h)i(ng)-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| wo-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/LexiconWendoth/Lexicon2011-12-27T13:37:17Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>The first column gives the form of the stem with no suffix attached. The second gives it with a suffix attached. For each stem type, the text in the second column will look like this:<br />
* breathy and creaky stems: torã-, tori-, toru-, torą, torį, torų-, <br />
* variable breathy and creaky stems: toru-/i-, torų-/į-<br />
* e-stems with final consonant: tor(e)-<br />
* e-stems with final vowel: toranj(e)-, torah(e)-, tori(e)-<br />
* a-stems with final consonant: tora-<br />
* a-stems with final vowel: toranja-, toraha-, toria-<br />
* o-stems with final consonant: toho-/ro-<br />
* o-stems with final vowel: toraho-/njo-, torio-/njo-<br />
* nasal stems: tora(m)-, tora(nd)-, tora(n)-, tora(ng)-<br />
* nasal stems with alternating u: toru(m)-/i-<br />
* nasal stems with alternating i: tori(nd)-/u-, tori(n)-/u-, tori(ng)-/u-<br />
* dropped nasal stems: tora(nj)-, tora(h)-<br />
* dropped nasal stems with alternating i: tori(nj)-/u-, tori-/u-<br />
<br />
The third column gives notes on morphology. It gives the transformed form, if irregular. For verbs, it shows the past form. For words that have an initial '''h''' appearing only when a prefix is added, it is marked here by adding [h].<br />
<br />
The fourth column gives whether the root palatalises or velarising preceding prefixes.<br />
<br />
The fifth column gives the gloss.<br />
<br />
The sixth column gives the part of speech, which may be:<br />
* n. - noun<br />
* v.it - intransitive verb (no obligatory object)<br />
* v.mt - monotransitive verb (obligatory accusative object)<br />
* v.dt - ditransitive verb (obligatory accusative and dative objects)<br />
* d. - determiner<br />
* par. - particle<br />
* prep. - preposition clitic<br />
* For verbs, any notes about the case of its arguments may also be added.<br />
<br />
The seventh column gives additional information about the part of speech.<br />
* For nouns, it gives the noun class as a Roman numeral.<br />
* For verbs, it says whether it's static or dynamic and the conjugation if it's not the first one.<br />
<br />
The eighth column gives the word's Pre-Wendoth root.<br />
<br />
This does not include transparent derivations.<br />
<br />
''330 words''<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}<br />
|-<br />
! Standalone<br />
! Stem<br />
! Morphology<br />
! Prefix effect<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Type<br />
! Class<br />
! Pre-Wendoth<br />
|-<br />
| acau || acau- || [h] || vel. || man || n. || I || goxeho<br />
|-<br />
| ahezh || ahezh(e)- || [h] || vel. || fog, mist || n. || VII || goɣuzi<br />
|-<br />
| atįv || atįva- || atįve [h] || vel. || press || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣopiʔevo<br />
|-<br />
| au || au(h)- || auu [h] || vel. || touch, affect || v.mt. || dyn. || gohoŋ <br />
|-<br />
| avex || aveha- || avehe [h] || vel. || trust || v.mt. || stat. || rovuro<br />
|-<br />
| awex || awexo-/co- || awexa [h] || vel. || moon || n. || IV || golura<br />
|-<br />
| azhesang || azhesa(ng)- || azhesou [h] || vel. || crawl || v.it. || dyn. 2 || gozisan<br />
|-<br />
| baḍauin || baḍaui(n)- || baḍauiu || vel. || battle || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || bodohahin<br />
|- <br />
| barqat || barqata- || barqate || vel. || kneel || v.it. || dyn. || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| baw || bawa- || bawe || vel. || carry || v.mt. || dyn. || bolo<br />
|-<br />
| be || b(e)- || || vel. || I || pron. || || bu<br />
|-<br />
| bechep || bechepa- || || vel. || hip || n. || VIII || butipo<br />
|-<br />
| bengaq || bengaha- || || vel. || shit || n. || VIII || bonogo<br />
|-<br />
| bodhoth || bodhoth(e)- || || vel. || wilderness || n. || IX || bavafi<br />
|-<br />
| boj || boj(e)- || || vel. || penis || n. || V || baɣi<br />
|-<br />
| bųdh || bųdha- || || vel. || chin || n. || VIII || buʔove<br />
|-<br />
| buim || bui(m)- || buįu || vel. || shine || v.it. || stat || buhuʔem<br />
|-<br />
| bunjių || bunjių- || bunjiu || vel. || dream || v.mt. || stat. || buŋiʔoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| -c || -ce || || pal. || with, and || prep. || || -xi<br />
|-<br />
| cai || cai || || vel. || but || par. || || xahe<br />
|-<br />
| canaceth || canaceth(e)- || || vel. || itch || n. || X || xanexifi<br />
|-<br />
| capang || capa(ng)- || || pal. || armpit, back of knee || n. || VIII || xepan<br />
|-<br />
| cawųã || cawųã- || || pal. || clan || n. || XI || xeluʔah<br />
|-<br />
| cecum || cecum(e)- || || pal. || settlement, village || n. || IX || xihumu (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| cedhung || cedhu(ng)- || cedhuu || pal. || lift || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || xivihan<br />
|-<br />
| cendoi || cendoi- || ecndoi || pal. || be brave || v.it. || stat. || xemahi<br />
|-<br />
| cexeų || cexeų- || cexeu || vel. || stir || v.mt. (obj. takes dat.) || dyn. || xexoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| cha || cha- || che || pal. || be beside || v.mt. || stat. || te<br />
|-<br />
| chasum || chasu(m)-/i- || || pal. || neighbour || n. || I/II || te + sum<br />
|-<br />
| cheg || cheg(e)- || chegi || pal. || be after, follow || v.mt. || stat. || tigi<br />
|-<br />
| chex || cheho-/jo- || || pal. || eye || n. || IV || tiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| chi || chi(nj)-/u- || chu || pal. || say || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiŋ<br />
|- <br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chiu || pal. || remember, know (a person) [when habitual] || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiʔeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| chųiã || chųiã- || chųii || pal. || tear || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || tiʔuheʔ<br />
|-<br />
| cind || cindi(nj)-/u- || cindu || pal. || kill || v.mt. || dyn || ximiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| coįã || coįã- || || vel. || foreigner || n. || I/II || xaʔeh<br />
|-<br />
| coj || coj(e)- || coji || vel. || be dry || v.it. || stat. || xaɣi<br />
|-<br />
| cuį || cuį- || cui || pal. || to lack || v.mt. || stat. || xiʔoʔi<br />
|-<br />
| cum || cum(e)- || cumu || pal. || set up camp || v.it. || dyn. || xihumu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍã || ḍã- || || vel. || me || pron. || || doh<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaceting || ḍacetingo-/no- || ḍacetinga || vel. || be tired || v.it. || dyn. || doxipina<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaḍã || ḍaḍã- || aḍḍã || vel. || us (exclusive) || pron. || || dodoh (redup. doh)<br />
|-<br />
| dajaįf || dajaįf(e)- || dajaįfu || pal. || split || v.mt. || dyn. || beɣeʔifu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaų || ḍaų-/į- || || vel. || rock || n. || VIII || doʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaxemam || ḍaxema(m)- || ḍaxemou || vel. || lie (down) || v.it. || dyn. || doxomam<br />
|-<br />
| ḍejh || ḍejha- || ḍejhe || vel. || lie (speak falsely) || v.it. || dyn. || dude<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeng || ḍe(ng)- || ḍau || vel. || want to do (mildly) || v.mt. || stat. 2 || don<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeveṭinen || ḍeveṭine- || ḍeveṭinau || vel. || destroy || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || duvutunen <br />
|-<br />
| dhaceqaḍ || dhaceqaḍa- || dhaceqaḍe || pal. || swallow || v.mt. || dyn. || vexikodo<br />
|-<br />
| dhain || dhai(n)- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || vaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| dheci || dheci(nj)-/u- || dhecu || pal. || swell, enlarge || v.it. || dyn. 2. || vixiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| dhemer || dhemer(e)- || dhemeri || pal. || move away from || v.mt. || dyn. || vemuri<!-- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --><br />
|-<br />
| dhįuą || dhįuą- || || pal. || be in pain || v.it. || dyn. || viʔihaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| di || di- || || pal. || take off, remove || v.mt. || dyn. || bihe<br />
|-<br />
| ḍįj || ḍįja- || || vel. || sun || n. || IV || duʔaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| dindezh || dindezhe- || || pal. || buzz, groan, mumble || v.it. || dyn. || bimizi<br />
|-<br />
| dochof || dochofo- || (dochotho-) || pal. || meal || n. || III || betefa<br />
|-<br />
| doku || doku- || okku (doki-) || vel. || earth, soil || n. || VIII || bakiha<br />
|-<br />
| eq || eqo- || || vel. || we (exclusive) || pron. || || ruka<br />
|-<br />
| ewaį || ewaį- || [h] || vel. || be friendly || v.it. || stat. || ɣuloʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ezex || ezexa- || [h] (execa-) || vel. || kill in battle, slay || v.mt. || dyn. || guzuxa<br />
|-<br />
| faįx || faįho- || (faįro-) || vel. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || foʔira<br />
|-<br />
| famį || famį- || afwį || vel. || cook || v.mt. || dyn. || famuʔe<br />
|-<br />
| fehi || fehi- || || vel. || be to the east || v.it. || stat. || foɣuhe<br />
|-<br />
| gaxaihi || gaxaihi- || || pal. || be respected, renowned || v.it. || stat. || gexohiguŋ<br />
|-<br />
| gayai || gayai- || agyai || pal. || urinate || v.it. || dyn. || gelehe<br />
|-<br />
| gazou || gazou- || agzou || pal. || ancestor, grandfather, grandmother || n. || I/II || gezaho<br />
|-<br />
| gehaq || gehaho- || (gehago-) || pal. || seed || n. || III || giroga<br />
|-<br />
| gemahing || gemahi- || emmahing || pal. || enjoy || v.mt. || stat. || gemoɣun<br />
|-<br />
| genoį || genoį- || egroį || pal. || fingernail, toenail || n. || VIII || ginaʔi<br />
|-<br />
| geṭep || geṭepo- || (geṭet) || pal. || yawn || v.it. || dyn. || gitupa<br />
|-<br />
| i || ihe- || [h] || vel. || knee, elbow, shoulder, heel || n. || VIII || ruʔeŋu<br />
|-<br />
| iã || iã- || (past. u'i) || pal. || be above || v.mt. || stat. 3 || heh<br />
|-<br />
| įą || įą- || || pal. || hand, foot || n. || VIII || ʔiʔ <br />
|-<br />
| įb || įbo- || (įdo-) || pal. || be foolish || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiba<br />
|-<br />
| ibą || ibą- || (idą-) || pal. || cheek || n. || VIII || hebaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įbung || įbu- || įbi- || pal. || forest || n. || V || ʔebuhan<br />
|-<br />
| įc || įceho- || || pal. || sea || n. || IV || ʔexeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| įcebengaq || įcebengaha- || || pal. || swamp || n. || IV || įc 'sea' + bengaq 'shit'<br />
|-<br />
| įdh || įdha- || || pal. || be unreal, imaginary || v.it. || stat. || ʔive<br />
|-<br />
| įdodh || įdodha- || || pal. || construct || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔevave<br />
|-<br />
| įhą || įhą- || || pal. || arm, leg || n. || VIII || ʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įhoq || įhoqa- || || pal. || be small || v.it. || stat. || ʔegako<br />
|-<br />
| įk || įke- || || vel. || bite || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔaki<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || make noise || v.it. || dyn. || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || sound || n. || XI || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaų || įkaų- || || vel. || be wet || v.it. || stat. || ʔakeʔu<br />
|-<br />
| indai || indai- || || pal. || hold || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔemahe<br />
|-<br />
| indaįk || indaįka- || [h] || vel. || bend || v.it. || dyn. || gumeʔake<br />
|-<br />
| įndendoy || įndendoye- || || pal. || sense, know intuitively || v.mt. || stat. || ʔimemale<br />
|-<br />
| inding- || indin- || || vel. || high || det. || || hamin<br />
|-<br />
| ingi || ingi- || || pal. || food || n. || III || ʔenuhe<br />
|-<br />
| inem || ine- || || pal. || container || n. || VI || henem<br />
|-<br />
| įraį || įraį- || || vel. || faint, fall unconscious || v.it. || dyn. || ʔareʔi<br />
|-<br />
| įuį || įuį- || || pal. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔehohi<br />
|-<br />
| iuk || iuka- || || vel. || crack || v.it. || dyn. || huhoke<br />
|-<br />
| iutum || iutume- || || vel. || valley || n. || IX || ʔuhupimo<br />
|-<br />
| iųvam || iųva- || (iųdha-) || vel. || be narrow || v.it. || stat. || huʔuvam<br />
|-<br />
| id- || ib- || || vel. || many || det. || || hab-<br />
|-<br />
| įdh- || įv- || || pal. || far || det. || || ʔiv-<br />
|-<br />
| įw || įwo- || (įyo-) || pal. || be white || v.it. || stat. || ʔila<br />
|-<br />
| ix || iho- || (ijo-) || pal. || water (not for drinking) || n. || VII || heɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įx || įho- || (įjo-) || pal. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įyen || įyene- || || vel. || blink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔaleni<br />
|-<br />
| izhebã || izhebã- || (past: izhebi) || pal. || exchange, trade || v.dt. (indirect object is person you're trading with; other item being exchanged takes benefactive) || dyn. 3 || hezibuh<br />
|-<br />
| jaxaz || jaxaze- || || pal. || be thin || v.it. || stat. || ɣexozu<br />
|-<br />
| jehahou || jehahou- || (jehahoi-) || pal. || spot, boil || n. || VIII || ɣigaŋaha<br />
|-<br />
| jenaum || jenau- || ejraum- || pal. || be in the middle of; during || v.mt. || stat. || ɣeneʔum<br />
|-<br />
| jenjog || jenjoge- || || pal. || flower || n. || V || ɣeŋagi<br />
|-<br />
| jez || jezo- || || pal. || reach (for) || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣiza<br />
|-<br />
| jhaįcheją || jhaįcheją- || || pal. || ashes || n. || VIII || deʔatiɣeʔ <br />
|-<br />
| jhebou || jhebou- || ezhbou- || pal. || dye, paint || n. || VI || dibahe<br />
|-<br />
| jhexaųs || jhexaųso- || (eshxaųso-) || pal. || palm of hand, sole of foot || n. || VIII || dixoʔusa<br />
|-<br />
| jhezh || jhezhe- || || pal. || exist, be true || v.it. || stat. || dizi<br />
|-<br />
| jhihax || jhihaho- || (jhiharo-) || pal. || club, staff || n. || VI || diŋora<br />
|-<br />
| jinau || jinau- || (ijrau-) || pal. || wipe || v.mt. || dyn || ɣinehu<br />
|-<br />
| jinehą || jinehą- || ejrehą || pal. || heal || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣineŋoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| jojax || jojaho-/ro- || || vel. || be hot || v.it. || stat. || ɣaɣera<br />
|-<br />
| jųbov || jųbovo- || (jųbodho-) || pal. || corner || n. || XI || ɣiʔabava<br />
|-<br />
| kain || kaine- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || kaʔini<br />
|-<br />
| kash || kashe- || || pal. || blood || n. || VII || kesi<br />
|-<br />
| kaukau || kaukau- || || vel. || crow || n. || IV || onomatopoeic<br />
|-<br />
| kej || keja- || egja- || pal. || keep || v.mt. || stat. || kiɣe<br />
|-<br />
| kįd || kįda- || || pal. || think, feel || v.mt. || stat. || kiʔabe<br />
|-<br />
| kochum || kochumo- || okshum (kochindo-) || vel. || tongue || n. || IV || katima<br />
|-<br />
| kųq || kųha- || || pal. || be to the west || v.it. || stat. || kiʔago<br />
|-<br />
| mahoj || mahoja- || ehoj || vel. || breathe || v.it. || dyn. || mogaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| mang || ma- || || vel. || one || n. || XI || man<br />
|-<br />
| maner- || maneh- || || vel. || only || det. || || manir-<br />
|-<br />
| matanje || matanje- || antanje || vel. || skin || n. || IX || mopaŋeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| medų || medų- || undų- || vel. || forehead || n. || VIII || mubiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| megį || megį- || ingį || vel. || take || v.mt. || dyn. || mugiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| mepox || mepoha- || empox || vel. || horn || n. || VIII || muparo<br />
|-<br />
| meqey || meqeya- || iqey || vel. || beard || n. || VIII || mukule<br />
|-<br />
| meqong || meqongo- || iqong (meqono-) || vel. || kick || v.mt. || dyn. || mukana<br />
|-<br />
| mitur || miture- || intur || pal. || boat || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| modhai || modhai- || andhai || vel. || shrivel, shrink, decay || v.it. || dyn. || mavaʔiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| mop || mope- || ompe- || vel. || sea creature; covers fish, crabs etc. || n. || IV || mapu<br />
|-<br />
| mu || mu || || vel. || you (sing.) (acc.) || pron. || || muhu<br />
|-<br />
| mumã || mumã- || ummã || vel. || you (plural) (acc.) || pron. || || mumuh<br />
|-<br />
| naketh || nakethe- || enketh || pal. || animal || n. || IV || nekifi<br />
|-<br />
| nafam || nafa- || enfam (natha-) || pal. || wash || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ndaį || ndaį- || || pal. || bleat || v.it. || dyn. || meʔeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ndajeb || ndajebo- || endjeb || pal. || be dirty || v.it. || stat. || meɣiba<br />
|-<br />
| ndator || ndatore- || || pal. || art || n. || XI || mepare<br />
|-<br />
| ndedh || ndedha- || end'dha- || pal. || be rotten || v.it. || stat. || mive<br />
|-<br />
| ndewįth || ndewįthe- || endwįth || pal. || sword || n. || VI || miluʔafi<br />
|-<br />
| ndiųbą || ndiųbą- || (past: ndiųbaį) || pal. || bend || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || miʔoboʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ndochã || ndochã- || || vel. || a while; a long span of time || n. || X || mateh<br />
|-<br />
| ndotau || ndotau- || || vel. || be cruel || v.it. || dyn. || mapeho<br />
|-<br />
| ndoth || ndotha- || || vel. || make sth. turn into sth. || v.dt (indirect object = thing being transformed) || dyn. || mafe<br />
|-<br />
| newaų || newaų- || (newaį) || pal. || star || n. || XI || niloʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngaįv || ngaįva- || eįngva- || vel. || blow || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ngasazhin || ngasazhi- || esazhin || vel. || claw, talon || n. || VIII || ŋosozin<br />
|-<br />
| ngasoq || ngasohe- || angsoq || vel. || complete || v.mt. || dyn || nosagu<br />
|-<br />
| ngaųi || ngaųi- || || vel. || breast || n. || VIII || naʔohi<br />
|-<br />
| ngax || ngahe- || || vel. || guts, entrails || n. || VIII || noru<br />
|-<br />
| nge || nge- || || vel. || see || v.mt. || dyn. || nu<br />
|-<br />
| ngek || ngeke- || || vel. || head, face || n. || IV || noki<br />
|-<br />
| ngeyem || ngeye- || iyem || vel. || be ill || v.it. || stat. 2 || ŋulem<br />
|-<br />
| ngįą || ngįą- || (past: ngųį) || vel. || be big || v.it. || stat. 3 || ŋuʔeʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ngin || ngi- || || vel. || use || v.mt. || dyn. 2. || ŋun<br />
|-<br />
| nginin || ngini- || || vel. || steal || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || ŋunin<br />
|-<br />
| ngoḍox || ngoḍohe- || || vel. || nickname || n. || XI || nadaru<br />
|-<br />
| ngopoų || ngopoų- || ampoų (ngopoį-) || vel. || walk || v.it. || dyn. || ŋapaʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngozhebe || ngozhebe- || azhebe || vel. || squeeze || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋaziboŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ni || ni- || || pal. || you (plural) || pron. || || niŋ<br />
|-<br />
| njehaų || njehaų- || ihaų (njehaį-) || pal. || hair, fur || n. || VIII || ŋigoʔa<br />
|-<br />
| njeįrum || njeįri- || || pal. || be weak || v.it. || stat. || ŋeʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| nordan || norda- || || vel. || bow || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| njoįth || njoįtha- || aįnth || vel. || be clean || v.it. || stat. || ŋaʔife<br />
|-<br />
| njoix || njoihe- || || vel. || approach || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋahiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| njįp || njįpe- || įmpe- || pal. || be grieving || v.it. || stat. || ŋiʔipu<br />
|-<br />
| noiji || noiji- || ainji- || vel. || lip || n. || VIII || naheɣih<br />
|-<br />
| nojem || noje || anjjem || vel. || suck || v.mt. || dyn. || naɣem<br />
|-<br />
| nuhedh || nuhedha- || || pal. || lake || n. || VII || nihoruve<br />
|-<br />
| o || o- || [h] || vel. || be before, precede || v.mt. || stat. || ɣa<br />
|-<br />
| oqajhi || oqajhinja- || [h] || vel. || family || n. || XI || rakodiŋo<br />
|-<br />
| oich || oicha- || [h] || vel. || ant or other tiny creature || n. || IV || rahate<br />
|-<br />
| oiup || oiupa- || [h] || vel. || enter || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu 'start' + hopo 'pass through'<br />
|-<br />
| omban || ombane- || [h] || pal. || flower || n. || V || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| ou || ou- || [h] || vel. || begin, start || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu<br />
|-<br />
| ouiã || ouiã- || (past: oui) || vel. || climb || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu + heh<br />
|-<br />
| ov || ovo- || || vel. || get, obtain || v.mt. || dyn. || gava<br />
|-<br />
| ovum || ovi- || || vel. || belly || n. || VIII || gavum<br />
|-<br />
| paun- || paung- || || vel. || all || det. || || pahon-<br />
|-<br />
| paųze || paųze- || || vel. || be round || v.it. || stat. 2 || paʔazuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| pawazą || pawazą- || apwazą || vel. || stab || v.mt. || dyn. || palazoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| pehez || peheza- || || vel. || be satisfied with || v.mt. || stat. || puɣuzo<br />
|-<br />
| per || pere- || epre- || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || puri<br />
|-<br />
| poher || pohere- || || vel. || be to the south || v.it. || stat. || paɣuri<br />
|-<br />
| pof || pofo- || (potho-) || vel. || be full || v.it. || stat || pafa<br />
|-<br />
| qahen || qahena- || || vel. || help || v.it. || dyn. || kogone<br />
|-<br />
| qawang || qawange- || oqwang || vel. || explore, wander || v.it. || dyn. || kolanu<br />
|-<br />
| qe || qe- || || vel. || thing || n. || (varies) || ku<br />
|-<br />
| qec || qece- || ekce- || vel. || soft object || n. || VIII || kuxi<br />
|-<br />
| qehoq || qehoqe- || || vel. || grunt || v.it. || dyn. || kuraku<br />
|-<br />
| qing || qinge- || || vel. || gravel || n. || VIII || kunu<br />
|-<br />
| qiu || qiu- || || vel. || jump || v.it. || dyn. || kuʔaho<br />
|-<br />
| qoḍex || qoḍeha- || || vel. || spit || v.it. || dyn. || kaduro<br />
|-<br />
| rang || ranga- || || pal. || be straight || v.it. || stat. || rano<br />
|-<br />
| rauį || rauį- || || pal. || be red || v.it. || stat. || rehiʔi<br />
|-<br />
| reįb || reįbe- || || pal. || be black || v.it. || stat. || riʔebu<br />
|-<br />
| reim || reime- || || pal. || give || v.dt. || dyn. || reʔimu<br />
|-<br />
| reqeyą || reqeyą- || erqeyą (past: erqeyai) || pal. || join to, marry || v.mt. || dyn. || rekoleʔ<br />
|-<br />
| redh- || rev- || || pal. || few || det. || || riv-<br />
|-<br />
| rokex || rokehe- || orkex || vel. || float || v.it. || dyn. || rakiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| saḍã || saḍã- || azḍã (past: saḍai)|| vel. || slip || v.it. || dyn. 3. || sodoh<br />
|-<br />
| saḍajheų || saḍajheų- || azḍajheų || vel. || hide, fur || n. || VIII || sododiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| sang || sange- || || vel. || cry || v.it. || dyn. || sanu<br />
|-<br />
| Sąr || Sąre- || || pal. || a tree goddess || n. || IV || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || fulfill (an intended action) || v.mt. || dyn. || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || success || n. || XI || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sasath || sasathe- || assath || vel. || understand || v.mt. || dyn. || redup. sofi 'hear'<br />
|-<br />
| sated || sateda- || || vel. || learn || v.mt. || dyn. || sopibe<br />
|-<br />
| sath || sathe- || || vel. || hear || v.mt. || dyn. || sofi<br />
|-<br />
| seṭ || seṭo- || (secho-) || vel. || exceed || v.mt. || stat || suta<br />
|-<br />
| seth || sethe- || || vel. || sky || n. || IX || sufi<br />
|-<br />
| sheḍaq || sheḍaho- || ezhḍax || pal. || complete, accomplish || v.mt. || dyn || sidoga<br />
|-<br />
| shehumuįhą || shehumuįhą- || (past: shehumuįhi) || pal. || summon || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || sigumuŋ 'bring' + huʔeɣuʔ 'ask'<br />
|-<br />
| shehumu || shehumu- || ezh'humu || pal. || bring || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || sigumuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| shek || sheka- || || pal. || be more || v.it. || stat. || sike<br />
|-<br />
| shexaung || shexaungo- || eshxaung || pal. || spear || n. || VI || sixaʔuna<br />
|-<br />
| shez || shezo- || (shezho-) || pal. || dog || n. || IV || seza<br />
|-<br />
| shaqath || shaqathe- || ashkath || pal. || fight || v.mt. || dyn. || sekofi<br />
|-<br />
| shu || shu- || || pal. || take (a time), span (a length) || v.mt. || stat. || sihu<br />
|-<br />
| shum || shu- || || pal. || happen || v.it. || dyn. 2 || sim<br />
|-<br />
| sing || si- || || vel. || you (sing.) || pron. || || sun<br />
|-<br />
| souhash || souhashe- || || vel. || egg || n. || III || sahuɣose<br />
|-<br />
| sub || sube- || uzbe- || vel. || we (inclusive) || pron. || || sun + bu<br />
|-<br />
| sum || su- || || vel. || human being || n. || I/II || sum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭa || ṭa- || (cha-) || vel. || if || par. || || taŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭahes || ṭahese- || || vel. || craft (a tool) || v.mt. || dyn. || torusu<br />
|-<br />
| tan || tane- || || vel. || put somewhere || v.dt. (indirect object = thing you're putting, direct object = where you're putting it) || dyn. || pani<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || be within || v.mt. || stat. || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || womb || n. || IX || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| ṭare || ṭare- || aṭre || vel. || sibling, cousin || n. || I/II || toreŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭaseq || ṭaseha- || aṭseq || vel. || wear || v.mt. || dyn. || tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| ṭasehak || ṭasehake- || aṭsehak || vel. || clothes || n. || VI || from tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| tau || tau- || (tai-) || pal. || heart || n. || VI || pehaŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭauzind || ṭauzinda- || auḍzind || vel. || ride || v.it. || dyn. || tohazume<br />
|-<br />
| tegi || tegi- || eggi- || pal. || mouth || n. || IV || pigiŋ <br />
|-<br />
| ṭekaį || ṭekaį- || ekkaį- || vel. || older brother || n. || I || tukeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| tepum || tepi- || eppum || pal. || ear || n. || IV || pipum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭeq || ṭeqahe- || eqqa || vel. || hurt || v.mt. || dyn. || tukaŋu<br />
|-<br />
| tha || tha- || || pal. || come || v.it. || dyn. || fe<br />
|-<br />
| thakad || thakade- || || pal. || work || v.it. || dyn. || fekebi<br />
|-<br />
| thehesh || thehesha- || || pal. || wasp, bee or other stinging creature || n. || IV || fiɣusi<br />
|-<br />
| thetaw || thetawo- || ethtaw (thetayo-) || pal. || seek, search for || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fipela<br />
|-<br />
| thind || thinda- || || pal. || woman || n. || II || fihime<br />
|-<br />
| thųṭum || thųṭu- || || pal. || lick || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fiʔutum<br />
|-<br />
| tojadhing || tojadhinge- || odjadhing || vel. || mix || v.mt. (one thing being mixed takes dative, other thing takes comitative) || dyn. || paɣevinu <br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || ṭoho- || (ṭogo-) || vel. || cliff, edge || n. || VIII || taga<br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || toqa- || oqqa- || vel. || drinking water || n. || III || tako<br />
|-<br />
| ṭųpau || ṭųpau- || ųppau || vel. || be to the north || v.it. || stat. || tuʔupahu<br />
|-<br />
| ug || uge- || || vel. || hill or single mountain || n. || VIII || hogi<br />
|-<br />
| unjã || unjã- || (past: unjai) || vel. || make dirty || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. 3 || ʔuŋeh<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: iu) || vel. || cause || v.mt. || dyn. 2 (irregular) || ʔoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: įdha) || vel. || exist, be, be true || v.it. || stat. || ho<br />
|-<br />
| ųc || ųce- || || vel. || be unfortunate, unlucky || v.it. || stat. || ʔoxi<br />
|-<br />
| uchand || uchanda- || || vel. || fart || v.it. || dyn. || hutame<br />
|-<br />
| ufox || ufohe- || || vel. || bark, complain || v.it. || dyn. || hufaru<br />
|-<br />
| uhoqeq || uhoqeqa- || || vel. || burn, boil || v.it. || dyn. || huŋakuko<br />
|-<br />
| ųhu || ųhu- || (ųhi-) || vel. || grip || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔuruha<br />
|-<br />
| uįhą || uįhą- || (past: uįhi) || vel. || ask || v.mt. || dyn. || huʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| uim || ui- || || vel. || side || n. || XI || hahim <br />
|-<br />
| uįm || uįmo- || (uįndo-) || pal. || be sweet || v.it. || stat. || heʔima<br />
|-<br />
| uįqu || uįqu- (past: uįqui) || || vel. || split || v.dt. || dyn. 3 || huʔekuh<br />
|-<br />
| uįrum || uįri- || || vel. || be wise || v.it. || stat. 2 || hoʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| uiy- || uiw- || || pal. || single || det. || || hihal-<br />
|-<br />
| uiy || uiy || || pal. || often || par. || || heheli-<br />
|-<br />
| uiyenã || uiyenã- || || pal. || a single hair or whisker || n. || VIII || hihaleneh<br />
|-<br />
| uizh || uizhe- || || vel. || neck || n. || VIII || huhizi<br />
|-<br />
| ųk || ųka- || || vel. || laugh || v.it. || dyn. || ʔake<br />
|-<br />
| ųkoth || ųkothe- || || vel. || mountains || n. || IX || ʔokafi<br />
|-<br />
| umejh || umejha- || || vel. || have honour || v.it. || stat. || humude<br />
|-<br />
| ųm || ųme- || || vel. || hit || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔamu<br />
|-<br />
| ųmų || ųmų- || [h] (ųmį-) || vel. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ruʔomuʔa<br />
|-<br />
| unajh || unajha- || || vel. || be dull (i.e. not shiny) || v.it. || stat. || ʔonode<br />
|-<br />
| ųnjaįn || ųnjaį- || || vel. || eat or drink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔuŋaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| up || upa- || || vel. || pass through || v.mt. || dyn. || hopo<br />
|-<br />
| us || use- || || vel. || be young || v.it. || stat. 2 || husoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ut || ute- || || vel. || be strong || v.it || stat. || hopi<br />
|-<br />
| ųyį || ųyį- || || vel. || rub || v.mt. || dyn. || rub<br />
|-<br />
| ųzeng || ųze- || || vel. || sand || n. || VIII || ʔazon<br />
|-<br />
| uzhec || uzheca- || || vel. || travel || v.it. || dyn. || huzixe<br />
|-<br />
| vaheḍaḍ || vaheḍaḍe- || || vel. || attack, strike || v.mt. || dyn. || vaŋudodo<br />
|-<br />
| vaib || vaibo- || || vel. || sing || v.it. || dyn. || vohibo<br />
|-<br />
| vaw || vawe- || avwe- || vel. || name || v.dt. (person being named takes dative) || dyn. || volu<br />
|-<br />
| vayash || vayasha- || avyash || pal. || quarrel, dispute, argue || v.it. || dyn. || volese<br />
|-<br />
| vepeuqã || vepeuqã- || || vel. || testicles || n. || VIII || vupuhokoh<br />
|-<br />
| veqew || veqewo-/yo- || || vel. || be cold || v.it. || stat. || vukula<br />
|-<br />
| vex || veho- || (vero-) || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || vura<br />
|-<br />
| vį || vį- || || pal. || do, perform || v.mt. || dyn. || vuʔi<br />
|-<br />
| vobaub || vobaube- || || vel. || be satisified, content, happy || v.it. || stat. || vabohobu<br />
|-<br />
| wamer || wamere- || awmer || vel. || dusk || n. || XI || lomuri<br />
|-<br />
| wangox || wangoxo- || (wangoco-) || vel. || hide || v.it. || dyn. || lanaxa<br />
|-<br />
| weun || weu- || || vel. || lie || v.it. || dyn. || lohun<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhã || wefezhã- || (past: wefezhei) || vel. || dig || v.it. || dyn. || lufuzeh<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhãsh || wefezhãsha- || || vel. || worm || n. || IV || from lufuzeh 'dig'<br />
|-<br />
| wo || wo- || || vel. || resemble, be similar to || v.mt. || stat. || la<br />
|-<br />
| woḍe || woḍenja- || || vel. || rest || v.it. || dyn. || ladoŋe<br />
|-<br />
| wosh- || wos- || || vel. || other || det. || || las<br />
|-<br />
| wot || wop- || || vel. || close || det. || || lap<br />
|-<br />
| wopaṭi || wopaṭi- || || vel. || protect || v.mt. || stat. 2 || lapotuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| xachez || xacheze- || || vel. || root || n. || V || xotizu<br />
|-<br />
| xaḍi || xaḍi- || || vel. || teach || v.mt. || dyn. || xaduhi<br />
|-<br />
| xahes || xahesa- || || vel. || be angry || v.it. || dyn. || xoruso<br />
|-<br />
| xeng || xengo- || || vel. || small stick, arrow || n. || VIII || xona<br />
|-<br />
| xepad || xepada- || || vel. || leave || v.it. || dyn. || xupobe<br />
|-<br />
| xip || xipa- || || vel. || stretch || v.it. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xuhepo<br />
|-<br />
| xob || xobe- || || vel. || dust || n. || VIII || xabu<br />
|-<br />
| xohox || xohoxe- || || vel. || chant || v.it. || dyn. || xararu<br />
|-<br />
| xoṭ || xoṭa- || || vel. || put down, place || v.mt. || dyn. || xato<br />
|-<br />
| xou || xou || || vel. || then || par. || || xaho <br />
|-<br />
| xurs || xurs || || pal. || obligation, promise || n. || XI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| yaif || yaifa- || || pal. || child || n. || I || lehifo<br />
|-<br />
| yatorą || yatorą- || || pal. || wake up || v.it. || stat. || lepareʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yecahen || yecahe- || || pal. || bank, shore || n. || IX || lixeɣon<br />
|-<br />
| yedaz || yedaze- || || pal. || attach || v.dt. (thing you're attaching it to takes dative) || dyn. || libezu<br />
|-<br />
| yehą || yehą- || (yegą-; past: yehoi) || pal. || be dead || v.it. || stat. 3 || ligaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yehu || yehu- || || pal. || older sister || n. || II || liguhu<br />
|-<br />
| yeį || yeį- || || pal. || grow || v.it. || dyn. || leheʔi<br />
|-<br />
| yį || yį- || || pal. || fire || n. || IV || liʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zashą || zashą- || asshą (past: zashai) || vel. || fall || v.it. || dyn. 3 || zaseʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zave || zave- || azve || vel. || drink || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || zovun <br />
|-<br />
| zeį || zeį- || || vel. || smell || v.mt. || dyn. || zoʔe<br />
|-<br />
| zhate || zhateho- || ashte || pal. || endure, suffer || v.mt. || dyn. || zepeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| zhateshų || zhateshų- || ashteshų || pal. || be ashamed || v.it. || stat. || zepisiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| zhe || zhe- || || pal. || be the same as || v.mt. || stat. || zi<br />
|-<br />
| zheįg || zheįga- || || pal. || boulder || n. || VIII || zeʔige<br />
|-<br />
| zheqof || zheqofe- || eshkof || pal. || smoke || n. || IV || zikafu<br />
|-<br />
| zheṭ || zheṭe- || || pal. || be over || v.mt. || stat. || zitu<br />
|-<br />
| zhey- || zhew- || || pal. || same || det. || || zil-<br />
|-<br />
| zhum || zhu- || || pal. || nose || n. || IV || zihom<br />
|-<br />
| zocachex || zocachehe- || || vel. || rule, have power over || v.mt. || stat. || zaxetiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| zoq || zohe- || || vel. || follow (as in be guided) || v.mt. || dyn. || zagu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lexicography]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T13:05:56Z<p>Alces: /* Morpheme Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there may be no consonant; the ending is added straight on. However, this does not always happen.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. This consonant may be '''-nj-''' or '''-h-''', unpredictably depending on the stem. If the stem's final vowel is '''-i''' or '''-u''', no consonant may be inserted at all. In fact, etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-u''' are indistinguishable from breathy stems in '''-u''', and etymological dropped nasal stems ending in '''-i''' are only distinguished because some of them show the change of the '''-i''' to '''-u''' before a labial.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T12:35:13Z<p>Alces: /* Determiners */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonan; the ending is added straight on.t<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''i u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T12:22:20Z<p>Alces: /* nasal stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonan; the ending is added straight on.t<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m''' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''i u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T12:21:34Z<p>Alces: /* Morpheme Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonan; the ending is added straight on.t<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
As in the a-stems, some o-stems end in a vowel. The behaviour of vowel o-stems is entirely predictable. When, in a consonant o-stem, the final consonant would be velarised, they insert a consonant according to the second set of rules, i.e.:<br />
# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
If the final consonant would be palatalised, '''-nj-''' is always inserted.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
* '''zhate''' 'suffer (pres.)' > '''zhatehoq''' 'suffer (pres. subj.)', '''zhatenjosh''' 'suffer (pres. hab.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''i u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T12:05:32Z<p>Alces: /* a-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonan; the ending is added straight on.t<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-a-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# Otherwise, it is inserted as '''-h-''' (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the a-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''i u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T11:45:19Z<p>Alces: /* Morpheme Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonan; the ending is added straight on.t<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', '''-nj-''' is inserted.<br />
*# Otherwise, '''-h-''' is inserted.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. <br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
As in the e-stems, some a-stems end in a vowel and insert a consonant after it before the ending is added with the normal a-stem behaviour. There are two ways of deciding which consonant is inserted; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The inserted consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, there is no consonant; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# Otherwise, it is inserted as '''-h-''' (never '''-nj-''', unlike in the e-stems).<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the a-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
Nasal stems ending in '''-um''', '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' can be slightly more complicated.<br />
* When the '''-m' of stems ending in '''-um''' is dropped and the '''-u-''' comes to be before a non-labial (including '''w''') consonant, and the consonant before the '''-u-''' is not labial itself, the '''-u-''' may change to '''-i-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
* When the '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng''' of stems ending in '''-ind''', '''-in''' or '''-ing''' is dropped and the '''-i-''' comes to be before a labial consonant (excluding '''w'''), the '''-i-''' may change to '''-u-'''. But not all of these stems do this.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. The only complication is if the vowel is '''-i-'''; this may, though not always, change to '''-u-''' when an ending beginning in a labial consonant is added.<br />
<br />
However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''i u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-27T11:28:18Z<p>Alces: /* e-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. There are two ways of deciding which consonant resurfaces; you have to learn which one applies to which stem:<br />
* The resurfacing consonant may always be '''-nj-'''.<br />
* Alternatively it is decided by these rules:<br />
*# If the stem ends in '''i u''' or their creaky-voiced versions, it does not resurface; the ending is added straight on.<br />
*# If the ending begins in '''i į''', it resurfaces as '''-nj-'''.<br />
*# Otherwise, it resurfaces as '''-h-'''.<br />
Treat the resulting stem with the consonant added as a normal e-stem now when adding the ending; you still have to decide what vowel to add to the consonant.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
* '''ṭeqa''' 'hurt (pres.)' > '''ṭeqah''e''sh''' (pres. hab.)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
In nasal stems ending in '''-um''', the '''u''' may irregularly change to '''-i''' when the '''m''' is dropped before a non-labial consonant. However, most stems do not show this alternation at all.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-26T11:33:51Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
## Sequences of /əi ai əu au/ produced by this change are considered diphthongs, and are the nucleus of a single syllable. Other vowel sequences, like /iu/, are disyllabic.<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed. If the vowel is a diphthong, the whole diphthong is echoed. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/. This shift happens within diphthongs, as well: /əi ai əu au/ > /ai oi au ou/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
* Creaky-voiced vowels never appear before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /a/ and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. /a/ is often a little centralised, and to differentiate it from /ə/, for many speakers /a/ is a little longer than /ə/.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
The diphthongs /ai au oi ou/ are also present, where the /i u/ may have breathy or creaky voice. These generally behave like vowel sequences; however they are treated as single vowels when transforming stems: '''yaif''' [jai̤f] 'child (nom.)' > '''aiyfaų''' [ai̤ʎfaṵ] 'child (acc.)'.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χaŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wɵ.ʁa.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [ɵc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel ending the preceding word. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
In nasal stems ending in '''-um''', the '''u''' may irregularly change to '''-i''' when the '''m''' is dropped before a non-labial consonant. However, most stems do not show this alternation at all.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsishã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive), with some verbs always taking the non-habitual inflection but being understood as habitual. There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is done by reduplicating the onset consonant and vowel. For example '''xe''' > '''xex(e)'''.<br />
<br />
For some vowel-initial stems, you take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''. The stems that do this are the same ones that add '''h''' in front when a prefix is added.<br />
<br />
For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
The reverse process, turning a noun into a verb, has to be done with a derivational morpheme.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|jhboushã|jhebou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecaurį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
There is also a way of deriving passive verbs with the derivational prefix '''ingį-'''. This makes the patient into the subject, and allows you to specify the agent as an instrumental argument, but it is less commonly used.<br />
<br />
==== Causatives ====<br />
<br />
The prefix '''u-''' is used to make causatives. The subject is the causer of the action, while the direct object is the patient of the action. The indirect object, in the dative, is the agent of the action.<br />
<br />
This means causativising an intransitive verb turns it into a transitive verb taking a dative object, while causativising a transitive verb turns it into a ditransitive verb.<br />
<br />
On ditransitive verbs, using the causative keeps it ditransitive, and makes it impossible to specify the recipient by the normal means.<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qawangi|qawangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|smų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noixa|I-travel.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthinhaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shaqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative with the appropriate classifer), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|exxeqam|exxe-qo-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|qį|qį|for}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingi|ingi-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has six prepositions: '''to''' 'at, to', '''zha''' 'from', '''dha''' 'of', '''qį''' 'for', '''ce''' 'with', and '''-į''' 'of'. Generally, these cliticise after the noun phrase or verb phrase they are attached to, deleting a final lax vowel if there is one. These only appear standing alone when their object is a pronoun being used as a relative pronoun, since they always have to precede their object.<br />
<br />
The object noun of the prepositions '''į''' and '''qį''' is prevented from transforming. If the noun has a determiner, it is not prevented from transforming, but its determiner is.<br />
<br />
Other meanings expressed by prepositions in languages like English are expressed in Wendoth by verbs relative clauses. For example there is a verb '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. The phrase 'it's to the west of my house' would be expressed like 'it ''kų(q/ha)'' my house'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
==== Possession ====<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The preposition for possession is '''į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. So it's like the 'of' in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable. Unlike the other prepositions, '''į''' can only attach to nouns.<br />
<br />
It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; <br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exaxṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
==== Locatives ====<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions are '''-t(o)''' 'to, at', and '''-zh(a)''' 'from, in'. Their meanings can be more accurately expressed by this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
==== Other prepositions ====<br />
<br />
'''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-po|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq.|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind.|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opaḍjhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shumãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|utų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opowpaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opaujh'hum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek.|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|usmų!|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person! (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength!)}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, you use the determiner '''ndei-''' 'what' on a thing in the sentence you don't know.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|fami|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ-Ø|food-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbųṭpauc ḍįj; esṭoq utį ndeuã jhãbųų utuį wosã jhãbųų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã cujojac avpam. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "jhãzh isbų ųbudiq oybettehų acaum, utį jhãbųų shekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbųṭpau aupngį deḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhwį deḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ouwbeq, ųbotkam amcheg ondchãų. Xou ḍįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį įḍjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbųṭpau ich'ham, ųbotkam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj;|ḍįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|esṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ndeuã|ndei-ã|which-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wosã|wosh-ã|other-OBL}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų?|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cujojaq|ec-u-jojaho|VI-CAUS-warm}}<br />
{{gl|avpam.|va-po-ma|that-I-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along covered in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"jhãzh|jhã-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|isbų|isbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudiq|ųb-u-di-ha|VII-CAUS-take_off-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed on this: "the one who first succeeds in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|jhãbųų|jhã-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other".}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngį|paun-į|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhwį|zhey-į|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|deḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ouwbeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ondchãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍįj|ḍįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įḍjaų|ḍįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųṭpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ich'ham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbotkam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-26T00:23:13Z<p>Alces: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed in this position. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards. Initially this only applied in monosyllabic words; polysyllabic words were transformed whatever inflection they had. But the pattern was later generalised to words of all syllables.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised. In some daughters they became labialised velars.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /ɐ/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /ɐ/ (which may also be transcribed as /a/) and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. The phonemes /ə/ and /ɐ/ are rather close and so tend to be differentiated by closeness--they may drift as far apart as [ɨ] and a central [a]. For many speakers /ɐ/ is a little longer than /ə/ too--in fact one of the major isoglosses in Wendoth's daughters is whether /ə ɐ/ contrast primarily in height or length.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
Dipthongs can be formed by adding /i/ or /u/ after any other vowel; these dipthongs contrast for breathy and creaky voice. They have distinct phonetic realisations: /iu/ > [ɪu], /ui/ > [ʊi], /ou/ > [ɔu], /oi/ > [ɔi], /əi/ > [ɛi], /əu/ > [ɛu], /ɐi/ > [ai], /ɐu/ > [au].<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before any nasal consonants. This is phonologically interpreted as breathy voice, so creaky-voice vowels never occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χɑŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wo.ʁɑ.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [oc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other&mdash;it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the language as described here only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
Note that the initial vowel in a transformed form is dropped when it follows a vowel, unless it is a diphthong as in the above example.<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
Since the echo vowels were only inserted between consonants, stems beginning with a vowel do not transform, or their transformed form is the same as their normal form. There are also some environments where a word prevents a following word from being transformed, since it ended in a vowel when the change was applied. An example is the class III prefix '''i-'''. See further on in this section for details.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, merged as '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally.<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. They are not marked for number. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
Here are the rules for when to transform a root:<br />
* In the nominative, the root is never transformed.<br />
* In the accusative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant (e.g. '''cha''' 'being beside', accusative '''chaų'''.<br />
* In the dative, the root is usually transformed. The exception is in a-, o- or e-stems with the stem consisting of a single consonant, as in the accusative, as well as other stems with only one consonant besides the nasal, e.g. '''sum''' 'man', dative '''sum''', or '''shu''' 'length', dative '''shum'''.<br />
* In the instrumental, the root is always transformed.<br />
Basically, the root is not transformed if there is only one syllable to be transformed. Only stems of two syllables or more can be transformed.<br />
<br />
Determiners and prepositions can sometimes stop a noun from being transformed; see [[#Determiners|Determiners]].<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o)- 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e)- 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho)- 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a)- 'drinking water'<br />
! chasu(m)- 'neighbour'<br />
! noiji- 'lip'<br />
! di- 'removal'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
| chasum<br />
| noiji<br />
| di<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
| achsumų<br />
| ain'jių<br />
| idų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
| achsum<br />
| ain'jim<br />
| dim<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
| achsushã<br />
| ainj'ishã<br />
| idshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. They distinguish number and clusivity using separate stems.<br />
<br />
There is also a slight irregularity in the second person singular pronoun's dative, which is really just a preservation of an alternation that has been levelled out elsewhere. <br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| ebshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| isbų<br />
| isbum<br />
| isbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum <br />
| isshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of these are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive). There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== The present ====<br />
<br />
The suffix for habitual aspect is '''-sh(a)''', and the suffix for subjunctive mood is '''-q/ha''', which comes afterwards. In the present, these are added to the stem by the usual rules&mdash;the subjunctive suffix is '''-q''' if it's word-final, otherwise '''-ha'''.<br />
<br />
Roots are usually transformed when one of these roots are added. The exceptions are the same as in the dative of nouns, i.e. in stems with only one consonant besides any stem consonant. Roots are always transformed if both the subjunctive and habitual suffixes are present.<br />
<br />
The above does not apply if one of the classifier prefixes is added (see below), in which case the transformation of the verb stem depends entirely on the prefix.<br />
<br />
===== The past =====<br />
<br />
The past suffix is unlike any other Wendoth suffix. In Pre-Wendoth, it was a single consonant '''-*ŋ''', while most suffixes were full syllables. Since this could not be added after coda consonants, there were already different forms of the suffix in Pre-Wendoth. After a coda nasal, the coda nasal was replaced with '''*-h-''' and the suffix became '''-*uŋ'''. While after a coda glottal consonant, the suffix became '''-*iŋ'''. This makes its formation quite complex in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
After e-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-i''', or '''-u''' if the stem ends in one of '''p b f v m'''. After a-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-e'''. After o-stems, the past tense is marked by '''-a'''. This is just like how these stems normally behave when a suffix beginning with a nasal is added, only in this case there is no nasal there.<br />
<br />
In creaky stems, the past tense is marked by making the final vowel breathy. In breathy stems, the past tense has to be formed by suppletion. Hardly any verbs are breathy stems; this is because most verbs that should be etymologically breathy have been changed to creaky stems to make their past and present forms distinct.<br />
<br />
One example of a breathy stem verb is '''ngu''' 'have, possess, own', from Pre-Wendoth '''*ŋuho'''. In the past, this is '''waṭa''', suppleted from a verb originally meaning 'to hold'.<br />
<br />
However, some verbs are in a class of their own, having originally had a coda glottal consonant. These are now breathy or creaky stems, but they behave differently from the others in verb conjugation. Their past forms are irregular, although they are one of these patterns:<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-i''' plus a coda glottal now behave just like normal creaky stems.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-u''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-u''' or '''-ų''' in the present, which is replaced by '''-i''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-e''' or '''*-o''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''ai''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in '''*-a''' plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present. This is replaced with '''oi''' in the past.<br />
* Verbs originally ending in a glottal, followed by another vowel, plus a coda glottal now have final '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' in the present, after '''i u''' or '''į ų'''. In the past, the '''-ã''' or '''-ą''' is replaced with '''i'''.<br />
<br />
Lastly, there are the verbs in nasal stems. For these, you basically do the opposite of what you would do to an e-stem, a-stem or o-stem to form the past: you change the final vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable, so you have to learn the past forms for these)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
Fortunately, transformation in the past tense is simple. It's just like in the present.<br />
<br />
==== Examples ====<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''soh(o)-''' 'find' (a simple o-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| os'hoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| os'hosh <br />
| os'hoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| soha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''aye(n)-''' 'speak' (a nasal stem)<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|+ '''dokaųą-''' 'be sticky' (with a Pre-Wendoth coda glottal)<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| odkaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| odkaųąsh <br />
| odkaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| dokaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
All the prefixes are invariantly transformed. However, the stem of the verb after the prefix can also be transformed, and whether this happens depends on the prefix. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Transforms<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| yes<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| yes<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| no<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| yes<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| no<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| yes<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| yes<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| no<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| yes<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| yes<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| no<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, whether the palatalised or velarised forms are used depends on the word. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant or a phonated vowel, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)į<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant, and ''T'' preceding the dash means the root is transformed. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are always transformed if possible. They can also stop their head noun from transforming. This happens under these conditions:<br />
* If the noun is not in the nominative and is not from classes I-II (not a human).<br />
* Also, if the determiner ends in a tense vowel and uses the second declension table above, and the noun is in the nominative and is from classes III-IX (a non-human animate or corporeal inanimate).<br />
This is due to the suffixes of the determiners under these conditions originally ending in a vowel when the sound changes that brought about transformed forms were happening.<br />
<br />
The demonstratives and numerals take suffixes for each noun class instead, a new development. This is done by simply combining the form of the determiner inflected normally as detailed above with the appropriate classifier prefix used for verbs. If the inflected form of the determiner ends in a vowel, an initial non-tense vowel on the prefix will be deleted.<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''ųįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndanaįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''chegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''machegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''chegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; the determiner forms are:<br />
# '''man-'''<br />
# '''ųįk-'''<br />
# '''ndanaįk-'''<br />
# '''jotenj-'''<br />
# '''tehaį-'''<br />
# '''chegetenj-'''<br />
# '''machegetenj-'''<br />
# '''jotajotenj-'''<br />
# '''jotatenj-'''<br />
# '''tatenj-'''<br />
# '''chegetatenj-'''<br />
# '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''tate me tate''', 'ten and ten'. The last one was put in determiner form to use these as determiners: '''tate-me-tatenjinop sum''' 'twenty men'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no reconstructable way of indicating ordinal numerals.<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''ṭos(e)''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''vav(a)''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''xex(e)''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
These pronoun forms can also be used with the classifier prefixes; any initial non-tense vowels on the classifier prefixes will be deleted here, too. For example '''ṭop(o)''' 'this man'.<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is not obvious, having been obscured by sound change. On most roots make sure it's untransformed, take the first syllable, reverse it and then add it to the front of the root, forming a geminate: so '''boqew''' > '''obboqew'''. There are two exceptions however.<br />
* For some vowel-initial roots, take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''.<br />
* For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|zhboushã|ezhbou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecrauį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qwangi|qwangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|sų|sų|man.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noix-a|I-travel-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthnihaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|xxum|exxe-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingiqį|ingi-Ø-qį|food-NOM-for}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Possession ===<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The clitic for possession is '''-į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
The possession clitic is basically a preposition, just like the ones in the next section. It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; so the word order is the same as in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. Since it's a clitic, it goes after any relative clauses, etc. that modify the noun too.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exxaṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Most of the load of English prepositions in Wendoth is done by reduced relative clauses. In fact, there are only five true prepositions (six if you count the possession clitic as a preposition too). They are all clitics, attaching to the noun the prepositional phrase is attached to, and their forms, with (very) approximate English glosses, are '''-t(o)''' 'to', '''-zh(a)''' 'from', '''-dh(a)''' 'of', '''-qį''' 'for', '''-c(e)''' 'with'.<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions '''t(o)''' and '''zh(a)''' are rather different from English in their semantic space. '''-t(o)''', rather than being just 'to', is a general locative; depending on context it might mean 'into', 'on' or 'at' as well. However '''-zh(a)''' specifically marks that the object has gone within the head noun, like English 'in'; it also can mean 'from' though. We might sum up the semantics in this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
As for the others: '''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
==== The rest of the preposition space ====<br />
<br />
English's more complicated prepositions are fulfilled by specialised verbs in Wendoth, such as '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
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For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-p|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sųm|sųm-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
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=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
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The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
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An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opḍajhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-ufnã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ushmãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|uteų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
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Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opwopaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opjhauhum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
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=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|sumų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength).}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, where you'd use a wh-word in English, still phrase it as a normal sentence. But replace the word you don't know with '''qe''' 'thing' with the appropriate noun class prefix if it's a noun, '''ndei-''' 'which' if it's a determiner, and '''vį''' 'do, make' if it's a verb, and add the rising tone to that. These are all normal members of the class they replace and decline or conjugate like normal.<br />
<br />
To narrow down the choice of referents, you can add the preposition '''-zh''' to one of these words and use the limiting noun as its object. E.g. '''qezh ni''' would mean 'which one of you'.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|afmi|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ|food}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc ḍeįj; seṭoq utį ųbqų utuį wsaų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "vazh uzbų ųbudi ybettehų acaum, utį oṭbųų ųbshekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbṭųpau aupngeį dḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhweį dḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbṭųpau woubeq, ųbtokam amcheg ndochãų. Xou ḍeįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį ḍeįjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc chiham, ųbtokam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįj;|ḍeįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|seṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ųbqų|ųb-qe-ų|VII-thing-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wsaų?|wosa-ų|other-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling; which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã.|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|uzbų|uzbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudi|ųb-u-di|VII-CAUS-take_off}}<br />
{{gl|ybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|oṭbųų|ṭo-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbshekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngeį|paun-eį|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhweį|zhey-eį|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|woubeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįja|ḍeįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjaų|ḍeįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|chiham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Wolf and the Goat ===<br />
<br />
English: A goat on a steep cliff is eating, when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him. So the wolf begins to call to him, "You should come so that you will not fall; also, there are meadows where I am, and here the grass is most tender." The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my benefit, you're calling so that you can eat!"<br />
<br />
Wendoth: ''Thoraų vauṭeze zpe ṭohoų ųqezheįq, xou inginge oiszeshashã zdeḍ ejzozam xe. Taw soizesh ouyotez, "Ozthaq, sing tokemoqį zzashąxeshã, wã u chevorotet exceų u bet ṭoų, wã orot ṭṭoų uįch ezohez. Yotum vauṭeze: "Sing shojaqį ḍã xe, sing shojaqį thoraųshãqį mu!''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thoraų|thoraų|eat}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zpe|zo-pe|IV-be_on}}<br />
{{gl|ṭhoų|ṭoho-ų|cliff-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųqezheįq,|ų-qezheįqa|VIII-be_steep}}<br />
{{glend|A goat on a steep cliff is eating,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|inginge|ingį-nge|PASS-see}}<br />
{{gl|oiszeshashã|soizesha-shã|wolf-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zdeḍ|zo-deḍe|IV-be_able}}<br />
{{gl|ejzozam.|jezo-zo-ma|reach-IV-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|soizesh|soizesha-Ø|wolf-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ouyotez,|ou-yote-zo|INCP-call-IV}}<br />
{{glend|So the wolf begins to call to him,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Ozthaq,|oz-tha-qe|IV-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|tokemoqį|toka-mo-qį|must_do-X-for}}<br />
{{gl|zzashąxeshã,|oz-zashą-xe-shã|IV-fall- NEG-INS}}<br />
{{glend|You should come so that you will not fall,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|chevorotet|chevorote-Ø-t|meadow-NOM-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|exceų|xece-ų|place-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|bet|be-t|1p.NOM.SN-t}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|also, there are meadows where I am,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|orot|orote-Ø|grass-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ṭṭoų|ṭṭoų|here}}<br />
{{gl|uįch|uįcha|soft}}<br />
{{gl|ezohez.|ezo~ezo|very~EMP}}<br />
{{glend|and here the grass is most tender.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yotum|yote-mo|call-X}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze:|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|"Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xe,|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my sake,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|thoraųshãqį|thoraų-shã-qį|eat-INS-for}}<br />
{{gl|mu!"|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|You're calling so that you can eat!}}<br />
<br />
=== The Crow and the Travellers ===<br />
<br />
This is based on a Nivkh myth. (in [http://f.cl.ly/items/678712614dfbd6a69364/Nivkh.pdf])<br />
<br />
<small>I see the link has died, so here's the original text, if you want to see it:<br />
<br />
''Going out from Tymy, two men were going to the west coast of Sakhalin. On the way, going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One man was father-in-law, the other was son-in-law. After laying the fire, [they] were sitting [near] the fire. A hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, father-in-law excited [the hare]. Son-in-law said: "Stop [that], why do you excite the hare?" Not wanting to listen to [what] his friend was saying, father in law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice was heard more and more [strongly], [and] the fire was more and more burning. Son-in-law was becoming more and more afraid. Going, lying on his sledge, covering himself with the grass, hiding for a long time, son-in-law [fell] asleep. At dawn, when [it was] light, son-in-law woke up. Waking up, when [he] was looking round, the fire has gone out, father-in-law disappeared, the dogs were lying as [they] lied in the evening. There was only the footwear on the place of his father-in-law. That is why people do not want to excite the hare. The place [where] two friends passed the night is called Xaunuzu.''</small><br />
<br />
''Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq. Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų, taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut ṭeinamereų. Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų. Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų. Kaukau zįkahazh įbung. Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã. Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?" Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe. Taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou. Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum; yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum. Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai. Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum. Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob. Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe. Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą. Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.''<br />
<br />
In pre format for now.<br />
<br />
Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq.<br />
eįq-in acau-Ø iḍihi kųq<br />
two-I.NOM man-NOM travel.PAST west<br />
Two men were travelling to the west.<br />
<br />
Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų,<br />
op-ngopou mo-shu ųv- eį nose-ų<br />
I- walk.PAST X- take many-IV.ACC time-ACC<br />
They walked for a long time,<br />
<br />
taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut eiṭnamereų.<br />
taw om-jenaum iḍi- ų op-woḍenje- zh įbung- Ø- t ṭeinamere-ų<br />
so X- be_during travel-ACC I- rest.PAST-in forest-NOM-at night- ACC<br />
so in the middle of their journey, they rested in the forest at night.<br />
<br />
Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų.<br />
mang-in sum-Ø eįq-in kechã- Ø- į wos- sum- ų<br />
one- I.NOM person-NOM two-I.NOM father-NOM-POS other-I.ACC person-ACC<br />
One man was the father-in-law of the other man.<br />
<br />
Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų.<br />
op-fau- t yį- ma mo-zoqe wau- įdodhe- zo-ų<br />
I- sit.PAST-at fire-DAT X- follow COMP-make.PAST-IV-ACC<br />
They sat near the fire after they finished making it.<br />
<br />
Kaukau zįkahazh įbung.<br />
kaukau-Ø oz-įkaha- zh įbung- Ø<br />
crow- NOM IV-make_noise.PAST-in forest-NOM<br />
A crow cried in the forest.<br />
<br />
Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã.<br />
au- Ø- t kaukau-ų eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø- qį va- shã<br />
make_effect-NOM-to crow- ACC two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM-for that-INS.<br />
To excite the crow, the father-in-law made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?"<br />
chu- mo yaif- Ø wau- ḍaho IMP au sing kaukau-ų- qį qe- shã<br />
say.PAST-X child-NOM stop-XI IMP make_effect 2p.NOM.SN crow- ACC-for what-INS<br />
The son in law said, "Stop it! Why are you exciting the crow?"<br />
<br />
Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe,<br />
chu- mo ewaįsha-Ø- į kechã- ų op-ḍau sasathe- mo-ų xe<br />
say.PAST-X friend- NOM-POS father-ACC I- want.PAST understand-X-ACC not<br />
What father-in-law's friend was saying, he didn't want to listen to it,<br />
<br />
taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou.<br />
taw eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø sou<br />
so two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM still<br />
so the father-in-law still made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum;<br />
kaukau-Ø įkaha- qa op-sathe-mo op-sathe-mo <br />
crow- NOM make_noise-SUB I- hear- X I- hear- X<br />
The crow making noise, they heard it more and more strongly;<br />
<br />
Yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum.<br />
yį- Ø uhoqeqe uhoqeqe yaifa-Ø au- tahehu-mo au- tahehu-mo<br />
fire-NOM burn.PAST burn.PAST child-NOM COMP-fear- X COMP-fear- X<br />
the fire burned more and more; the son-in-law was getting more and more afraid.<br />
<br />
Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai.<br />
ḍeįja-Ø oumeri yaifa-Ø yatorai<br />
sun- NOM rise.PAST child-NOM wake_up.PAST<br />
The sun rose; the son-in-law woke up.<br />
<br />
Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum.<br />
po-uįhą-mo yį- Ø yehoi op-nge-mo<br />
I- ask- X fire-NOM be_dead.PAST I- see-X<br />
He looked around; the fire had gone out, he saw it.<br />
<br />
Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob.<br />
sheza-Ø weiu mo-zhe op-weiu- ų- zh merewobe- Ø<br />
dog- NOM lie.PAST X- be_same_as I- lie.PAST-ACC-in yesterday-NOM<br />
The dogs were lying as they had done yesterday.<br />
<br />
Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe.<br />
įx op-nge-qa eįq-ãn kechã- ų op-deḍe- mo xe<br />
but I- see-SUB two-I.ACC father-ACC I- can_do.PAST-X not<br />
But he could not see the father-in-law.<br />
<br />
Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą.<br />
maner-ã ṭasehake-įą- Ø įdha- t xece- ų op-pi- thą<br />
only- III.ACC clothes- foot-NOM be.PAST-at point-ACC I- be_on.PAST-IX<br />
At the place where he had stood there was only footwear.<br />
<br />
Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.<br />
taw au- sha sum- Ø kaukau-ų xe- qį ṭo- Ø<br />
so make_effect-HAB person-NOM crow- ACC not-for this-NOM.<br />
So that is why people do not excite crows.<br />
<br />
This is a more typical example of Wendoth narrative than the other texts. Note the stylistic reduplication of verbs in the translation of 'the fire burned more and more' etc.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-25T11:45:37Z<p>Alces: /* From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth */ (clarifications)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': this happened in several stages.<br />
## Coda semivowels were deleted and passed on their phonation to the preceding vowel. Phonated /ə/ merged with /a/. If the preceding vowel was /ɨ/, it merged with the semivowel: /ɨj/ produced /i/ and /ɨw/ produced /u/ with the appropriate phonation.<br />
## Remaining semivowels vocalised to one of /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. The following vowel was also deleted, unless it was already phonated.<br />
## If /ɨ/ preceded one of these new /i u/ vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
## The sequences /ii/ and /uu/ dissimilated to /ui/ and /iu/ respectively.<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time). This did not apply in monosyllables, except in prepositions like '''*ta''' 'to' which were becoming cliticised.<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant are lost, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed in this position. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards. Initially this only applied in monosyllabic words; polysyllabic words were transformed whatever inflection they had. But the pattern was later generalised to words of all syllables.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* /ɴ/ became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ elsewhere (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then shifts to /ə/, although this was happening as Wendoth was breaking up and some dialects still have /ɨ/.<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials (not /w/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised. In some daughters they became labialised velars.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /ɐ/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /ɐ/ (which may also be transcribed as /a/) and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. The phonemes /ə/ and /ɐ/ are rather close and so tend to be differentiated by closeness--they may drift as far apart as [ɨ] and a central [a]. For many speakers /ɐ/ is a little longer than /ə/ too--in fact one of the major isoglosses in Wendoth's daughters is whether /ə ɐ/ contrast primarily in height or length.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
Dipthongs can be formed by adding /i/ or /u/ after any other vowel; these dipthongs contrast for breathy and creaky voice. They have distinct phonetic realisations: /iu/ > [ɪu], /ui/ > [ʊi], /ou/ > [ɔu], /oi/ > [ɔi], /əi/ > [ɛi], /əu/ > [ɛu], /ɐi/ > [ai], /ɐu/ > [au].<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before any nasal consonants. This is phonologically interpreted as breathy voice, so creaky-voice vowels never occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χɑŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wo.ʁɑ.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [oc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other--it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the modern language only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, all became '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally. (Likewise, some words which begin with a vowel show an epenthetic '''h''' when a prefix is added.)<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
The root is transformed whenever it is not in the nominative, unless it would be monosyllabic. If the word has only two syllables, be aware that the vowel fronted during transformation may be obscured by the ending (e.g. '''sų''' ('''se-''' + '''ų''') > '''esshã''').<br />
<br />
There is no other grammatical marking on nouns.<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o) 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e) 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho) 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a) 'drinking water'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. Unlike all other nouns, they inflect for number, and clusivity too.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| epshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| uzbų<br />
| uzbum<br />
| uzbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum<br />
| esshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of this are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if it's really necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive). There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== First conjugation ====<br />
<br />
This is the vast majority of verbs.<br />
<br />
The habitual aspect is marked by '''-sh''', an a-stem. The subjunctive mood is marked by '''-q/ha''', showing the usual uvular alternations--if it's the last suffix on the verb it's '''-q''', otherwise it's '''-h''', and an a-stem.<br />
<br />
The past is marked by an invisible nasal suffix accompanied by transformation of the root. See [[#Morpheme Types|Morpheme Types]] for what this means.<br />
<br />
The past suffix is added first, then the habitual, and finally the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! soho- 'find'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| sohoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| sohosh <br />
| sohoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| os'ha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Second conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The second conjugation is used for verbs whose root originally ended in a coda nasal. Obviously then, Pre-Wendoth phonotactics would not allow the past '''-*ŋ''' to attach to these normally. Instead, it took a completely different form. The final nasal of the root turned into '''-*hu''', and then the past suffix was added on.<br />
<br />
Most roots that originally ended in coda nasals can be identified in the modern language, since they are nasal or dropped nasal stems. However, some of the dropped nasal stems have become indistinguishable from breathy stems ending in '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
The ultimate outcome of the Pre-Wendoth changes was that for these verbs, when adding the past suffix, you have to change the vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u''' to that.<br />
<br />
Habitual and subjunctive suffixes are added on as normal, and transformation is applied to past roots where possible, giving us this paradigm (where M stands for doing this mutation to the last vowel):<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! aye- 'speak'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Third conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The third conjugation is for those roots that originally ended in a coda glottal consonant in Pre-Wendoth. These can easily be identified by the final vowel of their root, which will always be '''ã''' or '''ą'''. To add the past to these, Pre-Wendoth speakers added '''*-iŋ'''.<br />
<br />
With this past suffix added, the coda glottal consonant was no longer a coda, and thus went through different sound changes. All non-phonated vowels disappeared before phonated '''a''', which was only in the present forms; so the third conjugation became irregular. From the root alone, you can't predict what vowel will be inserted before the past suffix '''-i'''. So third conjugation verbs have their past form given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
This example descends from Pre-Wendoth '''bakeʔoʔ'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! dokaųą- 'be sticky'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| dokaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| dokaųąsh <br />
| dokaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| odkaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Suppletion ====<br />
<br />
In several verbs, suppletion is apparent in the past forms because the past and non-past have merged, due to '''u''' not changing when it nasally mutates. For instance "to have, possess, own", from Pre-Wendoth '''ŋuho''', now has a non-past form '''ngu''' and a past form '''ngu'''; they're identical. So the similar verb '''to hold''' has come to be used instead for the past forms. So the past tense of '''ngu''' is '''waṭa'''.<br />
<br />
Examples of this are only found for common verbs. Other verbs ending in '''-u''' have generally been analogically levelled out so that their present form has a creaky-voiced '''-ų'''.<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
Note that all the classifier prefixes look like they have been transformed; and they have been, diachronically, although synchronically, they are invariantly like this. Note that a verb's root still transforms when it is in the past, even if these transformed prefixes precede it. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, it's impossible to know whether to use the palatalised or velarised forms. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)eį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are transformed in the accusative, dative or instrumental but not in the nominative, like nouns.<br />
<br />
Certain determiners have a more extensive, recently-developed classifier system where every different class is marked as a suffix. These include the demonstratives. Some of them have developed slightly different meanings too. For instance, when using the fuller class marking for a numeral, it takes the meaning of an ordinal.<br />
<br />
These fuller class suffixes are simply the normal verbal classifier prefixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| -op<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| -oq<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| -i<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| -oz<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| things that grow<br />
| -ox<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| -ec<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| -ųb<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| -į<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| -ąth<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| that which is felt<br />
| -aḍox<br />
|-<br />
| XI<br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| -am<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''eįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndaneįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''zhegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''ndãchegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''zhegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; to get the determiner root knock off any final vowels. (5 is '''tehaį-''' though, and 12 is '''ahajaboį'''). Just for convenience, the full list of determiner numbers would be '''man-''', '''eįk-''', '''ndaneįk-''', '''jot-''', '''tehaį-''', '''zheget-''', '''ndãcheget-''', '''jotajot-''', '''jotat-''', '''tat-''', '''zhegetat-''', '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''atte me tte''', 'ten and ten'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no way of indicating ordinal numerals. For instance, instead of saying 'He was the first man', you would say 'He lived before all other men.'<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''oṭse''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''avva''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''exxe''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xeį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is not obvious, having been obscured by sound change. On most roots make sure it's untransformed, take the first syllable, reverse it and then add it to the front of the root, forming a geminate: so '''boqew''' > '''obboqew'''. There are two exceptions however.<br />
* For some vowel-initial roots, take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''.<br />
* For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|zhboushã|ezhbou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecrauį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qwangi|qwangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|sų|sų|man.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noix-a|I-travel-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthnihaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|xxum|exxe-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingiqį|ingi-Ø-qį|food-NOM-for}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Possession ===<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The clitic for possession is '''-į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
The possession clitic is basically a preposition, just like the ones in the next section. It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; so the word order is the same as in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. Since it's a clitic, it goes after any relative clauses, etc. that modify the noun too.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exxaṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Most of the load of English prepositions in Wendoth is done by reduced relative clauses. In fact, there are only five true prepositions (six if you count the possession clitic as a preposition too). They are all clitics, attaching to the noun the prepositional phrase is attached to, and their forms, with (very) approximate English glosses, are '''-t(o)''' 'to', '''-zh(a)''' 'from', '''-dh(a)''' 'of', '''-qį''' 'for', '''-c(e)''' 'with'.<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions '''t(o)''' and '''zh(a)''' are rather different from English in their semantic space. '''-t(o)''', rather than being just 'to', is a general locative; depending on context it might mean 'into', 'on' or 'at' as well. However '''-zh(a)''' specifically marks that the object has gone within the head noun, like English 'in'; it also can mean 'from' though. We might sum up the semantics in this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
As for the others: '''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
==== The rest of the preposition space ====<br />
<br />
English's more complicated prepositions are fulfilled by specialised verbs in Wendoth, such as '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-p|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sųm|sųm-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opḍajhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-ufnã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ushmãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|uteų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opwopaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opjhauhum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|sumų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength).}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, where you'd use a wh-word in English, still phrase it as a normal sentence. But replace the word you don't know with '''qe''' 'thing' with the appropriate noun class prefix if it's a noun, '''ndei-''' 'which' if it's a determiner, and '''vį''' 'do, make' if it's a verb, and add the rising tone to that. These are all normal members of the class they replace and decline or conjugate like normal.<br />
<br />
To narrow down the choice of referents, you can add the preposition '''-zh''' to one of these words and use the limiting noun as its object. E.g. '''qezh ni''' would mean 'which one of you'.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|afmi|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ|food}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc ḍeįj; seṭoq utį ųbqų utuį wsaų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "vazh uzbų ųbudi ybettehų acaum, utį oṭbųų ųbshekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbṭųpau aupngeį dḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhweį dḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbṭųpau woubeq, ųbtokam amcheg ndochãų. Xou ḍeįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį ḍeįjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc chiham, ųbtokam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįj;|ḍeįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|seṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ųbqų|ųb-qe-ų|VII-thing-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wsaų?|wosa-ų|other-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling; which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã.|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|uzbų|uzbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudi|ųb-u-di|VII-CAUS-take_off}}<br />
{{gl|ybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|oṭbųų|ṭo-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbshekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngeį|paun-eį|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhweį|zhey-eį|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|woubeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįja|ḍeįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjaų|ḍeįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|chiham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Wolf and the Goat ===<br />
<br />
English: A goat on a steep cliff is eating, when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him. So the wolf begins to call to him, "You should come so that you will not fall; also, there are meadows where I am, and here the grass is most tender." The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my benefit, you're calling so that you can eat!"<br />
<br />
Wendoth: ''Thoraų vauṭeze zpe ṭohoų ųqezheįq, xou inginge oiszeshashã zdeḍ ejzozam xe. Taw soizesh ouyotez, "Ozthaq, sing tokemoqį zzashąxeshã, wã u chevorotet exceų u bet ṭoų, wã orot ṭṭoų uįch ezohez. Yotum vauṭeze: "Sing shojaqį ḍã xe, sing shojaqį thoraųshãqį mu!''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thoraų|thoraų|eat}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zpe|zo-pe|IV-be_on}}<br />
{{gl|ṭhoų|ṭoho-ų|cliff-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųqezheįq,|ų-qezheįqa|VIII-be_steep}}<br />
{{glend|A goat on a steep cliff is eating,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|inginge|ingį-nge|PASS-see}}<br />
{{gl|oiszeshashã|soizesha-shã|wolf-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zdeḍ|zo-deḍe|IV-be_able}}<br />
{{gl|ejzozam.|jezo-zo-ma|reach-IV-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|soizesh|soizesha-Ø|wolf-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ouyotez,|ou-yote-zo|INCP-call-IV}}<br />
{{glend|So the wolf begins to call to him,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Ozthaq,|oz-tha-qe|IV-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|tokemoqį|toka-mo-qį|must_do-X-for}}<br />
{{gl|zzashąxeshã,|oz-zashą-xe-shã|IV-fall- NEG-INS}}<br />
{{glend|You should come so that you will not fall,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|chevorotet|chevorote-Ø-t|meadow-NOM-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|exceų|xece-ų|place-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|bet|be-t|1p.NOM.SN-t}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|also, there are meadows where I am,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|orot|orote-Ø|grass-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ṭṭoų|ṭṭoų|here}}<br />
{{gl|uįch|uįcha|soft}}<br />
{{gl|ezohez.|ezo~ezo|very~EMP}}<br />
{{glend|and here the grass is most tender.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yotum|yote-mo|call-X}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze:|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|"Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xe,|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my sake,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|thoraųshãqį|thoraų-shã-qį|eat-INS-for}}<br />
{{gl|mu!"|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|You're calling so that you can eat!}}<br />
<br />
=== The Crow and the Travellers ===<br />
<br />
This is based on a Nivkh myth. (in [http://f.cl.ly/items/678712614dfbd6a69364/Nivkh.pdf])<br />
<br />
<small>I see the link has died, so here's the original text, if you want to see it:<br />
<br />
''Going out from Tymy, two men were going to the west coast of Sakhalin. On the way, going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One man was father-in-law, the other was son-in-law. After laying the fire, [they] were sitting [near] the fire. A hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, father-in-law excited [the hare]. Son-in-law said: "Stop [that], why do you excite the hare?" Not wanting to listen to [what] his friend was saying, father in law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice was heard more and more [strongly], [and] the fire was more and more burning. Son-in-law was becoming more and more afraid. Going, lying on his sledge, covering himself with the grass, hiding for a long time, son-in-law [fell] asleep. At dawn, when [it was] light, son-in-law woke up. Waking up, when [he] was looking round, the fire has gone out, father-in-law disappeared, the dogs were lying as [they] lied in the evening. There was only the footwear on the place of his father-in-law. That is why people do not want to excite the hare. The place [where] two friends passed the night is called Xaunuzu.''</small><br />
<br />
''Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq. Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų, taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut ṭeinamereų. Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų. Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų. Kaukau zįkahazh įbung. Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã. Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?" Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe. Taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou. Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum; yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum. Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai. Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum. Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob. Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe. Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą. Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.''<br />
<br />
In pre format for now.<br />
<br />
Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq.<br />
eįq-in acau-Ø iḍihi kųq<br />
two-I.NOM man-NOM travel.PAST west<br />
Two men were travelling to the west.<br />
<br />
Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų,<br />
op-ngopou mo-shu ųv- eį nose-ų<br />
I- walk.PAST X- take many-IV.ACC time-ACC<br />
They walked for a long time,<br />
<br />
taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut eiṭnamereų.<br />
taw om-jenaum iḍi- ų op-woḍenje- zh įbung- Ø- t ṭeinamere-ų<br />
so X- be_during travel-ACC I- rest.PAST-in forest-NOM-at night- ACC<br />
so in the middle of their journey, they rested in the forest at night.<br />
<br />
Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų.<br />
mang-in sum-Ø eįq-in kechã- Ø- į wos- sum- ų<br />
one- I.NOM person-NOM two-I.NOM father-NOM-POS other-I.ACC person-ACC<br />
One man was the father-in-law of the other man.<br />
<br />
Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų.<br />
op-fau- t yį- ma mo-zoqe wau- įdodhe- zo-ų<br />
I- sit.PAST-at fire-DAT X- follow COMP-make.PAST-IV-ACC<br />
They sat near the fire after they finished making it.<br />
<br />
Kaukau zįkahazh įbung.<br />
kaukau-Ø oz-įkaha- zh įbung- Ø<br />
crow- NOM IV-make_noise.PAST-in forest-NOM<br />
A crow cried in the forest.<br />
<br />
Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã.<br />
au- Ø- t kaukau-ų eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø- qį va- shã<br />
make_effect-NOM-to crow- ACC two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM-for that-INS.<br />
To excite the crow, the father-in-law made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?"<br />
chu- mo yaif- Ø wau- ḍaho IMP au sing kaukau-ų- qį qe- shã<br />
say.PAST-X child-NOM stop-XI IMP make_effect 2p.NOM.SN crow- ACC-for what-INS<br />
The son in law said, "Stop it! Why are you exciting the crow?"<br />
<br />
Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe,<br />
chu- mo ewaįsha-Ø- į kechã- ų op-ḍau sasathe- mo-ų xe<br />
say.PAST-X friend- NOM-POS father-ACC I- want.PAST understand-X-ACC not<br />
What father-in-law's friend was saying, he didn't want to listen to it,<br />
<br />
taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou.<br />
taw eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø sou<br />
so two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM still<br />
so the father-in-law still made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum;<br />
kaukau-Ø įkaha- qa op-sathe-mo op-sathe-mo <br />
crow- NOM make_noise-SUB I- hear- X I- hear- X<br />
The crow making noise, they heard it more and more strongly;<br />
<br />
Yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum.<br />
yį- Ø uhoqeqe uhoqeqe yaifa-Ø au- tahehu-mo au- tahehu-mo<br />
fire-NOM burn.PAST burn.PAST child-NOM COMP-fear- X COMP-fear- X<br />
the fire burned more and more; the son-in-law was getting more and more afraid.<br />
<br />
Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai.<br />
ḍeįja-Ø oumeri yaifa-Ø yatorai<br />
sun- NOM rise.PAST child-NOM wake_up.PAST<br />
The sun rose; the son-in-law woke up.<br />
<br />
Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum.<br />
po-uįhą-mo yį- Ø yehoi op-nge-mo<br />
I- ask- X fire-NOM be_dead.PAST I- see-X<br />
He looked around; the fire had gone out, he saw it.<br />
<br />
Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob.<br />
sheza-Ø weiu mo-zhe op-weiu- ų- zh merewobe- Ø<br />
dog- NOM lie.PAST X- be_same_as I- lie.PAST-ACC-in yesterday-NOM<br />
The dogs were lying as they had done yesterday.<br />
<br />
Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe.<br />
įx op-nge-qa eįq-ãn kechã- ų op-deḍe- mo xe<br />
but I- see-SUB two-I.ACC father-ACC I- can_do.PAST-X not<br />
But he could not see the father-in-law.<br />
<br />
Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą.<br />
maner-ã ṭasehake-įą- Ø įdha- t xece- ų op-pi- thą<br />
only- III.ACC clothes- foot-NOM be.PAST-at point-ACC I- be_on.PAST-IX<br />
At the place where he had stood there was only footwear.<br />
<br />
Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.<br />
taw au- sha sum- Ø kaukau-ų xe- qį ṭo- Ø<br />
so make_effect-HAB person-NOM crow- ACC not-for this-NOM.<br />
So that is why people do not excite crows.<br />
<br />
This is a more typical example of Wendoth narrative than the other texts. Note the stylistic reduplication of verbs in the translation of 'the fire burned more and more' etc.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-23T21:02:44Z<p>Alces: /* The North Wind and the Sun */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': the creaky and breathy voiced semivowels deleted their syllable nucleus as they moved into it, becoming the vowels /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. <br />
#* When a semivowel at the end of a word vocalised, all sequences beginning with /ə/ or /a/ merged into /a/ and had their last part deleted, although the voicing was passed on to the /a/. So '''*nekoʔ''' > '''*nəqəw̰''' > '''*nəqa̰''' (This must have been a bit earlier than the onset vocalisation).<br />
#* In sequences of /ɨ/ + one of these new vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
#* With other vowel sequences, dipthongs were formed. The voicing of a dipthong had to be the same throughout (the second vowel was the decider), so if for example /i̤/ and /ṵ/ came together, the result would be a dipthong /ḭu̯/. When both /i i/ or /u u/ came together, the first one mutated to the opposite forming a dipthong /iu ui/ with the voice of the second one.<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time).<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant seem to have already been lost before initial syllable syncope, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed in this position. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards. Initially this only applied in monosyllabic words; polysyllabic words were transformed whatever inflection they had. But the pattern was later generalised to words of all syllables.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* With regards to the loss of /ɴ/, it became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ intervocalically (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then either stays as it is or shifts to /ə/ (depending on dialect).<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials or /w/ (but not if it is part of a diphthong with a following /u/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
# '''Loss of phonation'''. As Wendoth was breaking up breathy and creaky-voice phonation was moving from the vowels to the consonants in all of its dialects, creating sets of glottalised and murmured consonants. The results in different dialects were often quite different though, so the details are given in the descriptions of individual daughters. Daughters also sometimes show slight changes in the distribution of the phonations due to earlier changes specific to them.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised. In some daughters they became labialised velars.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /ɐ/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /ɐ/ (which may also be transcribed as /a/) and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. The phonemes /ə/ and /ɐ/ are rather close and so tend to be differentiated by closeness--they may drift as far apart as [ɨ] and a central [a]. For many speakers /ɐ/ is a little longer than /ə/ too--in fact one of the major isoglosses in Wendoth's daughters is whether /ə ɐ/ contrast primarily in height or length.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
Dipthongs can be formed by adding /i/ or /u/ after any other vowel; these dipthongs contrast for breathy and creaky voice. They have distinct phonetic realisations: /iu/ > [ɪu], /ui/ > [ʊi], /ou/ > [ɔu], /oi/ > [ɔi], /əi/ > [ɛi], /əu/ > [ɛu], /ɐi/ > [ai], /ɐu/ > [au].<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before any nasal consonants. This is phonologically interpreted as breathy voice, so creaky-voice vowels never occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χɑŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wo.ʁɑ.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [oc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other--it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the modern language only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, all became '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally. (Likewise, some words which begin with a vowel show an epenthetic '''h''' when a prefix is added.)<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
The root is transformed whenever it is not in the nominative, unless it would be monosyllabic. If the word has only two syllables, be aware that the vowel fronted during transformation may be obscured by the ending (e.g. '''sų''' ('''se-''' + '''ų''') > '''esshã''').<br />
<br />
There is no other grammatical marking on nouns.<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o) 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e) 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho) 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a) 'drinking water'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. Unlike all other nouns, they inflect for number, and clusivity too.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| epshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| uzbų<br />
| uzbum<br />
| uzbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum<br />
| esshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of this are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if it's really necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive). There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== First conjugation ====<br />
<br />
This is the vast majority of verbs.<br />
<br />
The habitual aspect is marked by '''-sh''', an a-stem. The subjunctive mood is marked by '''-q/ha''', showing the usual uvular alternations--if it's the last suffix on the verb it's '''-q''', otherwise it's '''-h''', and an a-stem.<br />
<br />
The past is marked by an invisible nasal suffix accompanied by transformation of the root. See [[#Morpheme Types|Morpheme Types]] for what this means.<br />
<br />
The past suffix is added first, then the habitual, and finally the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! soho- 'find'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| sohoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| sohosh <br />
| sohoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| os'ha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Second conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The second conjugation is used for verbs whose root originally ended in a coda nasal. Obviously then, Pre-Wendoth phonotactics would not allow the past '''-*ŋ''' to attach to these normally. Instead, it took a completely different form. The final nasal of the root turned into '''-*hu''', and then the past suffix was added on.<br />
<br />
Most roots that originally ended in coda nasals can be identified in the modern language, since they are nasal or dropped nasal stems. However, some of the dropped nasal stems have become indistinguishable from breathy stems ending in '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
The ultimate outcome of the Pre-Wendoth changes was that for these verbs, when adding the past suffix, you have to change the vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u''' to that.<br />
<br />
Habitual and subjunctive suffixes are added on as normal, and transformation is applied to past roots where possible, giving us this paradigm (where M stands for doing this mutation to the last vowel):<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! aye- 'speak'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Third conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The third conjugation is for those roots that originally ended in a coda glottal consonant in Pre-Wendoth. These can easily be identified by the final vowel of their root, which will always be '''ã''' or '''ą'''. To add the past to these, Pre-Wendoth speakers added '''*-iŋ'''.<br />
<br />
With this past suffix added, the coda glottal consonant was no longer a coda, and thus went through different sound changes. All non-phonated vowels disappeared before phonated '''a''', which was only in the present forms; so the third conjugation became irregular. From the root alone, you can't predict what vowel will be inserted before the past suffix '''-i'''. So third conjugation verbs have their past form given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
This example descends from Pre-Wendoth '''bakeʔoʔ'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! dokaųą- 'be sticky'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| dokaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| dokaųąsh <br />
| dokaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| odkaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Suppletion ====<br />
<br />
In several verbs, suppletion is apparent in the past forms because the past and non-past have merged, due to '''u''' not changing when it nasally mutates. For instance "to have, possess, own", from Pre-Wendoth '''ŋuho''', now has a non-past form '''ngu''' and a past form '''ngu'''; they're identical. So the similar verb '''to hold''' has come to be used instead for the past forms. So the past tense of '''ngu''' is '''waṭa'''.<br />
<br />
Examples of this are only found for common verbs. Other verbs ending in '''-u''' have generally been analogically levelled out so that their present form has a creaky-voiced '''-ų'''.<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
Note that all the classifier prefixes look like they have been transformed; and they have been, diachronically, although synchronically, they are invariantly like this. Note that a verb's root still transforms when it is in the past, even if these transformed prefixes precede it. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, it's impossible to know whether to use the palatalised or velarised forms. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)eį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are transformed in the accusative, dative or instrumental but not in the nominative, like nouns.<br />
<br />
Certain determiners have a more extensive, recently-developed classifier system where every different class is marked as a suffix. These include the demonstratives. Some of them have developed slightly different meanings too. For instance, when using the fuller class marking for a numeral, it takes the meaning of an ordinal.<br />
<br />
These fuller class suffixes are simply the normal verbal classifier prefixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| -op<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| -oq<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| -i<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| -oz<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| things that grow<br />
| -ox<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| -ec<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| -ųb<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| -į<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| -ąth<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| that which is felt<br />
| -aḍox<br />
|-<br />
| XI<br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| -am<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''eįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndaneįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''zhegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''ndãchegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''zhegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; to get the determiner root knock off any final vowels. (5 is '''tehaį-''' though, and 12 is '''ahajaboį'''). Just for convenience, the full list of determiner numbers would be '''man-''', '''eįk-''', '''ndaneįk-''', '''jot-''', '''tehaį-''', '''zheget-''', '''ndãcheget-''', '''jotajot-''', '''jotat-''', '''tat-''', '''zhegetat-''', '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''atte me tte''', 'ten and ten'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no way of indicating ordinal numerals. For instance, instead of saying 'He was the first man', you would say 'He lived before all other men.'<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''oṭse''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''avva''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''exxe''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xeį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is not obvious, having been obscured by sound change. On most roots make sure it's untransformed, take the first syllable, reverse it and then add it to the front of the root, forming a geminate: so '''boqew''' > '''obboqew'''. There are two exceptions however.<br />
* For some vowel-initial roots, take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''.<br />
* For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|zhboushã|ezhbou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecrauį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qwangi|qwangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|sų|sų|man.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noix-a|I-travel-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthnihaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|xxum|exxe-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingiqį|ingi-Ø-qį|food-NOM-for}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Possession ===<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The clitic for possession is '''-į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
The possession clitic is basically a preposition, just like the ones in the next section. It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; so the word order is the same as in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. Since it's a clitic, it goes after any relative clauses, etc. that modify the noun too.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exxaṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Most of the load of English prepositions in Wendoth is done by reduced relative clauses. In fact, there are only five true prepositions (six if you count the possession clitic as a preposition too). They are all clitics, attaching to the noun the prepositional phrase is attached to, and their forms, with (very) approximate English glosses, are '''-t(o)''' 'to', '''-zh(a)''' 'from', '''-dh(a)''' 'of', '''-qį''' 'for', '''-c(e)''' 'with'.<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions '''t(o)''' and '''zh(a)''' are rather different from English in their semantic space. '''-t(o)''', rather than being just 'to', is a general locative; depending on context it might mean 'into', 'on' or 'at' as well. However '''-zh(a)''' specifically marks that the object has gone within the head noun, like English 'in'; it also can mean 'from' though. We might sum up the semantics in this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
As for the others: '''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
==== The rest of the preposition space ====<br />
<br />
English's more complicated prepositions are fulfilled by specialised verbs in Wendoth, such as '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-p|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sųm|sųm-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opḍajhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-ufnã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ushmãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|uteų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opwopaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opjhauhum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|sumų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength).}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, where you'd use a wh-word in English, still phrase it as a normal sentence. But replace the word you don't know with '''qe''' 'thing' with the appropriate noun class prefix if it's a noun, '''ndei-''' 'which' if it's a determiner, and '''vį''' 'do, make' if it's a verb, and add the rising tone to that. These are all normal members of the class they replace and decline or conjugate like normal.<br />
<br />
To narrow down the choice of referents, you can add the preposition '''-zh''' to one of these words and use the limiting noun as its object. E.g. '''qezh ni''' would mean 'which one of you'.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|afmi|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ|food}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
In English:<br />
<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''<br />
<br />
In Wendoth:<br />
<br />
Vayash ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc ḍeįj; seṭoq utį ųbqų utuį wsaų? Xou tha iḍihesh otingįxandeq oybetteheshã. Ųbauvayash oṭmoshã: "vazh uzbų ųbudi ybettehų acaum, utį oṭbųų ųbshekaq, chibų". Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųbṭųpau aupngeį dḍeshã, cai ųbngaįv shek ṭa, satehew sum oybetteheshã zhweį dḍeshã. Taw ṭethoy ųbṭųpau woubeq, ųbtokam amcheg ndochãų. Xou ḍeįja ijaṭ; ųbbuim jojahoshã, taw di sum oybettehų. Taw, utį ḍeįjaų shek, ṭethoy ųbṭųpauc chiham, ųbtokam.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįj;|ḍeįj-Ø-qį|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|seṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ųbqų|ųb-qe-ų|VII-thing-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wsaų?|wosa-ų|other-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were quarreling; which was the stronger one?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã.|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbauvayash|ųb-au-vayash|VII-COMP-quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|oṭmoshã:|ṭo-mo-shã|this-XI-INS}}<br />
{{gl|"vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|uzbų|uzbų|1p.INCL.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbudi|ųb-u-di|VII-CAUS-take_off}}<br />
{{gl|ybettehų|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|acaum,|acau-ma|man-DAT}}<br />
{{glend|They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|oṭbųų|ṭo-bų-ų|this-VII-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųbshekaq,|ųb-sheka-ha|VII-be_more-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|chibų".|chi-bų|remember-VII}}<br />
{{glend|he will be remembered as stronger than the other.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngeį|paun-eį|all-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã,|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|cai|cai|but}}<br />
{{gl|ųbngaįv|ųb-ngaįva-Ø|VII-blow-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhweį|zhey-eį|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but whenever he blew more, the man wrapped himself in the cloak just as hard.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|woubeq,|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam|ųb-toka-mo|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{gl|amcheg|am-chege|X-be_after}}<br />
{{gl|ndochãų.|ndochã-ų|while}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to stop in the end.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįja|ḍeįja-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ;|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ųbbuim|ųb-buim|VII-shine}}<br />
{{gl|jojahoshã,|jojaho-shã|warm-INS}}<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rose, shining with warmth, and so the man took off his cloak.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw,|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjaų|ḍeįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shek,|shek|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|chiham,|chi-ha-mo|say-SUBJ-X}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam.|ųb-toka-mo|must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Wolf and the Goat ===<br />
<br />
English: A goat on a steep cliff is eating, when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him. So the wolf begins to call to him, "You should come so that you will not fall; also, there are meadows where I am, and here the grass is most tender." The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my benefit, you're calling so that you can eat!"<br />
<br />
Wendoth: ''Thoraų vauṭeze zpe ṭohoų ųqezheįq, xou inginge oiszeshashã zdeḍ ejzozam xe. Taw soizesh ouyotez, "Ozthaq, sing tokemoqį zzashąxeshã, wã u chevorotet exceų u bet ṭoų, wã orot ṭṭoų uįch ezohez. Yotum vauṭeze: "Sing shojaqį ḍã xe, sing shojaqį thoraųshãqį mu!''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thoraų|thoraų|eat}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zpe|zo-pe|IV-be_on}}<br />
{{gl|ṭhoų|ṭoho-ų|cliff-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųqezheįq,|ų-qezheįqa|VIII-be_steep}}<br />
{{glend|A goat on a steep cliff is eating,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|inginge|ingį-nge|PASS-see}}<br />
{{gl|oiszeshashã|soizesha-shã|wolf-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zdeḍ|zo-deḍe|IV-be_able}}<br />
{{gl|ejzozam.|jezo-zo-ma|reach-IV-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|soizesh|soizesha-Ø|wolf-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ouyotez,|ou-yote-zo|INCP-call-IV}}<br />
{{glend|So the wolf begins to call to him,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Ozthaq,|oz-tha-qe|IV-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|tokemoqį|toka-mo-qį|must_do-X-for}}<br />
{{gl|zzashąxeshã,|oz-zashą-xe-shã|IV-fall- NEG-INS}}<br />
{{glend|You should come so that you will not fall,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|chevorotet|chevorote-Ø-t|meadow-NOM-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|exceų|xece-ų|place-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|bet|be-t|1p.NOM.SN-t}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|also, there are meadows where I am,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|orot|orote-Ø|grass-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ṭṭoų|ṭṭoų|here}}<br />
{{gl|uįch|uįcha|soft}}<br />
{{gl|ezohez.|ezo~ezo|very~EMP}}<br />
{{glend|and here the grass is most tender.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yotum|yote-mo|call-X}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze:|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|"Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xe,|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my sake,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|thoraųshãqį|thoraų-shã-qį|eat-INS-for}}<br />
{{gl|mu!"|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|You're calling so that you can eat!}}<br />
<br />
=== The Crow and the Travellers ===<br />
<br />
This is based on a Nivkh myth. (in [http://f.cl.ly/items/678712614dfbd6a69364/Nivkh.pdf])<br />
<br />
<small>I see the link has died, so here's the original text, if you want to see it:<br />
<br />
''Going out from Tymy, two men were going to the west coast of Sakhalin. On the way, going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One man was father-in-law, the other was son-in-law. After laying the fire, [they] were sitting [near] the fire. A hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, father-in-law excited [the hare]. Son-in-law said: "Stop [that], why do you excite the hare?" Not wanting to listen to [what] his friend was saying, father in law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice was heard more and more [strongly], [and] the fire was more and more burning. Son-in-law was becoming more and more afraid. Going, lying on his sledge, covering himself with the grass, hiding for a long time, son-in-law [fell] asleep. At dawn, when [it was] light, son-in-law woke up. Waking up, when [he] was looking round, the fire has gone out, father-in-law disappeared, the dogs were lying as [they] lied in the evening. There was only the footwear on the place of his father-in-law. That is why people do not want to excite the hare. The place [where] two friends passed the night is called Xaunuzu.''</small><br />
<br />
''Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq. Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų, taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut ṭeinamereų. Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų. Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų. Kaukau zįkahazh įbung. Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã. Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?" Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe. Taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou. Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum; yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum. Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai. Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum. Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob. Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe. Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą. Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.''<br />
<br />
In pre format for now.<br />
<br />
Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq.<br />
eįq-in acau-Ø iḍihi kųq<br />
two-I.NOM man-NOM travel.PAST west<br />
Two men were travelling to the west.<br />
<br />
Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų,<br />
op-ngopou mo-shu ųv- eį nose-ų<br />
I- walk.PAST X- take many-IV.ACC time-ACC<br />
They walked for a long time,<br />
<br />
taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut eiṭnamereų.<br />
taw om-jenaum iḍi- ų op-woḍenje- zh įbung- Ø- t ṭeinamere-ų<br />
so X- be_during travel-ACC I- rest.PAST-in forest-NOM-at night- ACC<br />
so in the middle of their journey, they rested in the forest at night.<br />
<br />
Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų.<br />
mang-in sum-Ø eįq-in kechã- Ø- į wos- sum- ų<br />
one- I.NOM person-NOM two-I.NOM father-NOM-POS other-I.ACC person-ACC<br />
One man was the father-in-law of the other man.<br />
<br />
Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų.<br />
op-fau- t yį- ma mo-zoqe wau- įdodhe- zo-ų<br />
I- sit.PAST-at fire-DAT X- follow COMP-make.PAST-IV-ACC<br />
They sat near the fire after they finished making it.<br />
<br />
Kaukau zįkahazh įbung.<br />
kaukau-Ø oz-įkaha- zh įbung- Ø<br />
crow- NOM IV-make_noise.PAST-in forest-NOM<br />
A crow cried in the forest.<br />
<br />
Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã.<br />
au- Ø- t kaukau-ų eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø- qį va- shã<br />
make_effect-NOM-to crow- ACC two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM-for that-INS.<br />
To excite the crow, the father-in-law made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?"<br />
chu- mo yaif- Ø wau- ḍaho IMP au sing kaukau-ų- qį qe- shã<br />
say.PAST-X child-NOM stop-XI IMP make_effect 2p.NOM.SN crow- ACC-for what-INS<br />
The son in law said, "Stop it! Why are you exciting the crow?"<br />
<br />
Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe,<br />
chu- mo ewaįsha-Ø- į kechã- ų op-ḍau sasathe- mo-ų xe<br />
say.PAST-X friend- NOM-POS father-ACC I- want.PAST understand-X-ACC not<br />
What father-in-law's friend was saying, he didn't want to listen to it,<br />
<br />
taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou.<br />
taw eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø sou<br />
so two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM still<br />
so the father-in-law still made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum;<br />
kaukau-Ø įkaha- qa op-sathe-mo op-sathe-mo <br />
crow- NOM make_noise-SUB I- hear- X I- hear- X<br />
The crow making noise, they heard it more and more strongly;<br />
<br />
Yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum.<br />
yį- Ø uhoqeqe uhoqeqe yaifa-Ø au- tahehu-mo au- tahehu-mo<br />
fire-NOM burn.PAST burn.PAST child-NOM COMP-fear- X COMP-fear- X<br />
the fire burned more and more; the son-in-law was getting more and more afraid.<br />
<br />
Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai.<br />
ḍeįja-Ø oumeri yaifa-Ø yatorai<br />
sun- NOM rise.PAST child-NOM wake_up.PAST<br />
The sun rose; the son-in-law woke up.<br />
<br />
Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum.<br />
po-uįhą-mo yį- Ø yehoi op-nge-mo<br />
I- ask- X fire-NOM be_dead.PAST I- see-X<br />
He looked around; the fire had gone out, he saw it.<br />
<br />
Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob.<br />
sheza-Ø weiu mo-zhe op-weiu- ų- zh merewobe- Ø<br />
dog- NOM lie.PAST X- be_same_as I- lie.PAST-ACC-in yesterday-NOM<br />
The dogs were lying as they had done yesterday.<br />
<br />
Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe.<br />
įx op-nge-qa eįq-ãn kechã- ų op-deḍe- mo xe<br />
but I- see-SUB two-I.ACC father-ACC I- can_do.PAST-X not<br />
But he could not see the father-in-law.<br />
<br />
Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą.<br />
maner-ã ṭasehake-įą- Ø įdha- t xece- ų op-pi- thą<br />
only- III.ACC clothes- foot-NOM be.PAST-at point-ACC I- be_on.PAST-IX<br />
At the place where he had stood there was only footwear.<br />
<br />
Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.<br />
taw au- sha sum- Ø kaukau-ų xe- qį ṭo- Ø<br />
so make_effect-HAB person-NOM crow- ACC not-for this-NOM.<br />
So that is why people do not excite crows.<br />
<br />
This is a more typical example of Wendoth narrative than the other texts. Note the stylistic reduplication of verbs in the translation of 'the fire burned more and more' etc.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/LexiconWendoth/Lexicon2011-12-23T20:29:07Z<p>Alces: added words for 'hot', 'cold' and 'shine'</p>
<hr />
<div>An explanation of this table:<br />
* The first column gives the root with no suffix attached, or the velarised form of determiner roots.<br />
* The second column gives the form of the stem when a suffix is added. If this form shows a palatalisation alternation, that will be given afterwards in brackets.<br />
* The third column gives notes on morphology.<br />
** It gives the transformed form, if irregular.<br />
** For verbs, it shows the past form.<br />
** For words that have an initial '''h''' appearing only when a prefix is added, it is marked here by adding [h].<br />
* The fourth column gives whether the root palatalises or velarising preceding prefixes.<br />
* The fifth column gives the gloss.<br />
* The sixth column gives the part of speech, which may be:<br />
** n. - noun<br />
** v.it - intransitive verb (no obligatory object)<br />
** v.mt - monotransitive verb (obligatory accusative object)<br />
** v.dt - ditransitive verb (obligatory accusative and dative objects)<br />
** d. - determiner<br />
** par. - particle<br />
** prep. - preposition clitic<br />
** For verbs, any notes about the case of its arguments may also be added.<br />
* The seventh column gives additional information about the part of speech.<br />
** For nouns, it gives the noun class as a Roman numeral.<br />
** For verbs, it says whether it's static or dynamic and the conjugation if it's not the first one.<br />
* The eighth column gives the word's Pre-Wendoth root.<br />
<br />
This does not include transparent derivations.<br />
<br />
''330 words''<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}<br />
|-<br />
! Standalone<br />
! Stem<br />
! Morphology<br />
! Prefix effect<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Type<br />
! Class<br />
! Pre-Wendoth<br />
|-<br />
| acau || acau || [h] || vel. || man || n. || I || goxeho<br />
|-<br />
| ahezh || ahezh(e)- || [h] || vel. || fog, mist || n. || VII || goɣuzi<br />
|-<br />
| atįv || atįva- || atįve [h] || vel. || press || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣopiʔevo<br />
|-<br />
| au || au(h)- || auu [h] || vel. || touch, affect || v.mt. || dyn. || gohoŋ <br />
|-<br />
| avex || aveha- || avehe [h] || vel. || trust || v.mt. || stat. || rovuro<br />
|-<br />
| awex || awexo-/co- || awexa [h] || vel. || moon || n. || IV || golura<br />
|-<br />
| azhesang || azhesa(ng)- || azhesou [h] || vel. || crawl || v.it. || dyn. 2 || gozisan<br />
|-<br />
| baḍeuin || baḍeui(n)- || abḍeuiu || vel. || battle || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || bodohahin<br />
|-<br />
| barqat || barqata- || arbqate || vel. || kneel || v.it. || dyn. || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| baw || bawa- || abwe || vel. || carry || v.mt. || dyn. || bolo<br />
|-<br />
| be || b(e)- || || vel. || I || pron. || || bu<br />
|-<br />
| bechep || bechepa- || || vel. || hip || n. || VIII || butipo<br />
|-<br />
| bengaq || bengaha- || || vel. || shit || n. || VIII || bonogo<br />
|-<br />
| bodhoth || bodhoth(e)- || || vel. || wilderness || n. || IX || bavafi<br />
|-<br />
| boj || boj(e)- || || vel. || penis || n. || V || baɣi<br />
|-<br />
| bųdh || bųdha- || || vel. || chin || n. || VIII || buʔove<br />
|-<br />
| buim || bui(m)- || buįu || vel. || shine || v.it. || stat || buhuʔem<br />
|-<br />
| bunjių || bunjių- || ebjiu || vel. || dream || v.mt. || stat. || buŋiʔoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| -c || -ce || || pal. || with, and || prep. || || -xi<br />
|-<br />
| cai || cai || || vel. || but || par. || || xahe<br />
|-<br />
| canaceth || canaceth(e)- || || vel. || itch || n. || X || xanexifi<br />
|-<br />
| capang || capa(ng)- || || pal. || armpit, back of knee || n. || VIII || xepan<br />
|-<br />
| cawųã || cawųã- || || pal. || clan || n. || XI || xeluʔah<br />
|-<br />
| cecum || cecum(e)- || || pal. || settlement, village || n. || IX || xihumu (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| cedhung || cedhu(ng)- || ecdhuu || pal. || lift || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || xivihan<br />
|-<br />
| cendoi || cendoi- || ecndoi || pal. || be brave || v.it. || stat. || xemahi<br />
|-<br />
| cexeų || cexeų- || ecxeu || vel. || stir || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xexoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| cha || cha- || che || pal. || be beside || v.mt. || stat. || te<br />
|-<br />
| chasum || chasu(m)- || || pal. || neighbour || n. || I/II || te + sum<br />
|-<br />
| cheg || cheg(e)- || ezhgi || pal. || be after, follow || v.mt. || stat. || tigi<br />
|-<br />
| chex || chexo- || || pal. || eye || n. || IV || tiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chu || pal. || say || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiŋ<br />
|- <br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chiu || pal. || remember, know (a person) [when habitual] || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiʔeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| chuiã || chuiã- || chuii || pal. || tear || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || tiʔuheʔ<br />
|-<br />
| cind || cindi(nj)- || cindu || pal. || kill || v.mt. || dyn || ximiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| coįã || coįã- || || vel. || foreigner || n. || I/II || xaʔeh<br />
|-<br />
| coj || coj(e)- || ojji || vel. || be dry || v.it. || stat. || xaɣi<br />
|-<br />
| cuį || cuį- || cui || pal. || to lack || v.mt. || stat. || xiʔoʔi<br />
|-<br />
| cum || cum(e)- || ucmu || pal. || set up camp || v.it. || dyn. || xihumu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍã || ḍã- || || vel. || me || pron. || || doh<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaceting || ḍacetingo-/na- || ḍacetinga || vel. || be tired || v.it. || dyn. || doxipina<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaḍã || ḍaḍã- || aḍḍã || vel. || us (exclusive) || pron. || || doh (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| dajaįf || dajaįf(e)- || adjaįfu || pal. || split || v.mt. || dyn. || beɣeʔifu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaų || ḍaų-/į- || || vel. || rock || n. || VIII || doʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaxemam || ḍaxema(m)- || adxemou || vel. || lie (down) || v.it. || dyn. || doxomam<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeįj || ḍeįja- || || vel. || sun || n. || IV || duʔaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| ḍejh || ḍejha- || eḍjhe || vel. || lie (speak falsely) || v.it. || dyn. || dude<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeng || ḍe(ng)- || ḍau || vel. || want to do (mildly) || v.mt. || stat. 2 || don<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeveṭinen || ḍeveṭine- || eḍveṭinau || vel. || destroy || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || duvutunen <!-- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --><br />
|-<br />
| dhaceqaḍ || dhaceqaḍa- || || pal. || swallow || v.mt. || dyn. || vexikodo<br />
|-<br />
| dhain || dhai- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || vaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| dheci || dheci- || || pal. || swell, enlarge || v.it. || dyn. 2. || vixiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| dhemer || dhemere- || adhwer || pal. || move away from || v.mt. || dyn. || vemuri<br />
|-<br />
| dhįuą || dhįuą- || || pal. || be in pain || v.it. || dyn. || viʔihaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| di || di- || || pal. || take off, remove || v.mt. || dyn. || bihe<br />
|-<br />
| dindezh || dindezhe- || || pal. || buzz, groan, mumble || v.it. || dyn. || bimizi<br />
|-<br />
| dochof || dochofo- || (dochotho-) || pal. || meal || n. || III || betefa<br />
|-<br />
| doku || doku- || okku (doki-) || vel. || earth, soil || n. || VIII || bakiha<br />
|-<br />
| eq || eqo- || || vel. || we (exclusive) || pron. || || ruka<br />
|-<br />
| ewaį || ewaį- || [h] || vel. || be friendly || v.it. || stat. || ɣuloʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ezex || ezexa- || [h] (execa-) || vel. || kill in battle, slay || v.mt. || dyn. || guzuxa<br />
|-<br />
| faįx || faįho- || (faįro-) || vel. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || foʔira<br />
|-<br />
| famį || famį- || afwį || vel. || cook || v.mt. || dyn. || famuʔe<br />
|-<br />
| fehi || fehi- || || vel. || be to the east || v.it. || stat. || foɣuhe<br />
|-<br />
| gaxaihi || gaxaihi- || || pal. || be respected, renowned || v.it. || stat. || gexohiguŋ<br />
|-<br />
| gayai || gayai- || agyai || pal. || urinate || v.it. || dyn. || gelehe<br />
|-<br />
| gazou || gazou- || agzou || pal. || ancestor, grandfather, grandmother || n. || I/II || gezaho<br />
|-<br />
| gehaq || gehaho- || (gehago-) || pal. || seed || n. || III || giroga<br />
|-<br />
| gemahing || gemahi- || emmahing || pal. || enjoy || v.mt. || stat. || gemoɣun<br />
|-<br />
| genoį || genoį- || egroį || pal. || fingernail, toenail || n. || VIII || ginaʔi<br />
|-<br />
| geṭep || geṭepo- || (geṭet) || pal. || yawn || v.it. || dyn. || gitupa<br />
|-<br />
| i || ihe- || [h] || vel. || knee, elbow, shoulder, heel || n. || VIII || ruʔeŋu<br />
|-<br />
| iã || iã- || (past. u'i) || pal. || be above || v.mt. || stat. 3 || heh<br />
|-<br />
| įą || įą- || || pal. || hand, foot || n. || VIII || ʔiʔ <br />
|-<br />
| įb || įbo- || (įdo-) || pal. || be foolish || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiba<br />
|-<br />
| ibą || ibą- || (idą-) || pal. || cheek || n. || VIII || hebaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įbung || įbu- || įbi- || pal. || forest || n. || V || ʔebuhan<br />
|-<br />
| įc || įceho- || || pal. || sea || n. || IV || ʔexeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| įcebengaq || įcebengaha- || || pal. || swamp || n. || IV || įc 'sea' + bengaq 'shit'<br />
|-<br />
| įdh || įdha- || || pal. || be unreal, imaginary || v.it. || stat. || ʔive<br />
|-<br />
| įdodh || įdodha- || || pal. || construct || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔevave<br />
|-<br />
| įhą || įhą- || || pal. || arm, leg || n. || VIII || ʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įhoq || įhoqa- || || pal. || be small || v.it. || stat. || ʔegako<br />
|-<br />
| įk || įke- || || vel. || bite || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔaki<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || make noise || v.it. || dyn. || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || sound || n. || XI || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaų || įkaų- || || vel. || be wet || v.it. || stat. || ʔakeʔu<br />
|-<br />
| indai || indai- || || pal. || hold || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔemahe<br />
|-<br />
| indaįk || indaįka- || [h] || vel. || bend || v.it. || dyn. || gumeʔake<br />
|-<br />
| įndendoy || įndendoye- || || pal. || sense, know intuitively || v.mt. || stat. || ʔimemale<br />
|-<br />
| inding- || indin- || || vel. || high || det. || || hamin<br />
|-<br />
| ingi || ingi- || || pal. || food || n. || III || ʔenuhe<br />
|-<br />
| inem || ine- || || pal. || container || n. || VI || henem<br />
|-<br />
| įraį || įraį- || || vel. || faint, fall unconscious || v.it. || dyn. || ʔareʔi<br />
|-<br />
| įuį || įuį- || || pal. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔehohi<br />
|-<br />
| iuk || iuka- || || vel. || crack || v.it. || dyn. || huhoke<br />
|-<br />
| iutum || iutume- || || vel. || valley || n. || IX || ʔuhupimo<br />
|-<br />
| iųvam || iųva- || (iųdha-) || vel. || be narrow || v.it. || stat. || huʔuvam<br />
|-<br />
| id- || ib- || || vel. || many || det. || || hab-<br />
|-<br />
| įdh- || įv- || || pal. || far || det. || || ʔiv-<br />
|-<br />
| įw || įwo- || (įyo-) || pal. || be white || v.it. || stat. || ʔila<br />
|-<br />
| ix || iho- || (ijo-) || pal. || water (not for drinking) || n. || VII || heɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įx || įho- || (įjo-) || pal. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įyen || įyene- || || vel. || blink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔaleni<br />
|-<br />
| izhebã || izhebã- || (past: izhebi) || pal. || exchange, trade || v.dt. (indirect object is person you're trading with; other item being exchanged takes benefactive) || dyn. 3 || hezibuh<br />
|-<br />
| jaxaz || jaxaze- || || pal. || be thin || v.it. || stat. || ɣexozu<br />
|-<br />
| jehahou || jehahou- || (jehahoi-) || pal. || spot, boil || n. || VIII || ɣigaŋaha<br />
|-<br />
| jenaum || jenau- || ejraum- || pal. || be in the middle of; during || v.mt. || stat. || ɣeneʔum<br />
|-<br />
| jenjog || jenjoge- || || pal. || flower || n. || V || ɣeŋagi<br />
|-<br />
| jez || jezo- || || pal. || reach (for) || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣiza<br />
|-<br />
| jhaįcheją || jhaįcheją- || || pal. || ashes || n. || VIII || deʔatiɣeʔ <br />
|-<br />
| jhebou || jhebou- || ezhbou- || pal. || dye, paint || n. || VI || dibahe<br />
|-<br />
| jhexaųs || jhexaųso- || (eshxaųso-) || pal. || palm of hand, sole of foot || n. || VIII || dixoʔusa<br />
|-<br />
| jhezh || jhezhe- || || pal. || exist, be true || v.it. || stat. || dizi<br />
|-<br />
| jhihax || jhihaho- || (jhiharo-) || pal. || club, staff || n. || VI || diŋora<br />
|-<br />
| jinau || jinau- || (ijrau-) || pal. || wipe || v.mt. || dyn || ɣinehu<br />
|-<br />
| jinehą || jinehą- || ejrehą || pal. || heal || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣineŋoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| jojax || jojaho-/ro- || || vel. || be hot || v.it. || stat. || ɣaɣera<br />
|-<br />
| jųbov || jųbovo- || (jųbodho-) || pal. || corner || n. || XI || ɣiʔabava<br />
|-<br />
| kain || kaine- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || kaʔini<br />
|-<br />
| kash || kashe- || || pal. || blood || n. || VII || kesi<br />
|-<br />
| kaukau || kaukau- || || vel. || crow || n. || IV || onomatopoeic<br />
|-<br />
| kej || keja- || egja- || pal. || keep || v.mt. || stat. || kiɣe<br />
|-<br />
| kįd || kįda- || || pal. || think, feel || v.mt. || stat. || kiʔabe<br />
|-<br />
| kochum || kochumo- || okshum (kochindo-) || vel. || tongue || n. || IV || katima<br />
|-<br />
| kųq || kųha- || || pal. || be to the west || v.it. || stat. || kiʔago<br />
|-<br />
| mahoj || mahoja- || ehoj || vel. || breathe || v.it. || dyn. || mogaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| mang || ma- || || vel. || one || n. || XI || man<br />
|-<br />
| maner- || maneh- || || vel. || only || det. || || manir-<br />
|-<br />
| matanje || matanje- || antanje || vel. || skin || n. || IX || mopaŋeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| medų || medų- || undų- || vel. || forehead || n. || VIII || mubiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| megį || megį- || ingį || vel. || take || v.mt. || dyn. || mugiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| mepox || mepoha- || empox || vel. || horn || n. || VIII || muparo<br />
|-<br />
| meqey || meqeya- || iqey || vel. || beard || n. || VIII || mukule<br />
|-<br />
| meqong || meqongo- || iqong (meqono-) || vel. || kick || v.mt. || dyn. || mukana<br />
|-<br />
| mitur || miture- || intur || pal. || boat || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| modhai || modhai- || andhai || vel. || shrivel, shrink, decay || v.it. || dyn. || mavaʔiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| mop || mope- || ompe- || vel. || sea creature; covers fish, crabs etc. || n. || IV || mapu<br />
|-<br />
| mu || mu || || vel. || you (sing.) (acc.) || pron. || || muhu<br />
|-<br />
| mumã || mumã- || ummã || vel. || you (plural) (acc.) || pron. || || mumuh<br />
|-<br />
| naketh || nakethe- || enketh || pal. || animal || n. || IV || nekifi<br />
|-<br />
| nafam || nafa- || enfam (natha-) || pal. || wash || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ndaį || ndaį- || || pal. || bleat || v.it. || dyn. || meʔeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ndajeb || ndajebo- || endjeb || pal. || be dirty || v.it. || stat. || meɣiba<br />
|-<br />
| ndator || ndatore- || || pal. || art || n. || XI || mepare<br />
|-<br />
| ndedh || ndedha- || end'dha- || pal. || be rotten || v.it. || stat. || mive<br />
|-<br />
| ndewįth || ndewįthe- || endwįth || pal. || sword || n. || VI || miluʔafi<br />
|-<br />
| ndiųbą || ndiųbą- || (past: ndiųbaį) || pal. || bend || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || miʔoboʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ndochã || ndochã- || || vel. || a while; a long span of time || n. || X || mateh<br />
|-<br />
| ndotau || ndotau- || || vel. || be cruel || v.it. || dyn. || mapeho<br />
|-<br />
| ndoth || ndotha- || || vel. || make sth. turn into sth. || v.dt (indirect object = thing being transformed) || dyn. || mafe<br />
|-<br />
| newaų || newaų- || (newaį) || pal. || star || n. || XI || niloʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngaįv || ngaįva- || eįngva- || vel. || blow || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ngasazhin || ngasazhi- || esazhin || vel. || claw, talon || n. || VIII || ŋosozin<br />
|-<br />
| ngasoq || ngasohe- || angsoq || vel. || complete || v.mt. || dyn || nosagu<br />
|-<br />
| ngaųi || ngaųi- || || vel. || breast || n. || VIII || naʔohi<br />
|-<br />
| ngax || ngahe- || || vel. || guts, entrails || n. || VIII || noru<br />
|-<br />
| nge || nge- || || vel. || see || v.mt. || dyn. || nu<br />
|-<br />
| ngek || ngeke- || || vel. || head, face || n. || IV || noki<br />
|-<br />
| ngeyem || ngeye- || iyem || vel. || be ill || v.it. || stat. 2 || ŋulem<br />
|-<br />
| ngįą || ngįą- || (past: ngųį) || vel. || be big || v.it. || stat. 3 || ŋuʔeʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ngin || ngi- || || vel. || use || v.mt. || dyn. 2. || ŋun<br />
|-<br />
| nginin || ngini- || || vel. || steal || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || ŋunin<br />
|-<br />
| ngoḍox || ngoḍohe- || || vel. || nickname || n. || XI || nadaru<br />
|-<br />
| ngopoų || ngopoų- || ampoų (ngopoį-) || vel. || walk || v.it. || dyn. || ŋapaʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngozhebe || ngozhebe- || azhebe || vel. || squeeze || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋaziboŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ni || ni- || || pal. || you (plural) || pron. || || niŋ<br />
|-<br />
| njehaų || njehaų- || ihaų (njehaį-) || pal. || hair, fur || n. || VIII || ŋigoʔa<br />
|-<br />
| njeįrum || njeįri- || || pal. || be weak || v.it. || stat. || ŋeʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| nordan || norda- || || vel. || bow || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| njoįth || njoįtha- || aįnth || vel. || be clean || v.it. || stat. || ŋaʔife<br />
|-<br />
| njoix || njoihe- || || vel. || approach || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋahiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| njįp || njįpe- || įmpe- || pal. || be grieving || v.it. || stat. || ŋiʔipu<br />
|-<br />
| noiji || noiji- || ainji- || vel. || lip || n. || VIII || naheɣih<br />
|-<br />
| nojem || noje || anjjem || vel. || suck || v.mt. || dyn. || naɣem<br />
|-<br />
| nuhedh || nuhedha- || || pal. || lake || n. || VII || nihoruve<br />
|-<br />
| o || o- || [h] || vel. || be before, precede || v.mt. || stat. || ɣa<br />
|-<br />
| oqajhi || oqajhinja- || [h] || vel. || family || n. || XI || rakodiŋo<br />
|-<br />
| oich || oicha- || [h] || vel. || ant or other tiny creature || n. || IV || rahate<br />
|-<br />
| oiup || oiupa- || [h] || vel. || enter || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu 'start' + hopo 'pass through'<br />
|-<br />
| omban || ombane- || [h] || pal. || flower || n. || V || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| ou || ou- || [h] || vel. || begin, start || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu<br />
|-<br />
| ouiã || ouiã- || (past: oui) || vel. || climb || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu + heh<br />
|-<br />
| ov || ovo- || || vel. || get, obtain || v.mt. || dyn. || gava<br />
|-<br />
| ovum || ovi- || || vel. || belly || n. || VIII || gavum<br />
|-<br />
| paun- || paung- || || vel. || all || det. || || pahon-<br />
|-<br />
| paųze || paųze- || || vel. || be round || v.it. || stat. 2 || paʔazuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| pawazą || pawazą- || apwazą || vel. || stab || v.mt. || dyn. || palazoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| pehez || peheza- || || vel. || be satisfied with || v.mt. || stat. || puɣuzo<br />
|-<br />
| per || pere- || epre- || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || puri<br />
|-<br />
| poher || pohere- || || vel. || be to the south || v.it. || stat. || paɣuri<br />
|-<br />
| pof || pofo- || (potho-) || vel. || be full || v.it. || stat || pafa<br />
|-<br />
| qahen || qahena- || || vel. || help || v.it. || dyn. || kogone<br />
|-<br />
| qawang || qawange- || oqwang || vel. || explore, wander || v.it. || dyn. || kolanu<br />
|-<br />
| qe || qe- || || vel. || thing || n. || (varies) || ku<br />
|-<br />
| qec || qece- || ekce- || vel. || soft object || n. || VIII || kuxi<br />
|-<br />
| qehoq || qehoqe- || || vel. || grunt || v.it. || dyn. || kuraku<br />
|-<br />
| qing || qinge- || || vel. || gravel || n. || VIII || kunu<br />
|-<br />
| qiu || qiu- || || vel. || jump || v.it. || dyn. || kuʔaho<br />
|-<br />
| qoḍex || qoḍeha- || || vel. || spit || v.it. || dyn. || kaduro<br />
|-<br />
| rang || ranga- || || pal. || be straight || v.it. || stat. || rano<br />
|-<br />
| rauį || rauį- || || pal. || be red || v.it. || stat. || rehiʔi<br />
|-<br />
| reįb || reįbe- || || pal. || be black || v.it. || stat. || riʔebu<br />
|-<br />
| reim || reime- || || pal. || give || v.dt. || dyn. || reʔimu<br />
|-<br />
| reqeyą || reqeyą- || erqeyą (past: erqeyai) || pal. || join to, marry || v.mt. || dyn. || rekoleʔ<br />
|-<br />
| redh- || rev- || || pal. || few || det. || || riv-<br />
|-<br />
| rokex || rokehe- || orkex || vel. || float || v.it. || dyn. || rakiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| saḍã || saḍã- || azḍã (past: saḍai)|| vel. || slip || v.it. || dyn. 3. || sodoh<br />
|-<br />
| saḍajheų || saḍajheų- || azḍajheų || vel. || hide, fur || n. || VIII || sododiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| sang || sange- || || vel. || cry || v.it. || dyn. || sanu<br />
|-<br />
| Sąr || Sąre- || || pal. || a tree goddess || n. || IV || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || fulfill (an intended action) || v.mt. || dyn. || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || success || n. || XI || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sasath || sasathe- || assath || vel. || understand || v.mt. || dyn. || redup. sofi 'hear'<br />
|-<br />
| sated || sateda- || || vel. || learn || v.mt. || dyn. || sopibe<br />
|-<br />
| sath || sathe- || || vel. || hear || v.mt. || dyn. || sofi<br />
|-<br />
| seṭ || seṭo- || (secho-) || vel. || exceed || v.mt. || stat || suta<br />
|-<br />
| seth || sethe- || || vel. || sky || n. || IX || sufi<br />
|-<br />
| sheḍaq || sheḍaho- || ezhḍax || pal. || complete, accomplish || v.mt. || dyn || sidoga<br />
|-<br />
| shehumuįhą || shehumuįhą- || (past: shehumuįhi) || pal. || summon || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || sigumuŋ 'bring' + huʔeɣuʔ 'ask'<br />
|-<br />
| shehumu || shehumu- || ezh'humu || pal. || bring || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || sigumuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| shek || sheka- || || pal. || be more || v.it. || stat. || sike<br />
|-<br />
| shexaung || shexaungo- || eshxaung || pal. || spear || n. || VI || sixaʔuna<br />
|-<br />
| shez || shezo- || (shezho-) || pal. || dog || n. || IV || seza<br />
|-<br />
| shaqath || shaqathe- || ashkath || pal. || fight || v.mt. || dyn. || sekofi<br />
|-<br />
| shu || shu- || || pal. || take (a time), span (a length) || v.mt. || stat. || sihu<br />
|-<br />
| shum || shu- || || pal. || happen || v.it. || dyn. 2 || sim<br />
|-<br />
| sing || si- || || vel. || you (sing.) || pron. || || sun<br />
|-<br />
| souhash || souhashe- || || vel. || egg || n. || III || sahuɣose<br />
|-<br />
| sub || sube- || uzbe- || vel. || we (inclusive) || pron. || || sun + bu<br />
|-<br />
| sum || su- || || vel. || human being || n. || I/II || sum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭa || ṭa- || (cha-) || vel. || if || par. || || taŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭahes || ṭahese- || || vel. || craft (a tool) || v.mt. || dyn. || torusu<br />
|-<br />
| tan || tane- || || vel. || put somewhere || v.dt. (indirect object = thing you're putting, direct object = where you're putting it) || dyn. || pani<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || be within || v.mt. || stat. || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || womb || n. || IX || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| ṭare || ṭare- || aṭre || vel. || sibling, cousin || n. || I/II || toreŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭaseq || ṭaseha- || aṭseq || vel. || wear || v.mt. || dyn. || tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| ṭasehak || ṭasehake- || aṭsehak || vel. || clothes || n. || VI || from tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| tau || tau- || (tai-) || pal. || heart || n. || VI || pehaŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭauzind || ṭauzinda- || auḍzind || vel. || ride || v.it. || dyn. || tohazume<br />
|-<br />
| tegi || tegi- || eggi- || pal. || mouth || n. || IV || pigiŋ <br />
|-<br />
| ṭekaį || ṭekaį- || ekkaį- || vel. || older brother || n. || I || tukeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| tepum || tepi- || eppum || pal. || ear || n. || IV || pipum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭeq || ṭeqahe- || eqqa || vel. || hurt || v.mt. || dyn. || tukaŋu<br />
|-<br />
| tha || tha- || || pal. || come || v.it. || dyn. || fe<br />
|-<br />
| thakad || thakade- || || pal. || work || v.it. || dyn. || fekebi<br />
|-<br />
| thehesh || thehesha- || || pal. || wasp, bee or other stinging creature || n. || IV || fiɣusi<br />
|-<br />
| thetaw || thetawo- || ethtaw (thetayo-) || pal. || seek, search for || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fipela<br />
|-<br />
| thind || thinda- || || pal. || woman || n. || II || fihime<br />
|-<br />
| thųṭum || thųṭu- || || pal. || lick || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fiʔutum<br />
|-<br />
| tojadhing || tojadhinge- || odjadhing || vel. || mix || v.mt. (one thing being mixed takes dative, other thing takes comitative) || dyn. || paɣevinu <br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || ṭoho- || (ṭogo-) || vel. || cliff, edge || n. || VIII || taga<br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || toqa- || oqqa- || vel. || drinking water || n. || III || tako<br />
|-<br />
| ṭųpau || ṭųpau- || ųppau || vel. || be to the north || v.it. || stat. || tuʔupahu<br />
|-<br />
| ug || uge- || || vel. || hill or single mountain || n. || VIII || hogi<br />
|-<br />
| unjã || unjã- || (past: unjai) || vel. || make dirty || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. 3 || ʔuŋeh<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: iu) || vel. || cause || v.mt. || dyn. 2 (irregular) || ʔoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: įdha) || vel. || exist, be, be true || v.it. || stat. || ho<br />
|-<br />
| ųc || ųce- || || vel. || be unfortunate, unlucky || v.it. || stat. || ʔoxi<br />
|-<br />
| uchand || uchanda- || || vel. || fart || v.it. || dyn. || hutame<br />
|-<br />
| ufox || ufohe- || || vel. || bark, complain || v.it. || dyn. || hufaru<br />
|-<br />
| uhoqeq || uhoqeqa- || || vel. || burn, boil || v.it. || dyn. || huŋakuko<br />
|-<br />
| ųhu || ųhu- || (ųhi-) || vel. || grip || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔuruha<br />
|-<br />
| uįhą || uįhą- || (past: uįhi) || vel. || ask || v.mt. || dyn. || huʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| uim || ui- || || vel. || side || n. || XI || hahim <br />
|-<br />
| uįm || uįmo- || (uįndo-) || pal. || be sweet || v.it. || stat. || heʔima<br />
|-<br />
| uįqu || uįqu- (past: uįqui) || || vel. || split || v.dt. || dyn. 3 || huʔekuh<br />
|-<br />
| uįrum || uįri- || || vel. || be wise || v.it. || stat. 2 || hoʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| uiy- || uiw- || || pal. || single || det. || || hihal-<br />
|-<br />
| uiy || uiy || || pal. || often || par. || || heheli-<br />
|-<br />
| uiyenã || uiyenã- || || pal. || a single hair or whisker || n. || VIII || hihaleneh<br />
|-<br />
| uizh || uizhe- || || vel. || neck || n. || VIII || huhizi<br />
|-<br />
| ųk || ųka- || || vel. || laugh || v.it. || dyn. || ʔake<br />
|-<br />
| ųkoth || ųkothe- || || vel. || mountains || n. || IX || ʔokafi<br />
|-<br />
| umejh || umejha- || || vel. || have honour || v.it. || stat. || humude<br />
|-<br />
| ųm || ųme- || || vel. || hit || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔamu<br />
|-<br />
| ųmų || ųmų- || [h] (ųmį-) || vel. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ruʔomuʔa<br />
|-<br />
| unajh || unajha- || || vel. || be dull (i.e. not shiny) || v.it. || stat. || ʔonode<br />
|-<br />
| ųnjaįn || ųnjaį- || || vel. || eat or drink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔuŋaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| up || upa- || || vel. || pass through || v.mt. || dyn. || hopo<br />
|-<br />
| us || use- || || vel. || be young || v.it. || stat. 2 || husoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ut || ute- || || vel. || be strong || v.it || stat. || hopi<br />
|-<br />
| ųyį || ųyį- || || vel. || rub || v.mt. || dyn. || rub<br />
|-<br />
| ųzeng || ųze- || || vel. || sand || n. || VIII || ʔazon<br />
|-<br />
| uzhec || uzheca- || || vel. || travel || v.it. || dyn. || huzixe<br />
|-<br />
| vaheḍaḍ || vaheḍaḍe- || || vel. || attack, strike || v.mt. || dyn. || vaŋudodo<br />
|-<br />
| vaib || vaibo- || || vel. || sing || v.it. || dyn. || vohibo<br />
|-<br />
| vaw || vawe- || avwe- || vel. || name || v.dt. (person being named takes dative) || dyn. || volu<br />
|-<br />
| vayash || vayasha- || avyash || pal. || quarrel, dispute, argue || v.it. || dyn. || volese<br />
|-<br />
| vepeuqã || vepeuqã- || || vel. || testicles || n. || VIII || vupuhokoh<br />
|-<br />
| veqew || veqewo-/yo- || || vel. || be cold || v.it. || stat. || vukula<br />
|-<br />
| vex || veho- || (vero-) || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || vura<br />
|-<br />
| vį || vį- || || pal. || do, perform || v.mt. || dyn. || vuʔi<br />
|-<br />
| vobaub || vobaube- || || vel. || be satisified, content, happy || v.it. || stat. || vabohobu<br />
|-<br />
| wamer || wamere- || awmer || vel. || dusk || n. || XI || lomuri<br />
|-<br />
| wangox || wangoxo- || (wangoco-) || vel. || hide || v.it. || dyn. || lanaxa<br />
|-<br />
| weun || weu- || || vel. || lie || v.it. || dyn. || lohun<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhã || wefezhã- || (past: wefezhei) || vel. || dig || v.it. || dyn. || lufuzeh<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhãsh || wefezhãsha- || || vel. || worm || n. || IV || from lufuzeh 'dig'<br />
|-<br />
| wo || wo- || || vel. || resemble, be similar to || v.mt. || stat. || la<br />
|-<br />
| woḍe || woḍenja- || || vel. || rest || v.it. || dyn. || ladoŋe<br />
|-<br />
| wosh- || wos- || || vel. || other || det. || || las<br />
|-<br />
| wot || wop- || || vel. || close || det. || || lap<br />
|-<br />
| wopaṭi || wopaṭi- || || vel. || protect || v.mt. || stat. 2 || lapotuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| xachez || xacheze- || || vel. || root || n. || V || xotizu<br />
|-<br />
| xaḍi || xaḍi- || || vel. || teach || v.mt. || dyn. || xaduhi<br />
|-<br />
| xahes || xahesa- || || vel. || be angry || v.it. || dyn. || xoruso<br />
|-<br />
| xeng || xengo- || || vel. || small stick, arrow || n. || VIII || xona<br />
|-<br />
| xepad || xepada- || || vel. || leave || v.it. || dyn. || xupobe<br />
|-<br />
| xip || xipa- || || vel. || stretch || v.it. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xuhepo<br />
|-<br />
| xob || xobe- || || vel. || dust || n. || VIII || xabu<br />
|-<br />
| xohox || xohoxe- || || vel. || chant || v.it. || dyn. || xararu<br />
|-<br />
| xoṭ || xoṭa- || || vel. || put down, place || v.mt. || dyn. || xato<br />
|-<br />
| xou || xou || || vel. || then || par. || || xaho <br />
|-<br />
| xurs || xurs || || pal. || obligation, promise || n. || XI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| yaif || yaifa- || || pal. || child || n. || I || lehifo<br />
|-<br />
| yatorą || yatorą- || || pal. || wake up || v.it. || stat. || lepareʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yecahen || yecahe- || || pal. || bank, shore || n. || IX || lixeɣon<br />
|-<br />
| yedaz || yedaze- || || pal. || attach || v.dt. (thing you're attaching it to takes dative) || dyn. || libezu<br />
|-<br />
| yehą || yehą- || (yegą-; past: yehoi) || pal. || be dead || v.it. || stat. 3 || ligaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yehu || yehu- || || pal. || older sister || n. || II || liguhu<br />
|-<br />
| yeį || yeį- || || pal. || grow || v.it. || dyn. || leheʔi<br />
|-<br />
| yį || yį- || || pal. || fire || n. || IV || liʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zashą || zashą- || asshą (past: zashai) || vel. || fall || v.it. || dyn. 3 || zaseʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zave || zave- || azve || vel. || drink || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || zovun <br />
|-<br />
| zeį || zeį- || || vel. || smell || v.mt. || dyn. || zoʔe<br />
|-<br />
| zhate || zhateho- || ashte || pal. || endure, suffer || v.mt. || dyn. || zepeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| zhateshų || zhateshų- || ashteshų || pal. || be ashamed || v.it. || stat. || zepisiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| zhe || zhe- || || pal. || be the same as || v.mt. || stat. || zi<br />
|-<br />
| zheįg || zheįga- || || pal. || boulder || n. || VIII || zeʔige<br />
|-<br />
| zheqof || zheqofe- || eshkof || pal. || smoke || n. || IV || zikafu<br />
|-<br />
| zheṭ || zheṭe- || || pal. || be over || v.mt. || stat. || zitu<br />
|-<br />
| zhey- || zhew- || || pal. || same || det. || || zil-<br />
|-<br />
| zhum || zhu- || || pal. || nose || n. || IV || zihom<br />
|-<br />
| zocachex || zocachehe- || || vel. || rule, have power over || v.mt. || stat. || zaxetiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| zoq || zohe- || || vel. || follow (as in be guided) || v.mt. || dyn. || zagu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lexicography]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/Wendoth/LexiconWendoth/Lexicon2011-12-23T20:15:36Z<p>Alces: </p>
<hr />
<div>An explanation of this table:<br />
* The first column gives the root with no suffix attached, or the velarised form of determiner roots.<br />
* The second column gives the form of the stem when a suffix is added. If this form shows a palatalisation alternation, that will be given afterwards in brackets.<br />
* The third column gives notes on morphology.<br />
** It gives the transformed form, if irregular.<br />
** For verbs, it shows the past form.<br />
** For words that have an initial '''h''' appearing only when a prefix is added, it is marked here by adding [h].<br />
* The fourth column gives whether the root palatalises or velarising preceding prefixes.<br />
* The fifth column gives the gloss.<br />
* The sixth column gives the part of speech, which may be:<br />
** n. - noun<br />
** v.it - intransitive verb (no obligatory object)<br />
** v.mt - monotransitive verb (obligatory accusative object)<br />
** v.dt - ditransitive verb (obligatory accusative and dative objects)<br />
** d. - determiner<br />
** par. - particle<br />
** prep. - preposition clitic<br />
** For verbs, any notes about the case of its arguments may also be added.<br />
* The seventh column gives additional information about the part of speech.<br />
** For nouns, it gives the noun class as a Roman numeral.<br />
** For verbs, it says whether it's static or dynamic and the conjugation if it's not the first one.<br />
* The eighth column gives the word's Pre-Wendoth root.<br />
<br />
This does not include transparent derivations.<br />
<br />
''330 words''<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}<br />
|-<br />
! Standalone<br />
! Stem<br />
! Morphology<br />
! Prefix effect<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Type<br />
! Class<br />
! Pre-Wendoth<br />
|-<br />
| acau || acau || [h] || vel. || man || n. || I || goxeho<br />
|-<br />
| ahezh || ahezh(e)- || [h] || vel. || fog, mist || n. || VII || goɣuzi<br />
|-<br />
| atįv || atįva- || atįve [h] || vel. || press || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣopiʔevo<br />
|-<br />
| au || au(h)- || auu [h] || vel. || touch, affect || v.mt. || dyn. || gohoŋ <br />
|-<br />
| avex || aveha- || avehe [h] || vel. || trust || v.mt. || stat. || rovuro<br />
|-<br />
| awex || awexo-/co- || awexa [h] || vel. || moon || n. || IV || golura<br />
|-<br />
| azhesang || azhesa(ng)- || azhesou [h] || vel. || crawl || v.it. || dyn. 2 || gozisan<br />
|-<br />
| baḍeuin || baḍeui(n)- || abḍeuiu || vel. || battle || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || bodohahin<br />
|-<br />
| barqat || barqata- || arbqate || vel. || kneel || v.it. || dyn. || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| baw || bawa- || abwe || vel. || carry || v.mt. || dyn. || bolo<br />
|-<br />
| be || b(e)- || || vel. || I || pron. || || bu<br />
|-<br />
| bechep || bechepa- || || vel. || hip || n. || VIII || butipo<br />
|-<br />
| bengaq || bengaha- || || vel. || shit || n. || VIII || bonogo<br />
|-<br />
| bodhoth || bodhoth(e)- || || vel. || wilderness || n. || IX || bavafi<br />
|-<br />
| boj || boj(e)- || || vel. || penis || n. || V || baɣi<br />
|-<br />
| bųdh || bųdha- || || vel. || chin || n. || VIII || buʔove<br />
|-<br />
| bunjių || bunjių- || ebjiu || vel. || dream || v.mt. || stat. || buŋiʔoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| -c || -ce || || pal. || with, and || prep. || || -xi<br />
|-<br />
| cai || cai || || vel. || but || par. || || xahe<br />
|-<br />
| canaceth || canaceth(e)- || || vel. || itch || n. || X || xanexifi<br />
|-<br />
| capang || capa(ng)- || || pal. || armpit, back of knee || n. || VIII || xepan<br />
|-<br />
| cawųã || cawųã- || || pal. || clan || n. || XI || xeluʔah<br />
|-<br />
| cecum || cecum(e)- || || pal. || settlement, village || n. || IX || xihumu (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| cedhung || cedhu(ng)- || ecdhuu || pal. || lift || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || xivihan<br />
|-<br />
| cendoi || cendoi- || ecndoi || pal. || be brave || v.it. || stat. || xemahi<br />
|-<br />
| cexeų || cexeų- || ecxeu || vel. || stir || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xexoʔo<br />
|-<br />
| cha || cha- || che || pal. || be beside || v.mt. || stat. || te<br />
|-<br />
| chasum || chasu(m)- || || pal. || neighbour || n. || I/II || te + sum<br />
|-<br />
| cheg || cheg(e)- || ezhgi || pal. || be after, follow || v.mt. || stat. || tigi<br />
|-<br />
| chex || chexo- || || pal. || eye || n. || IV || tiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chu || pal. || say || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiŋ<br />
|- <br />
| chi || chi(nj)- || chiu || pal. || remember, know (a person) [when habitual] || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || tiʔeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| chuiã || chuiã- || chuii || pal. || tear || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || tiʔuheʔ<br />
|-<br />
| cind || cindi(nj)- || cindu || pal. || kill || v.mt. || dyn || ximiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| coįã || coįã- || || vel. || foreigner || n. || I/II || xaʔeh<br />
|-<br />
| coj || coj(e)- || ojji || vel. || be dry || v.it. || stat. || xaɣi<br />
|-<br />
| cuį || cuį- || cui || pal. || to lack || v.mt. || stat. || xiʔoʔi<br />
|-<br />
| cum || cum(e)- || ucmu || pal. || set up camp || v.it. || dyn. || xihumu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍã || ḍã- || || vel. || me || pron. || || doh<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaceting || ḍacetingo-/na- || ḍacetinga || vel. || be tired || v.it. || dyn. || doxipina<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaḍã || ḍaḍã- || aḍḍã || vel. || us (exclusive) || pron. || || doh (reduplicated)<br />
|-<br />
| dajaįf || dajaįf(e)- || adjaįfu || pal. || split || v.mt. || dyn. || beɣeʔifu<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaų || ḍaų-/į- || || vel. || rock || n. || VIII || doʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ḍaxemam || ḍaxema(m)- || adxemou || vel. || lie (down) || v.it. || dyn. || doxomam<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeįj || ḍeįja- || || vel. || sun || n. || IV || duʔaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| ḍejh || ḍejha- || eḍjhe || vel. || lie (speak falsely) || v.it. || dyn. || dude<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeng || ḍe(ng)- || ḍau || vel. || want to do (mildly) || v.mt. || stat. 2 || don<br />
|-<br />
| ḍeveṭinen || ḍeveṭine- || eḍveṭinau || vel. || destroy || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || duvutunen <!-- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --><br />
|-<br />
| dhaceqaḍ || dhaceqaḍa- || || pal. || swallow || v.mt. || dyn. || vexikodo<br />
|-<br />
| dhain || dhai- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || vaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| dheci || dheci- || || pal. || swell, enlarge || v.it. || dyn. 2. || vixiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| dhemer || dhemere- || adhwer || pal. || move away from || v.mt. || dyn. || vemuri<br />
|-<br />
| dhįuą || dhįuą- || || pal. || be in pain || v.it. || dyn. || viʔihaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| di || di- || || pal. || take off, remove || v.mt. || dyn. || bihe<br />
|-<br />
| dindezh || dindezhe- || || pal. || buzz, groan, mumble || v.it. || dyn. || bimizi<br />
|-<br />
| dochof || dochofo- || (dochotho-) || pal. || meal || n. || III || betefa<br />
|-<br />
| doku || doku- || okku (doki-) || vel. || earth, soil || n. || VIII || bakiha<br />
|-<br />
| eq || eqo- || || vel. || we (exclusive) || pron. || || ruka<br />
|-<br />
| ewaį || ewaį- || [h] || vel. || be friendly || v.it. || stat. || ɣuloʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ezex || ezexa- || [h] (execa-) || vel. || kill in battle, slay || v.mt. || dyn. || guzuxa<br />
|-<br />
| faįx || faįho- || (faįro-) || vel. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || foʔira<br />
|-<br />
| famį || famį- || afwį || vel. || cook || v.mt. || dyn. || famuʔe<br />
|-<br />
| fehi || fehi- || || vel. || be to the east || v.it. || stat. || foɣuhe<br />
|-<br />
| gaxaihi || gaxaihi- || || pal. || be respected, renowned || v.it. || stat. || gexohiguŋ<br />
|-<br />
| gayai || gayai- || agyai || pal. || urinate || v.it. || dyn. || gelehe<br />
|-<br />
| gazou || gazou- || agzou || pal. || ancestor, grandfather, grandmother || n. || I/II || gezaho<br />
|-<br />
| gehaq || gehaho- || (gehago-) || pal. || seed || n. || III || giroga<br />
|-<br />
| gemahing || gemahi- || emmahing || pal. || enjoy || v.mt. || stat. || gemoɣun<br />
|-<br />
| genoį || genoį- || egroį || pal. || fingernail, toenail || n. || VIII || ginaʔi<br />
|-<br />
| geṭep || geṭepo- || (geṭet) || pal. || yawn || v.it. || dyn. || gitupa<br />
|-<br />
| i || ihe- || [h] || vel. || knee, elbow, shoulder, heel || n. || VIII || ruʔeŋu<br />
|-<br />
| iã || iã- || (past. u'i) || pal. || be above || v.mt. || stat. 3 || heh<br />
|-<br />
| įą || įą- || || pal. || hand, foot || n. || VIII || ʔiʔ <br />
|-<br />
| įb || įbo- || (įdo-) || pal. || be foolish || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiba<br />
|-<br />
| ibą || ibą- || (idą-) || pal. || cheek || n. || VIII || hebaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įbung || įbu- || įbi- || pal. || forest || n. || V || ʔebuhan<br />
|-<br />
| įc || įceho- || || pal. || sea || n. || IV || ʔexeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| įcebengaq || įcebengaha- || || pal. || swamp || n. || IV || įc 'sea' + bengaq 'shit'<br />
|-<br />
| įdh || įdha- || || pal. || be unreal, imaginary || v.it. || stat. || ʔive<br />
|-<br />
| įdodh || įdodha- || || pal. || construct || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔevave<br />
|-<br />
| įhą || įhą- || || pal. || arm, leg || n. || VIII || ʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| įhoq || įhoqa- || || pal. || be small || v.it. || stat. || ʔegako<br />
|-<br />
| įk || įke- || || vel. || bite || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔaki<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || make noise || v.it. || dyn. || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaq || įkaho- || (įkago-) || vel. || sound || n. || XI || ʔakega<br />
|-<br />
| įkaų || įkaų- || || vel. || be wet || v.it. || stat. || ʔakeʔu<br />
|-<br />
| indai || indai- || || pal. || hold || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔemahe<br />
|-<br />
| indaįk || indaįka- || [h] || vel. || bend || v.it. || dyn. || gumeʔake<br />
|-<br />
| įndendoy || įndendoye- || || pal. || sense, know intuitively || v.mt. || stat. || ʔimemale<br />
|-<br />
| inding- || indin- || || vel. || high || det. || || hamin<br />
|-<br />
| ingi || ingi- || || pal. || food || n. || III || ʔenuhe<br />
|-<br />
| inem || ine- || || pal. || container || n. || VI || henem<br />
|-<br />
| įraį || įraį- || || vel. || faint, fall unconscious || v.it. || dyn. || ʔareʔi<br />
|-<br />
| įuį || įuį- || || pal. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔehohi<br />
|-<br />
| iuk || iuka- || || vel. || crack || v.it. || dyn. || huhoke<br />
|-<br />
| iutum || iutume- || || vel. || valley || n. || IX || ʔuhupimo<br />
|-<br />
| iųvam || iųva- || (iųdha-) || vel. || be narrow || v.it. || stat. || huʔuvam<br />
|-<br />
| id- || ib- || || vel. || many || det. || || hab-<br />
|-<br />
| įdh- || įv- || || pal. || far || det. || || ʔiv-<br />
|-<br />
| įw || įwo- || (įyo-) || pal. || be white || v.it. || stat. || ʔila<br />
|-<br />
| ix || iho- || (ijo-) || pal. || water (not for drinking) || n. || VII || heɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įx || įho- || (įjo-) || pal. || sleep || v.it. || dyn. || ʔiɣa<br />
|-<br />
| įyen || įyene- || || vel. || blink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔaleni<br />
|-<br />
| izhebã || izhebã- || (past: izhebi) || pal. || exchange, trade || v.dt. (indirect object is person you're trading with; other item being exchanged takes benefactive) || dyn. 3 || hezibuh<br />
|-<br />
| jaxaz || jaxaze- || || pal. || be thin || v.it. || stat. || ɣexozu<br />
|-<br />
| jehahou || jehahou- || (jehahoi-) || pal. || spot, boil || n. || VIII || ɣigaŋaha<br />
|-<br />
| jenaum || jenau- || ejraum- || pal. || be in the middle of; during || v.mt. || stat. || ɣeneʔum<br />
|-<br />
| jenjog || jenjoge- || || pal. || flower || n. || V || ɣeŋagi<br />
|-<br />
| jez || jezo- || || pal. || reach (for) || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣiza<br />
|-<br />
| jhaįcheją || jhaįcheją- || || pal. || ashes || n. || VIII || deʔatiɣeʔ <br />
|-<br />
| jhebou || jhebou- || ezhbou- || pal. || dye, paint || n. || VI || dibahe<br />
|-<br />
| jhexaųs || jhexaųso- || (eshxaųso-) || pal. || palm of hand, sole of foot || n. || VIII || dixoʔusa<br />
|-<br />
| jhezh || jhezhe- || || pal. || exist, be true || v.it. || stat. || dizi<br />
|-<br />
| jhihax || jhihaho- || (jhiharo-) || pal. || club, staff || n. || VI || diŋora<br />
|-<br />
| jinau || jinau- || (ijrau-) || pal. || wipe || v.mt. || dyn || ɣinehu<br />
|-<br />
| jinehą || jinehą- || ejrehą || pal. || heal || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣineŋoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| jųbov || jųbovo- || (jųbodho-) || pal. || corner || n. || XI || ɣiʔabava<br />
|-<br />
| kain || kaine- || || vel. || tail || n. || VIII || kaʔini<br />
|-<br />
| kash || kashe- || || pal. || blood || n. || VII || kesi<br />
|-<br />
| kaukau || kaukau- || || vel. || crow || n. || IV || onomatopoeic<br />
|-<br />
| kej || keja- || egja- || pal. || keep || v.mt. || stat. || kiɣe<br />
|-<br />
| kįd || kįda- || || pal. || think, feel || v.mt. || stat. || kiʔabe<br />
|-<br />
| kochum || kochumo- || okshum (kochindo-) || vel. || tongue || n. || IV || katima<br />
|-<br />
| kųq || kųha- || || pal. || be to the west || v.it. || stat. || kiʔago<br />
|-<br />
| mahoj || mahoja- || ehoj || vel. || breathe || v.it. || dyn. || mogaɣe<br />
|-<br />
| mang || ma- || || vel. || one || n. || XI || man<br />
|-<br />
| maner- || maneh- || || vel. || only || det. || || manir-<br />
|-<br />
| matanje || matanje- || antanje || vel. || skin || n. || IX || mopaŋeŋ<br />
|-<br />
| medų || medų- || undų- || vel. || forehead || n. || VIII || mubiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| megį || megį- || ingį || vel. || take || v.mt. || dyn. || mugiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| mepox || mepoha- || empox || vel. || horn || n. || VIII || muparo<br />
|-<br />
| meqey || meqeya- || iqey || vel. || beard || n. || VIII || mukule<br />
|-<br />
| meqong || meqongo- || iqong (meqono-) || vel. || kick || v.mt. || dyn. || mukana<br />
|-<br />
| mitur || miture- || intur || pal. || boat || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| modhai || modhai- || andhai || vel. || shrivel, shrink, decay || v.it. || dyn. || mavaʔiŋ<br />
|-<br />
| mop || mope- || ompe- || vel. || sea creature; covers fish, crabs etc. || n. || IV || mapu<br />
|-<br />
| mu || mu || || vel. || you (sing.) (acc.) || pron. || || muhu<br />
|-<br />
| mumã || mumã- || ummã || vel. || you (plural) (acc.) || pron. || || mumuh<br />
|-<br />
| naketh || nakethe- || enketh || pal. || animal || n. || IV || nekifi<br />
|-<br />
| nafam || nafa- || enfam (natha-) || pal. || wash || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ndaį || ndaį- || || pal. || bleat || v.it. || dyn. || meʔeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| ndajeb || ndajebo- || endjeb || pal. || be dirty || v.it. || stat. || meɣiba<br />
|-<br />
| ndator || ndatore- || || pal. || art || n. || XI || mepare<br />
|-<br />
| ndedh || ndedha- || end'dha- || pal. || be rotten || v.it. || stat. || mive<br />
|-<br />
| ndewįth || ndewįthe- || endwįth || pal. || sword || n. || VI || miluʔafi<br />
|-<br />
| ndiųbą || ndiųbą- || (past: ndiųbaį) || pal. || bend || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || miʔoboʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ndochã || ndochã- || || vel. || a while; a long span of time || n. || X || mateh<br />
|-<br />
| ndotau || ndotau- || || vel. || be cruel || v.it. || dyn. || mapeho<br />
|-<br />
| ndoth || ndotha- || || vel. || make sth. turn into sth. || v.dt (indirect object = thing being transformed) || dyn. || mafe<br />
|-<br />
| newaų || newaų- || (newaį) || pal. || star || n. || XI || niloʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngaįv || ngaįva- || eįngva- || vel. || blow || v.it. || dyn. || noʔivo<br />
|-<br />
| ngasazhin || ngasazhi- || esazhin || vel. || claw, talon || n. || VIII || ŋosozin<br />
|-<br />
| ngasoq || ngasohe- || angsoq || vel. || complete || v.mt. || dyn || nosagu<br />
|-<br />
| ngaųi || ngaųi- || || vel. || breast || n. || VIII || naʔohi<br />
|-<br />
| ngax || ngahe- || || vel. || guts, entrails || n. || VIII || noru<br />
|-<br />
| nge || nge- || || vel. || see || v.mt. || dyn. || nu<br />
|-<br />
| ngek || ngeke- || || vel. || head, face || n. || IV || noki<br />
|-<br />
| ngeyem || ngeye- || iyem || vel. || be ill || v.it. || stat. 2 || ŋulem<br />
|-<br />
| ngįą || ngįą- || (past: ngųį) || vel. || be big || v.it. || stat. 3 || ŋuʔeʔ<br />
|-<br />
| ngin || ngi- || || vel. || use || v.mt. || dyn. 2. || ŋun<br />
|-<br />
| nginin || ngini- || || vel. || steal || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || ŋunin<br />
|-<br />
| ngoḍox || ngoḍohe- || || vel. || nickname || n. || XI || nadaru<br />
|-<br />
| ngopoų || ngopoų- || ampoų (ngopoį-) || vel. || walk || v.it. || dyn. || ŋapaʔa<br />
|-<br />
| ngozhebe || ngozhebe- || azhebe || vel. || squeeze || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋaziboŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ni || ni- || || pal. || you (plural) || pron. || || niŋ<br />
|-<br />
| njehaų || njehaų- || ihaų (njehaį-) || pal. || hair, fur || n. || VIII || ŋigoʔa<br />
|-<br />
| njeįrum || njeįri- || || pal. || be weak || v.it. || stat. || ŋeʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| nordan || norda- || || vel. || bow || n. || VI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| njoįth || njoįtha- || aįnth || vel. || be clean || v.it. || stat. || ŋaʔife<br />
|-<br />
| njoix || njoihe- || || vel. || approach || v.mt. || dyn. || ŋahiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| njįp || njįpe- || įmpe- || pal. || be grieving || v.it. || stat. || ŋiʔipu<br />
|-<br />
| noiji || noiji- || ainji- || vel. || lip || n. || VIII || naheɣih<br />
|-<br />
| nojem || noje || anjjem || vel. || suck || v.mt. || dyn. || naɣem<br />
|-<br />
| nuhedh || nuhedha- || || pal. || lake || n. || VII || nihoruve<br />
|-<br />
| o || o- || [h] || vel. || be before, precede || v.mt. || stat. || ɣa<br />
|-<br />
| oqajhi || oqajhinja- || [h] || vel. || family || n. || XI || rakodiŋo<br />
|-<br />
| oich || oicha- || [h] || vel. || ant or other tiny creature || n. || IV || rahate<br />
|-<br />
| oiup || oiupa- || [h] || vel. || enter || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu 'start' + hopo 'pass through'<br />
|-<br />
| omban || ombane- || [h] || pal. || flower || n. || V || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| ou || ou- || [h] || vel. || begin, start || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu<br />
|-<br />
| ouiã || ouiã- || (past: oui) || vel. || climb || v.mt. || dyn. || ɣahu + heh<br />
|-<br />
| ov || ovo- || || vel. || get, obtain || v.mt. || dyn. || gava<br />
|-<br />
| ovum || ovi- || || vel. || belly || n. || VIII || gavum<br />
|-<br />
| paun- || paung- || || vel. || all || det. || || pahon-<br />
|-<br />
| paųze || paųze- || || vel. || be round || v.it. || stat. 2 || paʔazuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| pawazą || pawazą- || apwazą || vel. || stab || v.mt. || dyn. || palazoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| pehez || peheza- || || vel. || be satisfied with || v.mt. || stat. || puɣuzo<br />
|-<br />
| per || pere- || epre- || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || puri<br />
|-<br />
| poher || pohere- || || vel. || be to the south || v.it. || stat. || paɣuri<br />
|-<br />
| pof || pofo- || (potho-) || vel. || be full || v.it. || stat || pafa<br />
|-<br />
| qahen || qahena- || || vel. || help || v.it. || dyn. || kogone<br />
|-<br />
| qawang || qawange- || oqwang || vel. || explore, wander || v.it. || dyn. || kolanu<br />
|-<br />
| qe || qe- || || vel. || thing || n. || (varies) || ku<br />
|-<br />
| qec || qece- || ekce- || vel. || soft object || n. || VIII || kuxi<br />
|-<br />
| qehoq || qehoqe- || || vel. || grunt || v.it. || dyn. || kuraku<br />
|-<br />
| qing || qinge- || || vel. || gravel || n. || VIII || kunu<br />
|-<br />
| qiu || qiu- || || vel. || jump || v.it. || dyn. || kuʔaho<br />
|-<br />
| qoḍex || qoḍeha- || || vel. || spit || v.it. || dyn. || kaduro<br />
|-<br />
| rang || ranga- || || pal. || be straight || v.it. || stat. || rano<br />
|-<br />
| rauį || rauį- || || pal. || be red || v.it. || stat. || rehiʔi<br />
|-<br />
| reįb || reįbe- || || pal. || be black || v.it. || stat. || riʔebu<br />
|-<br />
| reim || reime- || || pal. || give || v.dt. || dyn. || reʔimu<br />
|-<br />
| reqeyą || reqeyą- || erqeyą (past: erqeyai) || pal. || join to, marry || v.mt. || dyn. || rekoleʔ<br />
|-<br />
| redh- || rev- || || pal. || few || det. || || riv-<br />
|-<br />
| rokex || rokehe- || orkex || vel. || float || v.it. || dyn. || rakiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| saḍã || saḍã- || azḍã (past: saḍai)|| vel. || slip || v.it. || dyn. 3. || sodoh<br />
|-<br />
| saḍajheų || saḍajheų- || azḍajheų || vel. || hide, fur || n. || VIII || sododiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| sang || sange- || || vel. || cry || v.it. || dyn. || sanu<br />
|-<br />
| Sąr || Sąre- || || pal. || a tree goddess || n. || IV || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || fulfill (an intended action) || v.mt. || dyn. || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sas || sasa- || assa- || vel. || success || n. || XI || soso<br />
|-<br />
| sasath || sasathe- || assath || vel. || understand || v.mt. || dyn. || redup. sofi 'hear'<br />
|-<br />
| sated || sateda- || || vel. || learn || v.mt. || dyn. || sopibe<br />
|-<br />
| sath || sathe- || || vel. || hear || v.mt. || dyn. || sofi<br />
|-<br />
| seṭ || seṭo- || (secho-) || vel. || exceed || v.mt. || stat || suta<br />
|-<br />
| seth || sethe- || || vel. || sky || n. || IX || sufi<br />
|-<br />
| sheḍaq || sheḍaho- || ezhḍax || pal. || complete, accomplish || v.mt. || dyn || sidoga<br />
|-<br />
| shehumuįhą || shehumuįhą- || (past: shehumuįhi) || pal. || summon || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || sigumuŋ 'bring' + huʔeɣuʔ 'ask'<br />
|-<br />
| shehumu || shehumu- || ezh'humu || pal. || bring || v.mt. || dyn. 2 || sigumuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| shek || sheka- || || pal. || be more || v.it. || stat. || sike<br />
|-<br />
| shexaung || shexaungo- || eshxaung || pal. || spear || n. || VI || sixaʔuna<br />
|-<br />
| shez || shezo- || (shezho-) || pal. || dog || n. || IV || seza<br />
|-<br />
| shaqath || shaqathe- || ashkath || pal. || fight || v.mt. || dyn. || sekofi<br />
|-<br />
| shu || shu- || || pal. || take (a time), span (a length) || v.mt. || stat. || sihu<br />
|-<br />
| shum || shu- || || pal. || happen || v.it. || dyn. 2 || sim<br />
|-<br />
| sing || si- || || vel. || you (sing.) || pron. || || sun<br />
|-<br />
| souhash || souhashe- || || vel. || egg || n. || III || sahuɣose<br />
|-<br />
| sub || sube- || uzbe- || vel. || we (inclusive) || pron. || || sun + bu<br />
|-<br />
| sum || su- || || vel. || human being || n. || I/II || sum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭa || ṭa- || (cha-) || vel. || if || par. || || taŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭahes || ṭahese- || || vel. || craft (a tool) || v.mt. || dyn. || torusu<br />
|-<br />
| tan || tane- || || vel. || put somewhere || v.dt. (indirect object = thing you're putting, direct object = where you're putting it) || dyn. || pani<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || be within || v.mt. || stat. || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| tanajaq || tanajaqe- || odrajaq || vel. || womb || n. || IX || paneɣeku<br />
|-<br />
| ṭare || ṭare- || aṭre || vel. || sibling, cousin || n. || I/II || toreŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭaseq || ṭaseha- || aṭseq || vel. || wear || v.mt. || dyn. || tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| ṭasehak || ṭasehake- || aṭsehak || vel. || clothes || n. || VI || from tosugo<br />
|-<br />
| tau || tau- || (tai-) || pal. || heart || n. || VI || pehaŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ṭauzind || ṭauzinda- || auḍzind || vel. || ride || v.it. || dyn. || tohazume<br />
|-<br />
| tegi || tegi- || eggi- || pal. || mouth || n. || IV || pigiŋ <br />
|-<br />
| ṭekaį || ṭekaį- || ekkaį- || vel. || older brother || n. || I || tukeʔe<br />
|-<br />
| tepum || tepi- || eppum || pal. || ear || n. || IV || pipum<br />
|-<br />
| ṭeq || ṭeqahe- || eqqa || vel. || hurt || v.mt. || dyn. || tukaŋu<br />
|-<br />
| tha || tha- || || pal. || come || v.it. || dyn. || fe<br />
|-<br />
| thakad || thakade- || || pal. || work || v.it. || dyn. || fekebi<br />
|-<br />
| thehesh || thehesha- || || pal. || wasp, bee or other stinging creature || n. || IV || fiɣusi<br />
|-<br />
| thetaw || thetawo- || ethtaw (thetayo-) || pal. || seek, search for || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fipela<br />
|-<br />
| thind || thinda- || || pal. || woman || n. || II || fihime<br />
|-<br />
| thųṭum || thųṭu- || || pal. || lick || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. || fiʔutum<br />
|-<br />
| tojadhing || tojadhinge- || odjadhing || vel. || mix || v.mt. (one thing being mixed takes dative, other thing takes comitative) || dyn. || paɣevinu <br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || ṭoho- || (ṭogo-) || vel. || cliff, edge || n. || VIII || taga<br />
|-<br />
| ṭoq || toqa- || oqqa- || vel. || drinking water || n. || III || tako<br />
|-<br />
| ṭųpau || ṭųpau- || ųppau || vel. || be to the north || v.it. || stat. || tuʔupahu<br />
|-<br />
| ug || uge- || || vel. || hill or single mountain || n. || VIII || hogi<br />
|-<br />
| unjã || unjã- || (past: unjai) || vel. || make dirty || v.mt. (object takes dative) || dyn. 3 || ʔuŋeh<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: iu) || vel. || cause || v.mt. || dyn. 2 (irregular) || ʔoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| u || u- || (past: įdha) || vel. || exist, be, be true || v.it. || stat. || ho<br />
|-<br />
| ųc || ųce- || || vel. || be unfortunate, unlucky || v.it. || stat. || ʔoxi<br />
|-<br />
| uchand || uchanda- || || vel. || fart || v.it. || dyn. || hutame<br />
|-<br />
| ufox || ufohe- || || vel. || bark, complain || v.it. || dyn. || hufaru<br />
|-<br />
| uhoqeq || uhoqeqa- || || vel. || burn, boil || v.it. || dyn. || huŋakuko<br />
|-<br />
| ųhu || ųhu- || (ųhi-) || vel. || grip || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔuruha<br />
|-<br />
| uįhą || uįhą- || (past: uįhi) || vel. || ask || v.mt. || dyn. || huʔeɣuʔ<br />
|-<br />
| uim || ui- || || vel. || side || n. || XI || hahim <br />
|-<br />
| uįm || uįmo- || (uįndo-) || pal. || be sweet || v.it. || stat. || heʔima<br />
|-<br />
| uįqu || uįqu- (past: uįqui) || || vel. || split || v.dt. || dyn. 3 || huʔekuh<br />
|-<br />
| uįrum || uįri- || || vel. || be wise || v.it. || stat. 2 || hoʔerim<br />
|-<br />
| uiy- || uiw- || || pal. || single || det. || || hihal-<br />
|-<br />
| uiy || uiy || || pal. || often || par. || || heheli-<br />
|-<br />
| uiyenã || uiyenã- || || pal. || a single hair or whisker || n. || VIII || hihaleneh<br />
|-<br />
| uizh || uizhe- || || vel. || neck || n. || VIII || huhizi<br />
|-<br />
| ųk || ųka- || || vel. || laugh || v.it. || dyn. || ʔake<br />
|-<br />
| ųkoth || ųkothe- || || vel. || mountains || n. || IX || ʔokafi<br />
|-<br />
| umejh || umejha- || || vel. || have honour || v.it. || stat. || humude<br />
|-<br />
| ųm || ųme- || || vel. || hit || v.mt. || dyn. || ʔamu<br />
|-<br />
| ųmų || ųmų- || [h] (ųmį-) || vel. || push || v.mt. || dyn. || ruʔomuʔa<br />
|-<br />
| unajh || unajha- || || vel. || be dull (i.e. not shiny) || v.it. || stat. || ʔonode<br />
|-<br />
| ųnjaįn || ųnjaį- || || vel. || eat or drink || v.it. || dyn. || ʔuŋaʔen<br />
|-<br />
| up || upa- || || vel. || pass through || v.mt. || dyn. || hopo<br />
|-<br />
| us || use- || || vel. || be young || v.it. || stat. 2 || husoŋ<br />
|-<br />
| ut || ute- || || vel. || be strong || v.it || stat. || hopi<br />
|-<br />
| ųyį || ųyį- || || vel. || rub || v.mt. || dyn. || rub<br />
|-<br />
| ųzeng || ųze- || || vel. || sand || n. || VIII || ʔazon<br />
|-<br />
| uzhec || uzheca- || || vel. || travel || v.it. || dyn. || huzixe<br />
|-<br />
| vaheḍaḍ || vaheḍaḍe- || || vel. || attack, strike || v.mt. || dyn. || vaŋudodo<br />
|-<br />
| vaib || vaibo- || || vel. || sing || v.it. || dyn. || vohibo<br />
|-<br />
| vaw || vawe- || avwe- || vel. || name || v.dt. (person being named takes dative) || dyn. || volu<br />
|-<br />
| vayash || vayasha- || avyash || pal. || quarrel, dispute, argue || v.it. || dyn. || volese<br />
|-<br />
| vepeuqã || vepeuqã- || || vel. || testicles || n. || VIII || vupuhokoh<br />
|-<br />
| vex || veho- || (vero-) || vel. || be under || v.mt. || stat. || vura<br />
|-<br />
| vį || vį- || || pal. || do, perform || v.mt. || dyn. || vuʔi<br />
|-<br />
| vobaub || vobaube- || || vel. || be satisified, content, happy || v.it. || stat. || vabohobu<br />
|-<br />
| wamer || wamere- || awmer || vel. || dusk || n. || XI || lomuri<br />
|-<br />
| wangox || wangoxo- || (wangoco-) || vel. || hide || v.it. || dyn. || lanaxa<br />
|-<br />
| weun || weu- || || vel. || lie || v.it. || dyn. || lohun<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhã || wefezhã- || (past: wefezhei) || vel. || dig || v.it. || dyn. || lufuzeh<br />
|-<br />
| wefezhãsh || wefezhãsha- || || vel. || worm || n. || IV || from lufuzeh 'dig'<br />
|-<br />
| wo || wo- || || vel. || resemble, be similar to || v.mt. || stat. || la<br />
|-<br />
| woḍe || woḍenja- || || vel. || rest || v.it. || dyn. || ladoŋe<br />
|-<br />
| wosh- || wos- || || vel. || other || det. || || las<br />
|-<br />
| wot || wop- || || vel. || close || det. || || lap<br />
|-<br />
| wopaṭi || wopaṭi- || || vel. || protect || v.mt. || stat. 2 || lapotuŋ<br />
|-<br />
| xachez || xacheze- || || vel. || root || n. || V || xotizu<br />
|-<br />
| xaḍi || xaḍi- || || vel. || teach || v.mt. || dyn. || xaduhi<br />
|-<br />
| xahes || xahesa- || || vel. || be angry || v.it. || dyn. || xoruso<br />
|-<br />
| xeng || xengo- || || vel. || small stick, arrow || n. || VIII || xona<br />
|-<br />
| xepad || xepada- || || vel. || leave || v.it. || dyn. || xupobe<br />
|-<br />
| xip || xipa- || || vel. || stretch || v.it. (object takes dative) || dyn. || xuhepo<br />
|-<br />
| xob || xobe- || || vel. || dust || n. || VIII || xabu<br />
|-<br />
| xohox || xohoxe- || || vel. || chant || v.it. || dyn. || xararu<br />
|-<br />
| xoṭ || xoṭa- || || vel. || put down, place || v.mt. || dyn. || xato<br />
|-<br />
| xou || xou || || vel. || then || par. || || xaho <br />
|-<br />
| xurs || xurs || || pal. || obligation, promise || n. || XI || (borrowing)<br />
|-<br />
| yaif || yaifa- || || pal. || child || n. || I || lehifo<br />
|-<br />
| yatorą || yatorą- || || pal. || wake up || v.it. || stat. || lepareʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yecahen || yecahe- || || pal. || bank, shore || n. || IX || lixeɣon<br />
|-<br />
| yedaz || yedaze- || || pal. || attach || v.dt. (thing you're attaching it to takes dative) || dyn. || libezu<br />
|-<br />
| yehą || yehą- || (yegą-; past: yehoi) || pal. || be dead || v.it. || stat. 3 || ligaʔ<br />
|-<br />
| yehu || yehu- || || pal. || older sister || n. || II || liguhu<br />
|-<br />
| yeį || yeį- || || pal. || grow || v.it. || dyn. || leheʔi<br />
|-<br />
| yį || yį- || || pal. || fire || n. || IV || liʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zashą || zashą- || asshą (past: zashai) || vel. || fall || v.it. || dyn. 3 || zaseʔ<br />
|-<br />
| zave || zave- || azve || vel. || drink || v.mt. || dyn. 3 || zovun <br />
|-<br />
| zeį || zeį- || || vel. || smell || v.mt. || dyn. || zoʔe<br />
|-<br />
| zhate || zhateho- || ashte || pal. || endure, suffer || v.mt. || dyn. || zepeŋa<br />
|-<br />
| zhateshų || zhateshų- || ashteshų || pal. || be ashamed || v.it. || stat. || zepisiʔu<br />
|-<br />
| zhe || zhe- || || pal. || be the same as || v.mt. || stat. || zi<br />
|-<br />
| zheįg || zheįga- || || pal. || boulder || n. || VIII || zeʔige<br />
|-<br />
| zheqof || zheqofe- || eshkof || pal. || smoke || n. || IV || zikafu<br />
|-<br />
| zheṭ || zheṭe- || || pal. || be over || v.mt. || stat. || zitu<br />
|-<br />
| zhey- || zhew- || || pal. || same || det. || || zil-<br />
|-<br />
| zhum || zhu- || || pal. || nose || n. || IV || zihom<br />
|-<br />
| zocachex || zocachehe- || || vel. || rule, have power over || v.mt. || stat. || zaxetiɣu<br />
|-<br />
| zoq || zohe- || || vel. || follow (as in be guided) || v.mt. || dyn. || zagu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lexicography]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-23T18:15:53Z<p>Alces: /* Prepositional phrases */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': the creaky and breathy voiced semivowels deleted their syllable nucleus as they moved into it, becoming the vowels /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. <br />
#* When a semivowel at the end of a word vocalised, all sequences beginning with /ə/ or /a/ merged into /a/ and had their last part deleted, although the voicing was passed on to the /a/. So '''*nekoʔ''' > '''*nəqəw̰''' > '''*nəqa̰''' (This must have been a bit earlier than the onset vocalisation).<br />
#* In sequences of /ɨ/ + one of these new vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
#* With other vowel sequences, dipthongs were formed. The voicing of a dipthong had to be the same throughout (the second vowel was the decider), so if for example /i̤/ and /ṵ/ came together, the result would be a dipthong /ḭu̯/. When both /i i/ or /u u/ came together, the first one mutated to the opposite forming a dipthong /iu ui/ with the voice of the second one.<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time).<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant seem to have already been lost before initial syllable syncope, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed in this position. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards. Initially this only applied in monosyllabic words; polysyllabic words were transformed whatever inflection they had. But the pattern was later generalised to words of all syllables.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* With regards to the loss of /ɴ/, it became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ intervocalically (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then either stays as it is or shifts to /ə/ (depending on dialect).<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials or /w/ (but not if it is part of a diphthong with a following /u/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
# '''Loss of phonation'''. As Wendoth was breaking up breathy and creaky-voice phonation was moving from the vowels to the consonants in all of its dialects, creating sets of glottalised and murmured consonants. The results in different dialects were often quite different though, so the details are given in the descriptions of individual daughters. Daughters also sometimes show slight changes in the distribution of the phonations due to earlier changes specific to them.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised. In some daughters they became labialised velars.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /ɐ/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /ɐ/ (which may also be transcribed as /a/) and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. The phonemes /ə/ and /ɐ/ are rather close and so tend to be differentiated by closeness--they may drift as far apart as [ɨ] and a central [a]. For many speakers /ɐ/ is a little longer than /ə/ too--in fact one of the major isoglosses in Wendoth's daughters is whether /ə ɐ/ contrast primarily in height or length.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
Dipthongs can be formed by adding /i/ or /u/ after any other vowel; these dipthongs contrast for breathy and creaky voice. They have distinct phonetic realisations: /iu/ > [ɪu], /ui/ > [ʊi], /ou/ > [ɔu], /oi/ > [ɔi], /əi/ > [ɛi], /əu/ > [ɛu], /ɐi/ > [ai], /ɐu/ > [au].<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before any nasal consonants. This is phonologically interpreted as breathy voice, so creaky-voice vowels never occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χɑŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wo.ʁɑ.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [oc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other--it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the modern language only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, all became '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally. (Likewise, some words which begin with a vowel show an epenthetic '''h''' when a prefix is added.)<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
The root is transformed whenever it is not in the nominative, unless it would be monosyllabic. If the word has only two syllables, be aware that the vowel fronted during transformation may be obscured by the ending (e.g. '''sų''' ('''se-''' + '''ų''') > '''esshã''').<br />
<br />
There is no other grammatical marking on nouns.<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o) 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e) 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho) 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a) 'drinking water'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. Unlike all other nouns, they inflect for number, and clusivity too.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| epshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| uzbų<br />
| uzbum<br />
| uzbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum<br />
| esshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of this are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if it's really necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive). There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== First conjugation ====<br />
<br />
This is the vast majority of verbs.<br />
<br />
The habitual aspect is marked by '''-sh''', an a-stem. The subjunctive mood is marked by '''-q/ha''', showing the usual uvular alternations--if it's the last suffix on the verb it's '''-q''', otherwise it's '''-h''', and an a-stem.<br />
<br />
The past is marked by an invisible nasal suffix accompanied by transformation of the root. See [[#Morpheme Types|Morpheme Types]] for what this means.<br />
<br />
The past suffix is added first, then the habitual, and finally the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! soho- 'find'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| sohoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| sohosh <br />
| sohoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| os'ha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Second conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The second conjugation is used for verbs whose root originally ended in a coda nasal. Obviously then, Pre-Wendoth phonotactics would not allow the past '''-*ŋ''' to attach to these normally. Instead, it took a completely different form. The final nasal of the root turned into '''-*hu''', and then the past suffix was added on.<br />
<br />
Most roots that originally ended in coda nasals can be identified in the modern language, since they are nasal or dropped nasal stems. However, some of the dropped nasal stems have become indistinguishable from breathy stems ending in '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
The ultimate outcome of the Pre-Wendoth changes was that for these verbs, when adding the past suffix, you have to change the vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u''' to that.<br />
<br />
Habitual and subjunctive suffixes are added on as normal, and transformation is applied to past roots where possible, giving us this paradigm (where M stands for doing this mutation to the last vowel):<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! aye- 'speak'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Third conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The third conjugation is for those roots that originally ended in a coda glottal consonant in Pre-Wendoth. These can easily be identified by the final vowel of their root, which will always be '''ã''' or '''ą'''. To add the past to these, Pre-Wendoth speakers added '''*-iŋ'''.<br />
<br />
With this past suffix added, the coda glottal consonant was no longer a coda, and thus went through different sound changes. All non-phonated vowels disappeared before phonated '''a''', which was only in the present forms; so the third conjugation became irregular. From the root alone, you can't predict what vowel will be inserted before the past suffix '''-i'''. So third conjugation verbs have their past form given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
This example descends from Pre-Wendoth '''bakeʔoʔ'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! dokaųą- 'be sticky'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| dokaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| dokaųąsh <br />
| dokaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| odkaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Suppletion ====<br />
<br />
In several verbs, suppletion is apparent in the past forms because the past and non-past have merged, due to '''u''' not changing when it nasally mutates. For instance "to have, possess, own", from Pre-Wendoth '''ŋuho''', now has a non-past form '''ngu''' and a past form '''ngu'''; they're identical. So the similar verb '''to hold''' has come to be used instead for the past forms. So the past tense of '''ngu''' is '''waṭa'''.<br />
<br />
Examples of this are only found for common verbs. Other verbs ending in '''-u''' have generally been analogically levelled out so that their present form has a creaky-voiced '''-ų'''.<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
Note that all the classifier prefixes look like they have been transformed; and they have been, diachronically, although synchronically, they are invariantly like this. Note that a verb's root still transforms when it is in the past, even if these transformed prefixes precede it. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, it's impossible to know whether to use the palatalised or velarised forms. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)eį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are transformed in the accusative, dative or instrumental but not in the nominative, like nouns.<br />
<br />
Certain determiners have a more extensive, recently-developed classifier system where every different class is marked as a suffix. These include the demonstratives. Some of them have developed slightly different meanings too. For instance, when using the fuller class marking for a numeral, it takes the meaning of an ordinal.<br />
<br />
These fuller class suffixes are simply the normal verbal classifier prefixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| -op<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| -oq<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| -i<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| -oz<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| things that grow<br />
| -ox<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| -ec<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| -ųb<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| -į<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| -ąth<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| that which is felt<br />
| -aḍox<br />
|-<br />
| XI<br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| -am<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''eįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndaneįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''zhegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''ndãchegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''zhegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; to get the determiner root knock off any final vowels. (5 is '''tehaį-''' though, and 12 is '''ahajaboį'''). Just for convenience, the full list of determiner numbers would be '''man-''', '''eįk-''', '''ndaneįk-''', '''jot-''', '''tehaį-''', '''zheget-''', '''ndãcheget-''', '''jotajot-''', '''jotat-''', '''tat-''', '''zhegetat-''', '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''atte me tte''', 'ten and ten'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no way of indicating ordinal numerals. For instance, instead of saying 'He was the first man', you would say 'He lived before all other men.'<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''oṭse''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''avva''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''exxe''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xeį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is not obvious, having been obscured by sound change. On most roots make sure it's untransformed, take the first syllable, reverse it and then add it to the front of the root, forming a geminate: so '''boqew''' > '''obboqew'''. There are two exceptions however.<br />
* For some vowel-initial roots, take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''.<br />
* For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|zhboushã|ezhbou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecrauį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qwangi|qwangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|sų|sų|man.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noix-a|I-travel-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthnihaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|xxum|exxe-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingiqį|ingi-Ø-qį|food-NOM-for}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Possession ===<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The clitic for possession is '''-į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
The possession clitic is basically a preposition, just like the ones in the next section. It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; so the word order is the same as in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. Since it's a clitic, it goes after any relative clauses, etc. that modify the noun too.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exxaṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Most of the load of English prepositions in Wendoth is done by reduced relative clauses. In fact, there are only five true prepositions (six if you count the possession clitic as a preposition too). They are all clitics, attaching to the noun the prepositional phrase is attached to, and their forms, with (very) approximate English glosses, are '''-t(o)''' 'to', '''-zh(a)''' 'from', '''-dh(a)''' 'of', '''-qį''' 'for', '''-c(e)''' 'with'.<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions '''t(o)''' and '''zh(a)''' are rather different from English in their semantic space. '''-t(o)''', rather than being just 'to', is a general locative; depending on context it might mean 'into', 'on' or 'at' as well. However '''-zh(a)''' specifically marks that the object has gone within the head noun, like English 'in'; it also can mean 'from' though. We might sum up the semantics in this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
As for the others: '''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
==== The rest of the preposition space ====<br />
<br />
English's more complicated prepositions are fulfilled by specialised verbs in Wendoth, such as '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-p|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sųm|sųm-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opḍajhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-ufnã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ushmãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|uteų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opwopaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opjhauhum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|sumų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength).}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, where you'd use a wh-word in English, still phrase it as a normal sentence. But replace the word you don't know with '''qe''' 'thing' with the appropriate noun class prefix if it's a noun, '''ndei-''' 'which' if it's a determiner, and '''vį''' 'do, make' if it's a verb, and add the rising tone to that. These are all normal members of the class they replace and decline or conjugate like normal.<br />
<br />
To narrow down the choice of referents, you can add the preposition '''-zh''' to one of these words and use the limiting noun as its object. E.g. '''qezh ni''' would mean 'which one of you'.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|afmi|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ|food}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
The original English text (for Proto-Isles): ''The North Wind and the sun are disputing, which one is stronger than which? When a traveller, wrapped in a cloak, comes. They say, that the one who makes the man take off the robe, then of course it's this one that's stronger. Then the north wind blows as hard as he could, as the poor sod wraps himself up in the robe just as hard. So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop, and called upon the sun to see what he would do. Then the sun comes up and shines strongly, and the man takes his cloak off, and look, goes into the stream and bathes himself! So North Wind says, "That, oh well, the sun really is the stronger." Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.''<br />
<br />
Translation into Wendoth: ''Vayash ṭethoy ųtṭųpauc ḍeįj; seṭoq utį ųqqų utuį wosaų? Xou tha iḍihesh tamegįxandeq yobetteheshã. Vazh ezbų poudi yobettehų, vazh ezbų, ųpshek utį ṭoų, įpshi. Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųtṭųpau paungeį ḍḍeshã įx satehezh sum poṭahã yobetteheshã zheweį ḍḍeshã. Taw woubeq ṭethoy ųtṭųpau biųc, bųtokam; bųshehuįhą ḍeįjaųįq ngeshãdh qe zvįq. Xou ijaṭ ḍeįjac ųp ambuim—taw di sum yobettehų. Prakazum okkawį, pokaut ųwewį xou prafam! "Taw utį ḍeįjaų shekazh ungash," chim ṭethoy ųtṭųpau. Utį moḍebaų adroqapį seṭ utuį įuių.''<br />
<br />
Fairly literal translation back into English: "The North Wind and the sun are quarreling; which one is stronger than the other? Then a traveller, covered with a cloak, comes. The one of us who makes the man take off the cloak, that one of us, he is stronger, they say. Then the north wind blows with all his effort, but the poor man wraps himself up in the cloak with equal effort. So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop; he summons the sun for a sight of what he would do. Then the sun rises, shining intensely—so the man takes the cloak off. Look at it, he goes into a stream and bathes himself! "So in reality, the sun is stronger," the North Wind says. Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįj;|ḍeįj-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the sun are quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Seṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ųqqų|ųb-qe-ų|VII-thing-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wsaų?|owsa-ų|other-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Which one is stronger than the other?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã.|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveller, covered with a cloak, comes.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-IN}}<br />
{{gl|ezbų|ezbų|1p.ACC.EXCL}}<br />
{{gl|pudi|op-u-di|I-CAUS-take_off}}<br />
{{gl|ybettehų,|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The one of us who makes the man take off the cloak,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|ezbų,|ezbų|1p.ACC.EXCL}}<br />
{{gl|ųbshek|ųb-shek|VII-be_more}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įbchi.|ųb-chi|VII-say}}<br />
{{glend|that one of us, he is stronger, they say.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngeį|paun-eį|all-IV.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the north wind blows with all his effort,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|įx|įx|but_then}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|poṭahã|po-ṭahã|I-unlucky}}<br />
{{gl|ybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhweį|zhey-eį|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but the poor man wraps himself up in the cloak with equal effort.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|woubeq|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųc,|ųb-ųce|VII-be_unfortunate}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam;|ųb-toka-m|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|ųbshehuįhą|ųb-shehuįhą|VIII-summon}}<br />
{{gl|eįdjaųįq|ḍeįja-ų-įq|sun-ACC-for}}<br />
{{gl|engshãdh|nge-shã-dh|sight-INS-of}}<br />
{{gl|qe|qe-Ø|thing-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zvįq.|oz-vį-qe|IV-do-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|he summons the sun for a sight of what he would do.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjac|ḍeįja-Ø-c|sun-NOM-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ųp|ųp-Ø|IV-shine-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ambuim—|am-buim|X-be_intense}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rises, shining intensely—}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|so the man takes the cloak off.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oprakazum|op-rakaze-mo|I-look-X}}<br />
{{gl|okkawį,|okkawį|IMP1}}<br />
{{gl|opkaut|op-kau-t|I-go-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|ųwewį|ųwewį-Ø|river-DIM-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|prafam!|op-nafam|I-wash_oneself}}<br />
{{glend|Look at it, he goes into a stream and bathes himself!}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjaų|ḍeįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekazh|sheka-zh|be_more-LOC2}}<br />
{{gl|ungash,"|ungash-Ø|be_real-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|"So in reality, the sun is stronger,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|chim|chi-mo|say-X}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau.|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{glend|the North Wind says.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|omḍebaų|moḍebą-ų|persuade-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|adroqapį|aḍro-qapį|XI-be_gentle}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įuių.|įui-ų|push-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Wolf and the Goat ===<br />
<br />
English: A goat on a steep cliff is eating, when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him. So the wolf begins to call to him, "You should come so that you will not fall; also, there are meadows where I am, and here the grass is most tender." The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my benefit, you're calling so that you can eat!"<br />
<br />
Wendoth: ''Thoraų vauṭeze zpe ṭohoų ųqezheįq, xou inginge oiszeshashã zdeḍ ejzozam xe. Taw soizesh ouyotez, "Ozthaq, sing tokemoqį zzashąxeshã, wã u chevorotet exceų u bet ṭoų, wã orot ṭṭoų uįch ezohez. Yotum vauṭeze: "Sing shojaqį ḍã xe, sing shojaqį thoraųshãqį mu!''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thoraų|thoraų|eat}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zpe|zo-pe|IV-be_on}}<br />
{{gl|ṭhoų|ṭoho-ų|cliff-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųqezheįq,|ų-qezheįqa|VIII-be_steep}}<br />
{{glend|A goat on a steep cliff is eating,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|inginge|ingį-nge|PASS-see}}<br />
{{gl|oiszeshashã|soizesha-shã|wolf-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zdeḍ|zo-deḍe|IV-be_able}}<br />
{{gl|ejzozam.|jezo-zo-ma|reach-IV-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|soizesh|soizesha-Ø|wolf-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ouyotez,|ou-yote-zo|INCP-call-IV}}<br />
{{glend|So the wolf begins to call to him,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Ozthaq,|oz-tha-qe|IV-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|tokemoqį|toka-mo-qį|must_do-X-for}}<br />
{{gl|zzashąxeshã,|oz-zashą-xe-shã|IV-fall- NEG-INS}}<br />
{{glend|You should come so that you will not fall,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|chevorotet|chevorote-Ø-t|meadow-NOM-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|exceų|xece-ų|place-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|bet|be-t|1p.NOM.SN-t}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|also, there are meadows where I am,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|orot|orote-Ø|grass-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ṭṭoų|ṭṭoų|here}}<br />
{{gl|uįch|uįcha|soft}}<br />
{{gl|ezohez.|ezo~ezo|very~EMP}}<br />
{{glend|and here the grass is most tender.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yotum|yote-mo|call-X}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze:|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|"Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xe,|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my sake,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|thoraųshãqį|thoraų-shã-qį|eat-INS-for}}<br />
{{gl|mu!"|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|You're calling so that you can eat!}}<br />
<br />
=== The Crow and the Travellers ===<br />
<br />
This is based on a Nivkh myth. (in [http://f.cl.ly/items/678712614dfbd6a69364/Nivkh.pdf])<br />
<br />
<small>I see the link has died, so here's the original text, if you want to see it:<br />
<br />
''Going out from Tymy, two men were going to the west coast of Sakhalin. On the way, going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One man was father-in-law, the other was son-in-law. After laying the fire, [they] were sitting [near] the fire. A hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, father-in-law excited [the hare]. Son-in-law said: "Stop [that], why do you excite the hare?" Not wanting to listen to [what] his friend was saying, father in law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice was heard more and more [strongly], [and] the fire was more and more burning. Son-in-law was becoming more and more afraid. Going, lying on his sledge, covering himself with the grass, hiding for a long time, son-in-law [fell] asleep. At dawn, when [it was] light, son-in-law woke up. Waking up, when [he] was looking round, the fire has gone out, father-in-law disappeared, the dogs were lying as [they] lied in the evening. There was only the footwear on the place of his father-in-law. That is why people do not want to excite the hare. The place [where] two friends passed the night is called Xaunuzu.''</small><br />
<br />
''Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq. Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų, taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut ṭeinamereų. Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų. Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų. Kaukau zįkahazh įbung. Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã. Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?" Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe. Taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou. Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum; yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum. Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai. Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum. Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob. Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe. Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą. Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.''<br />
<br />
In pre format for now.<br />
<br />
Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq.<br />
eįq-in acau-Ø iḍihi kųq<br />
two-I.NOM man-NOM travel.PAST west<br />
Two men were travelling to the west.<br />
<br />
Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų,<br />
op-ngopou mo-shu ųv- eį nose-ų<br />
I- walk.PAST X- take many-IV.ACC time-ACC<br />
They walked for a long time,<br />
<br />
taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut eiṭnamereų.<br />
taw om-jenaum iḍi- ų op-woḍenje- zh įbung- Ø- t ṭeinamere-ų<br />
so X- be_during travel-ACC I- rest.PAST-in forest-NOM-at night- ACC<br />
so in the middle of their journey, they rested in the forest at night.<br />
<br />
Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų.<br />
mang-in sum-Ø eįq-in kechã- Ø- į wos- sum- ų<br />
one- I.NOM person-NOM two-I.NOM father-NOM-POS other-I.ACC person-ACC<br />
One man was the father-in-law of the other man.<br />
<br />
Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų.<br />
op-fau- t yį- ma mo-zoqe wau- įdodhe- zo-ų<br />
I- sit.PAST-at fire-DAT X- follow COMP-make.PAST-IV-ACC<br />
They sat near the fire after they finished making it.<br />
<br />
Kaukau zįkahazh įbung.<br />
kaukau-Ø oz-įkaha- zh įbung- Ø<br />
crow- NOM IV-make_noise.PAST-in forest-NOM<br />
A crow cried in the forest.<br />
<br />
Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã.<br />
au- Ø- t kaukau-ų eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø- qį va- shã<br />
make_effect-NOM-to crow- ACC two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM-for that-INS.<br />
To excite the crow, the father-in-law made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?"<br />
chu- mo yaif- Ø wau- ḍaho IMP au sing kaukau-ų- qį qe- shã<br />
say.PAST-X child-NOM stop-XI IMP make_effect 2p.NOM.SN crow- ACC-for what-INS<br />
The son in law said, "Stop it! Why are you exciting the crow?"<br />
<br />
Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe,<br />
chu- mo ewaįsha-Ø- į kechã- ų op-ḍau sasathe- mo-ų xe<br />
say.PAST-X friend- NOM-POS father-ACC I- want.PAST understand-X-ACC not<br />
What father-in-law's friend was saying, he didn't want to listen to it,<br />
<br />
taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou.<br />
taw eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø sou<br />
so two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM still<br />
so the father-in-law still made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum;<br />
kaukau-Ø įkaha- qa op-sathe-mo op-sathe-mo <br />
crow- NOM make_noise-SUB I- hear- X I- hear- X<br />
The crow making noise, they heard it more and more strongly;<br />
<br />
Yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum.<br />
yį- Ø uhoqeqe uhoqeqe yaifa-Ø au- tahehu-mo au- tahehu-mo<br />
fire-NOM burn.PAST burn.PAST child-NOM COMP-fear- X COMP-fear- X<br />
the fire burned more and more; the son-in-law was getting more and more afraid.<br />
<br />
Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai.<br />
ḍeįja-Ø oumeri yaifa-Ø yatorai<br />
sun- NOM rise.PAST child-NOM wake_up.PAST<br />
The sun rose; the son-in-law woke up.<br />
<br />
Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum.<br />
po-uįhą-mo yį- Ø yehoi op-nge-mo<br />
I- ask- X fire-NOM be_dead.PAST I- see-X<br />
He looked around; the fire had gone out, he saw it.<br />
<br />
Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob.<br />
sheza-Ø weiu mo-zhe op-weiu- ų- zh merewobe- Ø<br />
dog- NOM lie.PAST X- be_same_as I- lie.PAST-ACC-in yesterday-NOM<br />
The dogs were lying as they had done yesterday.<br />
<br />
Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe.<br />
įx op-nge-qa eįq-ãn kechã- ų op-deḍe- mo xe<br />
but I- see-SUB two-I.ACC father-ACC I- can_do.PAST-X not<br />
But he could not see the father-in-law.<br />
<br />
Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą.<br />
maner-ã ṭasehake-įą- Ø įdha- t xece- ų op-pi- thą<br />
only- III.ACC clothes- foot-NOM be.PAST-at point-ACC I- be_on.PAST-IX<br />
At the place where he had stood there was only footwear.<br />
<br />
Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.<br />
taw au- sha sum- Ø kaukau-ų xe- qį ṭo- Ø<br />
so make_effect-HAB person-NOM crow- ACC not-for this-NOM.<br />
So that is why people do not excite crows.<br />
<br />
This is a more typical example of Wendoth narrative than the other texts. Note the stylistic reduplication of verbs in the translation of 'the fire burned more and more' etc.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alceshttp://akana.conlang.org/wiki/WendothWendoth2011-12-23T18:14:29Z<p>Alces: /* The Noun Phrase */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Language<br />
| color = green<br />
| language = Wendoth<br />
| phonetic = [wə'n̪d̪oθ]<br />
| date = -2000 YP<br />
| place = west Tuysáfa<br />
| speakers = unknown<br />
| script = none<br />
| family = Wendoth<br />
| word-or = VSO<br />
| mor-type = fusional<br />
| morphalign = NOM-ACC<br />
| author = [[User:Alces|Alces]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wendoth''' [wə'n̪d̪oθ] was a language spoken by a people of western [[Tuysáfa]] around -2000 YP. They called themselves the Wendoth, and their language ''Ayewendoth'' ('Wendoth speech'), though we refer to it as simply ''Wendoth'' in this document. Internal reconstruction allows us to postulate an earlier form of the language, '''Pre-Wendoth''', although this is probably only an approximation of a real language.<br />
<br />
From the way the sound changes applied it seems that the Pre-Wendoth speakers spread out from a core area, with new sound changes radiating out from the centre but often differing in details or not touching the peripheries. This is perhaps because the Pre-Wendoth speakers originally lived in a fertile area, but when it became a desert they were split up into many widely-spaced bands. Several different dialects resulted, of which the Wendoth here is a sort of compromise description.<br />
<br />
Wendoth was not known directly to scholars on Akana; they would only know it as a reconstruction. The following document is not really a reconstruction though since I go into much more detail than would be possible.<br />
<br />
== Pre-Wendoth: Phonology ==<br />
<br />
The probable phoneme inventory of Pre-Wendoth was this:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! !! Labial !! !! Alveolar !! !! Velar !! !! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !! voiceless !! voiced !!<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p || b || t || d || k || g || ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative <br />
| f || v || s || z || x || ɣ || h<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal <br />
| m || || n || || ŋ || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Rhotic <br />
| || || r || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral <br />
| || || l || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Syllable structure was strongly CV. However, glottal and nasal consonants were allowed as codas at the end of a word and before a morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
As for suprasegmentals, they cannot be reconstructed. Stress was probably never on the first syllable of a word (unless the word was monosyllabic of course), but apart from that nothing is clear.<br />
<br />
== From Pre-Wendoth to Wendoth ==<br />
<br />
Pre-Wendoth underwent the following sound changes on its way to Wendoth.<br />
# '''Palatalisation''': a very momentous change that probably took a long time to fully complete. Front and back vowels merged horizontally into centralised vowels (so /i u/ > /ɨ/, /e o/ > /ə/), and the consonants before them palatalised if they were originally front, and velarised if they were originally back, to compensate. Every consonant ended up having to be palatalised or velarised, so consonants before /a/ would instead decide which way to go based on the vowel in the next syllable. (If that syllable also had /a/, or did not exist, the consonant was velarised by default). As for consonants in coda, they based their palatalisation or velarisation off the preceding vowel. Finally, the palatalised consonants and velarised consonants acquired quality distinctions from each other:<br />
#* Palatalised /r/ stayed the same, while velarised /r/ shifted to /ʁ/ (probably via /ʀ/).<br />
#* Palatalised /l/ became /ʎ/ while velarised /l/ became /ʟ/.<br />
#* Palatalised labials became dentals, while velarised labials became normal labials.<br />
#* Palatalised alveolars became postalveolars, while velarised alveolars became retroflexes.<br />
#* Palatalised velars became palatals while velarised velars became uvulars.<br />
#* Palatalised /ʔ/ became creaky-voiced /j̰/ while its velarised version became creaky-voiced /w̰/.<br />
#* Likewise palatalised /h/ became breathy-voiced /j̤/, and velarised /h/ became breathy-voiced /w̤/.<br />
#* Several consonants had their contrasts heightened subsequently: postalveolar stops became postalveolar affricates, dental /n̪/ became prenasalised /nd̪/, retroflex /ɳ/ became prenasalised /ŋg/.<br />
# '''Vocalisation''': the creaky and breathy voiced semivowels deleted their syllable nucleus as they moved into it, becoming the vowels /i̤ ḭ ṳ ṵ/. <br />
#* When a semivowel at the end of a word vocalised, all sequences beginning with /ə/ or /a/ merged into /a/ and had their last part deleted, although the voicing was passed on to the /a/. So '''*nekoʔ''' > '''*nəqəw̰''' > '''*nəqa̰''' (This must have been a bit earlier than the onset vocalisation).<br />
#* In sequences of /ɨ/ + one of these new vowels, the /ɨ/ was deleted.<br />
#* With other vowel sequences, dipthongs were formed. The voicing of a dipthong had to be the same throughout (the second vowel was the decider), so if for example /i̤/ and /ṵ/ came together, the result would be a dipthong /ḭu̯/. When both /i i/ or /u u/ came together, the first one mutated to the opposite forming a dipthong /iu ui/ with the voice of the second one.<br />
# '''Syncope''': the centralised vowels /ɨ ə a/ are lost at the end of a word (there were no vowels at the start of words at this time).<br />
# '''Uvular fortification''': /ʁ/ becomes /χ/ and /ɢ/ becomes /q/ at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Voiced uvular loss''': /ʁ/ and /ɢ/ are lost at the start of words and after /u i/ (whatever voice they may have). Any remaining /ɢ/ decays to /ʁ/, and in some northern dialects all /ʁ/ shifts further to [ɦ].<br />
# '''Nasal loss''': Nasals before a consonant seem to have already been lost before initial syllable syncope, leaving the previous vowel nasalised. All vowels before other nasals become nasalised as well (since they always were, but this distinction has now become phonemic).<br />
# '''Epenthesis''': Between two consonants, the vowel in the following syllable is echoed in this position. This only applies across word boundaries, as there are no clusters in other environments.<br />
# '''Initial syllable syncope'''. In an initial unstressed syllable, i.e. if it is not also the final syllable, the vowel is deleted, unless it is at the very start of the word with no preceding consonant. Combined with the previous change, this gives rise to Wendoth's transformed forms, due to the epenthetic vowel before a transformed form being analysed as part of the word afterwards. Initially this only applied in monosyllabic words; polysyllabic words were transformed whatever inflection they had. But the pattern was later generalised to words of all syllables.<br />
# '''Nasalisation''': /ɴ/ is lost, expanding the set of nasal vowels (since nasalisation on the previous vowel was not lost).<br />
#* With regards to the loss of /ɴ/, it became /ŋg/ at the start of a word, was lost at the end of a word or after /i u/, and became /ʁ/ intervocalically (but /ɲ/ before /i/).<br />
#* /ɲ/ was lost too but only at the end of a word.<br />
# '''Vowel shift'''. This is sparked by the shift of plain, non-nasalised, non-breathy, non-creaky /a/ to /o/. In response non-nasalised /ə/ shifted to /a/. Non-nasalised /ɨ/ then either stays as it is or shifts to /ə/ (depending on dialect).<br />
# '''Nasalisation loss'''. All nasalised vowels lose their nasalisation. Nasalised /ɨ/ becomes breathy-voiced /i/, or /u/ when adjacent to labials or /w/ (but not if it is part of a diphthong with a following /u/). Nasalised /i/ or /u/, regardless of what voice they had before, become breathy-voiced.<br />
# '''Lateral simplification'''. /ʎ ʟ/ become /j w/ (usually, see allophony).<br />
# '''Loss of phonation'''. As Wendoth was breaking up breathy and creaky-voice phonation was moving from the vowels to the consonants in all of its dialects, creating sets of glottalised and murmured consonants. The results in different dialects were often quite different though, so the details are given in the descriptions of individual daughters. Daughters also sometimes show slight changes in the distribution of the phonations due to earlier changes specific to them.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
There are 32 consonants and 9 vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Labial<br />
! Dental<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless stop<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
|<br />
| '''q''' /q/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced stop<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
|<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Prenasalised stop<br />
|<br />
| '''nd''' /<sup>n</sup>d̪/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ng''' /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phonology is rather weird in several aspects, such as lacking the pure velar stops /k/ and /g/. This can be rationalised however if you think of the velar stops having palatalised and velarised forms, which just happen to be realised as palatals and uvulars respectively. The other strange aspect are the irregularly-aligned prenasalised stops; these actually tend to pattern as nasals though.<br />
<br />
To make the inventory more sane, here it is with the underlying palatalised-velarised pairs:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Vel. labial<br />
! Pal. labial<br />
! Vel. alveolar<br />
! Pal. alveolar<br />
! Pal. velar<br />
! Vel. velar<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t''' /t̪/<br />
| '''ṭ''' /ʈ/<br />
| '''ch''' /tʃ/<br />
| '''k''' /c/<br />
| '''q''' /q/ <br />
|-<br />
! Voiced plosive<br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d̪/<br />
| '''ḍ''' /ɖ/<br />
| '''jh''' /dʒ/<br />
| '''g''' /ɟ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless fricative<br />
| '''f''' /f/<br />
| '''th''' /θ/<br />
| '''s''' /ʂ/<br />
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br />
| '''c''' /ç/<br />
| '''x''' /χ/<br />
|-<br />
! Voiced fricative<br />
| '''v''' /v/<br />
| '''dh''' /ð/<br />
| '''z''' /ʐ/<br />
| '''zh''' /ʒ/<br />
| '''j''' /ʝ/<br />
| '''h''' /ʁ/<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''nd''' /nd̪/<br />
| '''ng''' /ŋg/<br />
| '''n''' /n/<br />
| '''nj''' /ɲ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /r/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Semivowel<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
| '''w''' /w/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Allophony:<br />
* The labials are noticeably velarised. In some daughters they became labialised velars.<br />
* In codas, and adjacent to /i u/ respectively, /j w/ retain their old pronunciation as [ʎ ɫ].<br />
* In clusters, /r/ becomes a tap. It is always palatalised, and not strongly trilled. It became an approximant in many daughter languages.<br />
* The palatal and uvular consonants may be better described as pre-velar and post-velar. Although it varies between dialects, allophony for them is usually something like:<br />
** Uvulars are really uvular after breathy-voiced /a/ ([ɑ̤]), /o/, and /u/. Elsewhere, they are more post-velar.<br />
** Palatals are really palatal after /i/. Elsewhere, they are pre-velar.<br />
** The vowel after a uvular or palatal changes slightly to the back or front. /ə/ becomes [ʌ] after uvulars and [e] after palatals. /i/ becomes a dipthong [ɨj] after uvulars, while /u/ becomes a dipthong [ʉw] after palatals. /o/ becomes a central [ɞ] after palatals. /a/ becomes front [a] after palatals and [ɑ] after uvulars, becoming indistinguishable from its breathy and creaky voiced counterparts for many speakers.<br />
* /ʁ/ is [ɦ] in northern dialects.<br />
* The voiceless-voiced fricative distinction is amplified by making the voiceless fricatives long and harshly articulated, even aspirated, while the voiced fricatives are short and weakly articulated, sounding more like approximants than English voiced fricatives. (The exception is /ʝ/, which, since it has to contrast with /j/, is a clear fricative and often allophonically geminated.)<br />
<br />
Notes on distribution:<br />
* /ʁ/ only appears intervocalically and in clusters.<br />
* /ɲ/ never appears finally.<br />
* /j/ and /w/ can appear anywhere, even in codas, where they are distinguished from dipthongs by their lateralisation in this environment.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Front (breathy)<br />
! Front (creaky)<br />
! Central<br />
! Back (breathy)<br />
! Back (creaky)<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| '''i''' /i̤/<br />
| '''į''' /ḭ/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /ṳ/<br />
| '''ų''' /ṵ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''e''' /ə/<br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
|<br />
| '''ą''' /a̰/<br />
| '''a''' /ɐ/<br />
| '''ã''' /ɑ̤/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There are three basic vowels, /ə/ (which may also be transcribed as /ɨ/), /ɐ/ (which may also be transcribed as /a/) and /o/. But overlaying these is a three-vowel system of /a/, /i/, /u/ with breathy and creaky-voice contrasts (/a/ also has a quality distinction--the breathy voiced one is back and the creaky voiced one is front). We will call the ones with breathy and creaky voiced versions tense vowels, and the others lax vowels.<br />
<br />
While the tense vowels are pretty stable, the lax vowels are subject to a bit of allophony. The phonemes /ə/ and /ɐ/ are rather close and so tend to be differentiated by closeness--they may drift as far apart as [ɨ] and a central [a]. For many speakers /ɐ/ is a little longer than /ə/ too--in fact one of the major isoglosses in Wendoth's daughters is whether /ə ɐ/ contrast primarily in height or length.<br />
<br />
/o/ only has its full realisation in stressed syllables; in unstressed ones it tends to become a centralised rounded vowel.<br />
<br />
Dipthongs can be formed by adding /i/ or /u/ after any other vowel; these dipthongs contrast for breathy and creaky voice. They have distinct phonetic realisations: /iu/ > [ɪu], /ui/ > [ʊi], /ou/ > [ɔu], /oi/ > [ɔi], /əi/ > [ɛi], /əu/ > [ɛu], /ɐi/ > [ai], /ɐu/ > [au].<br />
<br />
Vowels are nasalised before any nasal consonants. This is phonologically interpreted as breathy voice, so creaky-voice vowels never occur before nasals.<br />
<br />
=== Phonotactics ===<br />
<br />
Most Wendoth syllables are CV, although many words have a coda consonant at the end, and many words begin in a vowel. However, consonant clusters are permitted due to the morphological process of transformed roots, where an initial syllable is metathesised unless a word is in its least marked form. Any cluster is permitted in this way, except /ʁ/ + consonant, because /ʁ/ was deleted word-initially. They are often very tricky: e.g. '''edḍeshã''' 'with effort' has a dental + retroflex cluster. Clusters like this will very often be assimilated to facilitate pronunciation, but the pronunciation I've transcribed remains present in the most careful speech due to the association with non-transformed forms.<br />
<br />
Note on orthography: When there is a cluster such as /ʐʁ/ which could be confused with a digraph, I've written it with an apostrophe: '''z'h'''.<br />
<br />
Vowel clusters are only allowed with the tense vowels, and usually only appear due to morphology. Within stems, clusters of vowels of identical quality like '''uų''' are not allowed, but they are allowed across morpheme boundaries due to analogy.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
<br />
The stress of modern Wendoth is entirely regular and not distinctive. Generally, it falls on the final syllable; however, the tense vowels act as stress attractors; if there's one of them in the word that vowel has to take the stress. If there's more than one tense vowel in a word stress goes on the one closest to the end. So '''zhaxang''' /ʒaχaŋg/ is [ʒa'χɑŋg], '''wohajhashã''' /woʁadʒaʃa̤/ is [wo.ʁɑ.dʒa'ʃɑ̤], '''okchumam''' /octʃṳmam/ is [oc'tʃʉ̤w.mam].<br />
<br />
=== Elision ===<br />
<br />
The transformed forms of Wendoth lose their initial vowel after another vowel. This elision is quite mandatory and is shown in the orthography.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== The Root ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth roots as defined by this document are only the roots of the core classes of Wendoth: the open classes, nouns and verbs, and the closed class of determiners. Other word types like prepositions are indeclinable particles. Most roots can be used as nouns or verbs, but not usually as determiners.<br />
<br />
==== Transformed Forms ====<br />
<br />
A Wendoth root usually has two forms, one called the normal form, and the other the transformed form. The transformed form is like the normal form, but the first syllable is switched around from CV to VC.<br />
<br />
Transformed forms originally came from a sound change in the language by which echo vowels of the following syllable were inserted as sandhi between word consonants, and initial unstressed vowels were elided. For monosyllabic roots this produced patterns like <br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer a-kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer a-kshų''' <br />
<br />
The sandhi breaking up consonant clusters was then lost, but the epenthetic vowels were kept before clusters. So we got:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesi''' > '''dhemer kash'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kesiʔa''' > '''dhemer akshų'''<br />
<br />
The root here is '''kash-''' in one form, but '''aksh-''' in the other--it looks like an initial syllable metathesis. This is how Wendoth speakers think of the process. Whichever form had a zero inflection in Pre-Wendoth, usually the least marked one, will be untransformed, but other forms are transformed (because adding the suffix made the root no longer monosyllabic so initial syncope wasn't prevented.<br />
<br />
Now, as for polysyllabic roots, they had obtained the forms with the clusters in all of their inflections.<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer au-kkau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer au-kkaių'''<br />
<br />
But they were soon generalised to follow the pattern of the monosyllabic roots. In the modern language only these would be correct:<br />
<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehu''' > '''dhemer kaukau'''<br />
* PW '''vemuri kehukehuʔa''' > '''dhemer aukkaių'''<br />
<br />
There are some irregular transformed forms, where sound changes have made the transformation non-obvious. All the pronouns have forms like this, e.g. '''seb''' (nom. 1p incl. pl.) vs '''uzbų''' (acc. 1p incl. pl.). Generally however, transformed forms have been kept transparent through analogy.<br />
<br />
==== Morpheme Types ====<br />
<br />
In Pre-Wendoth, morphemes always began with a consonant and ended with a vowel or a limited set of codas. In Wendoth, this pattern has changed. We can now distinguish many different morpheme types, differing mainly in how their final phonemes react with the initial phonemes of the next morpheme.<br />
<br />
In the lexicon, roots are given in both their word-final form, and the form they take when a vowel is added.<br />
<br />
In this grammar, I've often indicated the morpheme type in brackets after the morpheme, like so:<br />
* '''-m(a)''': the a-stem '''-m'''.<br />
* '''-shã''': the breathy stem '''-shã'''. (No brackets needed since the '''ã''' is always there).<br />
* '''gemahi(ng)-''': the nasal stem '''gemahi''', inserting '''ng'''.<br />
<br />
===== breathy stems =====<br />
<br />
These are the simplest. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-hi''', *'''-hu''', *'''-he''', *'''-ho''', or just *'''-h'''.<br />
* Breathy stems always end in a breathy-voiced vowel: '''i''', '''u''' or '''ã'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, it is simply appended on after this vowel. There are no changes.<br />
<br />
Some of the breathy stems are referred to as variable breathy stems and ended in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ha'''. With these stems, the final vowel is generally '''-u'''. However, when an ending is added that begins with a palatalised consonant, the vowel becomes '''-i'''. See the following section for which consonants are palatalised.<br />
<br />
===== creaky stems =====<br />
<br />
These are also very simple. They come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔi''', *'''-ʔu''', *'''-ʔe''', *'''-ʔo''', or *'''-ʔ'''.<br />
* Creaky stems always end in a creaky-voice vowel: '''į''', '''ų''' or '''ą'''.<br />
* When an ending is added, generally it is appended on after the vowel as with breathy stems.<br />
* But if the ending begins with a nasal, or has an invisible nasal that has disappeared by sound change (the past tense ending has one of these), the vowel shifts to its breathy-voiced version.<br />
<br />
As with breathy stems, those creaky stems coming from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ʔa''' show an alternation between '''ų''' and '''į''' (or '''u''' and '''i''' before a nasal) depending on the following ending's consonant. The rules are the same as for variable breathy stems.<br />
<br />
===== e-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-i''' or *'''-u'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of e-stems end in a consonant (generally).<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-e-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins in a phonated vowel (any of '''i u į ų ã ą''').<br />
* Endings beginning in '''m''' cause '''-u-''' to be inserted in between instead.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-i-''' to be inserted unless the stem ends in a labial consonant ('''p b f v m''', but not '''w''') in which case '''-u-''' is inserted.<br />
<br />
Though most e-stems end in a consonant when word-final, those that had Pre-Wendoth *'''ŋ''' before the final vowel end in a vowel, since the result of this *'''ŋ''' has been dropped. However, the consonant resurfaces when an ending is added. Exactly what it resurfaces as is unpredictable--it could be '''nj''', '''h''' or even just left out if it has '''i u''' before it.<br />
<br />
Example e-stems:<br />
* '''ug''' 'hill (nom.)' > '''ugų''' 'hill (acc.)', '''ug''u''m''' 'hill (dat.)'<br />
* '''dindezh''' 'groan (non-past)' > '''idndezh''e''sh''' 'groan (non-past hab.)', '''idndezh''i''sh''' 'groan (past hab.)'<br />
* '''njįp''' 'be grieving' (pres.) > '''njįpu''' 'be grieving' (past)<br />
<br />
===== a-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-e''' or *'''-o'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of a-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-a-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-e-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-e-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
Example a-stems:<br />
* '''bechep''' 'hip (nom.)' > '''bechep''e''m''' 'hip (dat.)', '''bechep''a''shą''' 'with a hip'<br />
<br />
===== o-stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-a'''. In modern Wendoth, they follow these rules.<br />
* The word-final forms of o-stems end in a consonant, generally. Those that end in a vowel have the same origin as in the e-stems, and behave in the same way.<br />
* When an ending is added, '''-o-''' is generally inserted in between.<br />
* The '''-o-''' is not inserted if the ending begins with one of '''ã ą'''.<br />
* Endings beginning in nasals, or with a lost nasal like the past suffix, cause '''-a-''' to be inserted instead.<br />
<br />
In o-stems, the final consonant in the word-final form is always a velarised consonant. However, it changes to the corresponding palatalised consonant when an ending is added that starts with a palatalised consonant. See the next section for which consonants are palatalised or velarised.<br />
<br />
Example o-stems:<br />
* '''chex''' 'eye (nom.)' > '''chex''o''ų''' 'eye (acc.)', '''echx''a''m''' 'eye (dat.)'<br />
<br />
<br />
===== nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-m''' or *'''-n'''. These are simple. When word-final, or preceding a phonated vowel, the morpheme ends in '''-m''', '''-nd''', '''-n''' or '''-ng'''. When any other ending is added, this nasal consonant disappears.<br />
<br />
===== dropped nasal stems =====<br />
<br />
These come from morphemes ending in Pre-Wendoth *'''-ŋ'''. They are like nasal stems with complications, since *'''-ŋ''' was dropped word-finally after the loss of final Pre-Wendoth vowels, and its velarised reflex developed into several other consonants depending on its environment.<br />
<br />
Dropped nasal stems may end in any vowel except '''-o''' or creaky-voiced ones when word-final. When an ending is added, it is generally simply appended on to this vowel. However, if the ending begins in a phonated vowel, a nasal consonant is inserted in between the two vowels. The rules for determining this consonant are as follows:<br />
* If there is a palatalised consonant before the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem, or sometimes if the vowel is '''i''', '''nj''' is inserted.<br />
* Sometimes if the final vowel of the dropped nasal stem vowel is '''u''', no consonant is inserted. But this is unpredictable.<br />
* Otherwise, '''h''' is inserted.<br />
Also, due to the sound changes, sometimes '''nj''' would be inserted before an ending beginning with '''i''' or '''į'''. This tended to be levelled out, but the daughters show evidence for this irregularity.<br />
<br />
=== Morphological Processes ===<br />
<br />
==== Palatalisation and Velarisation ====<br />
<br />
For many words, an alternation is seen between palatalised and velarised consonants in certain situations. The pairs are as follows:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
! Palatalised<br />
! Velarised<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| p<br />
| ch<br />
| ṭ<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| b<br />
| jh<br />
| ḍ<br />
| g<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| th<br />
| f<br />
| sh<br />
| s<br />
| c<br />
| x<br />
|-<br />
| dh<br />
| v<br />
| zh<br />
| z<br />
| j<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| nd<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| ng<br />
| nj<br />
| ng<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| h<sup>1</sup><br />
| y<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
# '''h''' disappears when not intervocalic, and fortifies to '''x''' (if it's velarised '''j''' or '''r''') or '''q''' (if it's velarised '''g''') at the end of a word.<br />
# This '''ng''' is only realised as such at the start of a word. It disappears at the end of a word or after '''i''' '''u''', and becomes '''h''' otherwise.<br />
<br />
This is generally found before the vowel '''o''', or pre-nasal '''a'''. Historically, whether a consonant palatalised or velarised before the ancestor of these vowels, Pre-Wendoth '''*a''', depended on the vowel of the following syllable. So suffixes may cause palatalisation or velarisation of a word's final consonant if the epenthetic '''o/a''' is after it. Likewise, prefixes with a vowel '''o''' or pre-nasal '''a''' will have different initial consonants, depending on the word.<br />
<br />
Determiner roots, which ended in a consonant in Pre-Wendoth, always have a final consonant that could be palatalised or velarised. Which one it is depends on the vowel in its suffix.<br />
<br />
==== Final uvular alternations ====<br />
<br />
Some Wendoth words show certain alternations with regards to final uvulars. A '''q''' or '''x''' might become a '''h''' when a vowel follows (but not always). These are marked in the lexicon. Etymologically, they come from voiced uvulars, which disappeared at the start of a word, all became '''h''' intervocalically, and become voiceless finally. (Likewise, some words which begin with a vowel show an epenthetic '''h''' when a prefix is added.)<br />
<br />
Epenthetic '''h''' also appears before ''some'' words beginning with an initial vowel--but not all--if a prefix is added to them. These words are indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth nouns come in four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and instrumental. Basically, you add nothing for the nominative, '''-ų''' for the accusative, '''-m(a)''' for the dative, '''-shã''' for the instrumental. For your convenience, here's a table of example forms for each stem type:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! o-stems<br />
! a-stems<br />
! e-stems<br />
! breathy stems<br />
! creaky stems<br />
! nasal stems<br />
! dropped nasal stems<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -u<br />
| -į<br />
| -m<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -oų<br />
| -aų<br />
| -ų<br />
| -uų<br />
| -įų<br />
| -mų<br />
| -hų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| -am<br />
| -em<br />
| -um<br />
| -um<br />
| -įm<br />
| -m<br />
| -m<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| -oshã<br />
| -ashã<br />
| -eshã<br />
| -ushã<br />
| -įshã<br />
| -shã<br />
| -shã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The dative ending is an a-stem. For example '''echxamat''' 'towards an eye', with the preposition '''-t''' added.<br />
<br />
The root is transformed whenever it is not in the nominative, unless it would be monosyllabic. If the word has only two syllables, be aware that the vowel fronted during transformation may be obscured by the ending (e.g. '''sų''' ('''se-''' + '''ų''') > '''esshã''').<br />
<br />
There is no other grammatical marking on nouns.<br />
<br />
Here are some declension examples:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Root<br />
! kochum(o) 'tongue'<br />
! naketh(e) 'animal'<br />
! geha(q/ho) 'seed'<br />
! ṭoq(a) 'drinking water'<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| kochum<br />
| naketh<br />
| gehaq<br />
| ṭoq<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| okchumoų<br />
| enkethų<br />
| eghahoų<br />
| oṭqaų<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| okchumam<br />
| enkethum<br />
| eghaham<br />
| oṭqem<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| okchindoshã<br />
| enketheshã<br />
| eghagoshã<br />
| oṭqashã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of the cases ====<br />
<br />
The '''Nominative''' is typically used for the subjects of transitive verbs, and the arguments of intransitive verbs. Many arguments of prepositions take the nominative too.<br />
<br />
The '''Accusative''' is typically used for the objects of transitive verbs. It is also used for the objects of many prepositions.<br />
<br />
The '''Dative''' is typically used for the indirect object of ditransitive verbs. As well as this rather limited use, there are a class of verbs, which we will call dative verbs, which take dative objects. These are usually verbs involving an action being applied continously and thoroughly to an object over time; a canonical example is '''kaų(x/ho)''' 'wash'. It is also used for the objects of prepositions where it indicates indirectness and imprecision.<br />
<br />
The '''Instrumental''' usually has a sort of adverbial meaning: ''with [the noun]''. (The ''with'' here, which is indicating something that was used to perform the action, must be distinguished from a comitative ''with'', which indicates additional participants in an action. The two concepts are entirely separate in Wendoth, with a preposition being used for comitatives.) It is also used:<br />
* For the objects of the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
* For certain subjects of verbs. Instrumental subjects are usually inanimate, and thus have not intentionally done anything. Using the nominative implies agency. So in sentences like 'The fire destroyed the village', 'fire' should be in the instrumental:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Zeḍveṭinau|oz-ḍeveṭinau|IV-destroy.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|yįshã|yį-shã|fire-INS}}<br />
{{gl|cecumų|cecume-ų|settlement-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The fire destroyed the village.}}<br />
<br />
=== Pronouns ===<br />
<br />
There are first-person and second-person pronouns in Wendoth, which are mostly regular but show suppletion in the accusative forms. Unlike all other nouns, they inflect for number, and clusivity too.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Accusative<br />
! Dative<br />
! Instrumental<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person singular<br />
| be<br />
| ḍã<br />
| bum<br />
| epshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person inclusive plural<br />
| seb<br />
| uzbų<br />
| uzbum<br />
| uzbeshã<br />
|-<br />
! 1st person exclusive plural<br />
| eq<br />
| aḍḍã<br />
| eqam<br />
| ekoshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person singular<br />
| sing<br />
| mu<br />
| sum<br />
| esshã<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd person plural<br />
| ni<br />
| ummã<br />
| num<br />
| inshã<br />
|}<br />
<br />
If you take them back to their Pre-Wendoth roots, some of this are analysable: the inclusive plural is derived from sun 'you' + bu 'I', and the plural accusatives are reduplications of the singular accusatives.<br />
<br />
There are no third-person pronouns; their purpose is adequately served by markers on the verb usually, and demonstratives can be used if it's really necessary.<br />
<br />
In terms of pronoun usage, the first person '''be''' is used when any single person is speaking about themself, the first person inclusive '''seb''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the speaker and the addressee, the first person exclusive '''eq''' is used when they're talking about a group that includes the speaker but not the addressee, the second person '''sing''' is used when the speaker is talking about the addressee, and the second person plural '''ni''' is used when the speaker is talking about a group that includes the addresee but not the speaker.<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth verbs have slightly different paradigms depending on whether they are stative or dynamic. All verbs inflect for tense (past/non-past) and mood (indicative/subjunctive). However, dynamic verbs contrast habitual and non-habitual aspects, while stative verbs are assumed to be habitual by default (they can take a productive derivational prefix '''ou-''' to become dynamic verbs though).<br />
<br />
So we have three possible inflections: tense (past/non-past), aspect (habitual/non-habitual), and mood (indicative/subjunctive). There are two conjugations.<br />
<br />
==== First conjugation ====<br />
<br />
This is the vast majority of verbs.<br />
<br />
The habitual aspect is marked by '''-sh''', an a-stem. The subjunctive mood is marked by '''-q/ha''', showing the usual uvular alternations--if it's the last suffix on the verb it's '''-q''', otherwise it's '''-h''', and an a-stem.<br />
<br />
The past is marked by an invisible nasal suffix accompanied by transformation of the root. See [[#Morpheme Types|Morpheme Types]] for what this means.<br />
<br />
The past suffix is added first, then the habitual, and finally the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! soho- 'find'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| sox<br />
| sohoq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| sohosh <br />
| sohoshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| os'ha<br />
| os'haq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| os'hasha<br />
| os'hashaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Second conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The second conjugation is used for verbs whose root originally ended in a coda nasal. Obviously then, Pre-Wendoth phonotactics would not allow the past '''-*ŋ''' to attach to these normally. Instead, it took a completely different form. The final nasal of the root turned into '''-*hu''', and then the past suffix was added on.<br />
<br />
Most roots that originally ended in coda nasals can be identified in the modern language, since they are nasal or dropped nasal stems. However, some of the dropped nasal stems have become indistinguishable from breathy stems ending in '''-u'''.<br />
<br />
The ultimate outcome of the Pre-Wendoth changes was that for these verbs, when adding the past suffix, you have to change the vowel like so:<br />
* '''ã''' > '''ą'''<br />
* '''u i''' > '''e''', '''u i''' or '''ų į''' (this is unpredictable)<br />
* '''e''' > '''a'''<br />
* '''a''' > '''o'''<br />
and then add '''-u''' to that.<br />
<br />
Habitual and subjunctive suffixes are added on as normal, and transformation is applied to past roots where possible, giving us this paradigm (where M stands for doing this mutation to the last vowel):<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! aye- 'speak'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| ayen<br />
| ayeq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| ayesh <br />
| ayeshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| ayau<br />
| ayauq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| ayausha<br />
| ayaushaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Third conjugation ====<br />
<br />
The third conjugation is for those roots that originally ended in a coda glottal consonant in Pre-Wendoth. These can easily be identified by the final vowel of their root, which will always be '''ã''' or '''ą'''. To add the past to these, Pre-Wendoth speakers added '''*-iŋ'''.<br />
<br />
With this past suffix added, the coda glottal consonant was no longer a coda, and thus went through different sound changes. All non-phonated vowels disappeared before phonated '''a''', which was only in the present forms; so the third conjugation became irregular. From the root alone, you can't predict what vowel will be inserted before the past suffix '''-i'''. So third conjugation verbs have their past form given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
This example descends from Pre-Wendoth '''bakeʔoʔ'''.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! dokaųą- 'be sticky'<br />
! Indicative<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|- <br />
! Non-past <br />
| dokaųą<br />
| dokaųąq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual non-past<br />
| dokaųąsh <br />
| dokaųąshaq <br />
|- <br />
! Past <br />
| odkaųi<br />
| odkaųiq<br />
|-<br />
! Habitual past<br />
| odkaųish<br />
| odkaųishaq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Suppletion ====<br />
<br />
In several verbs, suppletion is apparent in the past forms because the past and non-past have merged, due to '''u''' not changing when it nasally mutates. For instance "to have, possess, own", from Pre-Wendoth '''ŋuho''', now has a non-past form '''ngu''' and a past form '''ngu'''; they're identical. So the similar verb '''to hold''' has come to be used instead for the past forms. So the past tense of '''ngu''' is '''waṭa'''.<br />
<br />
Examples of this are only found for common verbs. Other verbs ending in '''-u''' have generally been analogically levelled out so that their present form has a creaky-voiced '''-ų'''.<br />
<br />
==== Semantics ====<br />
<br />
Verbs have four semantic meanings indicated by morphology. Tense (past or non-past) indicates whether the action happened in the past or not; aspect (habitual or non-habitual) indicates whether you are talking about the action as a typical thing the subject does, not what it is doing right now. So roughly:<br />
* Non-past '''faįx''' = sleeping as in 'I am sleeping'<br />
* Non-past habitual '''faįrosh''' = sleep as in 'I sleep'<br />
* Past '''aįfha''' = slept as in 'I slept' or 'I have slept', sleeping as in 'I was sleeping' (mostly)<br />
* Past habitual '''aįfrash''' = sleep as in 'I used to help'<br />
<br />
The habitual suffix can be thought of as making a dynamic verb into a stative one. The verbs marked as 'stative' in the lexicon are simply those that are assumed to be habitual by default. The reverse action, turning stative into dynamic, is usually done with the derivational prefixes '''ou''', for an inceptive, and '''au''', for a completative.<br />
<br />
Whether the subjunctive mood is used however depends on syntactic considerations--mainly if the verb is in a complement clause. It is not clear whether verbs would ever differ from each other in semantics based on just whether they had the subjunctive marker or not. In many daughter languages, subjunctives have come to be used outside complement clauses, with the complementising part, such as 'I want' or 'I think', being merely implied. Most likely this use existed in late Wendoth but was somewhat informal.<br />
<br />
=== Classifiers ===<br />
<br />
Classifier suffixes are added to verbs to indicate the class of their arguments. There are nine classes, based mainly on what an object does or has done to it:<br />
# (I) Male humans and groups of humans of mixed gender<br />
# (II) Female humans<br />
# (III) Foodstuffs<br />
# (IV) Animals, and other things that move of their own will<br />
# (V) Plants and other things that grow and change shape<br />
# (VI) Tools, i.e. inanimate things used by animates<br />
# (VII) Liquids and gases, i.e. things that fill space<br />
# (VIII) Other inanimates, i.e. things that simply stay there<br />
# (IX) Buildings, surfaces and settlements, i.e. things that you can walk on or live in<br />
# (X) Emotions, i.e. things that are passively taken in by the mind (includes thoughts)<br />
# (XI) Abstractions, i.e. things that are generated by the mind, or identified as a meaningful pattern by the mind; includes social structures like families, and things like cracks and holes<br />
The classes show a philosophy that can help you make sense of certain aspects of the lexicon; Wendoth speakers tend to think of everything in terms of actions rather than objects.<br />
<br />
As prefixes, the classifiers mark the subject of a verb, and as suffixes they mark the object. Their forms are different as prefixes or suffixes. They come after the tense, mood and aspect marking on the verb. Many of the prefixes have two forms, one palatalised and the other velarised.<br />
<br />
Note that all the classifier prefixes look like they have been transformed; and they have been, diachronically, although synchronically, they are invariantly like this. Note that a verb's root still transforms when it is in the past, even if these transformed prefixes precede it. For example, 'he slept' would be '''opaįfha'''.<br />
<br />
As with normal transformed forms, the initial vowels of classifiers are dropped in connected speech after a vowel, and when starting an utterance.<br />
<br />
Here are the basic forms. More in-depth explanations will be given afterwards.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| op-/ot-<br />
| -p(o)<br />
| pa<br />
|- <br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| oq-/ok-<br />
| -q(o)<br />
| ka<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| i-<br />
| -i<br />
| hi<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| oz-/ozh-<br />
| -z(o)<br />
| za<br />
|-<br />
| V <br />
| things that grow<br />
| o-/or-<br />
| -x/-ho<br />
| ra<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| ec-<br />
| -cu(m)<br />
| xim<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| ųb-/įb-<br />
| -bų<br />
| boʔa<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| į-<br />
| -į<br />
| ʔe<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| ąth-<br />
| -thą<br />
| fiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| X <br />
| that which is felt<br />
| am-/and-<br />
| -m(o)<br />
| ma<br />
|-<br />
| XI <br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| aḍo-/aḍro-<br />
| -ḍax/-ḍaha<br />
| dora<br />
|}<br />
<br />
On verbs, there is also a reflexive suffix -w(o), which indicates that the object of the verb is the same thing as its subject.<br />
<br />
For the prefixes, it's impossible to know whether to use the palatalised or velarised forms. You just have to learn whether a verb is palatalising or velarising; it is indicated in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
=== Determiners ===<br />
<br />
Determiners are a large class of adjective-like words, but not exactly the same. They tend to be about more abstract, basic concepts like "only" ('''mash-'''), "many" ('''ųv-'''), "this" ('''ṭoį-'''), etc.<br />
<br />
Determiners are different from other roots in that they all end in a final consonant, which shows an alternation between palatalised and velarised forms. In the lexicon the roots are given with the palatalised form.<br />
<br />
Determiners agree with the noun they modify for class and case, though only slightly. Dative and instrumental nouns take the same endings as accusative nouns on determiners. There are traces of an older, simpler class system in the determiner marking, since the classes are grouped like this:<br />
* I-II (humans)<br />
* III-V (foodstuffs, animals, plants)<br />
* VI-IX (corporeal inanimates)<br />
* X-XI (abstract inanimates)<br />
<br />
As for the suffixes, they are:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -(P)in<br />
| -(P)<br />
| -(V)<br />
| -(V)edh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -(P)ãn<br />
| -(P)ã<br />
| -(V)ã<br />
| -(V)eį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
where (P) or (V) stands for palatalisation or velarisation of the preceding consonant. <br />
<br />
For determiner roots ending in a tense vowel, the suffixes are slightly different. The root will be given with the tense vowel on the end, but you remove this before you add the suffixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! I-II<br />
! III-V<br />
! VI-IX<br />
! X-XI<br />
|- <br />
! Nominative<br />
| -in<br />
| -i<br />
| -u<br />
| -udh<br />
|-<br />
! Acc/Dat/Ins<br />
| -iãn<br />
| -iã<br />
| -uã<br />
| -uį<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The first vowels of these suffixes will take the same phonation as the vowel removed from the root, except in the nominative I-II suffix which is always breathy-voice.<br />
<br />
Determiners are transformed in the accusative, dative or instrumental but not in the nominative, like nouns.<br />
<br />
Certain determiners have a more extensive, recently-developed classifier system where every different class is marked as a suffix. These include the demonstratives. Some of them have developed slightly different meanings too. For instance, when using the fuller class marking for a numeral, it takes the meaning of an ordinal.<br />
<br />
These fuller class suffixes are simply the normal verbal classifier prefixes.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Number<br />
! Name<br />
! Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| males<br />
| -op<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| females<br />
| -oq<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| that which is eaten<br />
| -i<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| things that move<br />
| -oz<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| things that grow<br />
| -ox<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| that which is used<br />
| -ec<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| fillers of space<br />
| -ųb<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| steady things<br />
| -į<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| that which is walked on<br />
| -ąth<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| that which is felt<br />
| -aḍox<br />
|-<br />
| XI<br />
| that which is imagined<br />
| -am<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Important determiners include the numbers, which are:<br />
# '''ma(ng)''' (< PW ''man'')<br />
# '''eįq(e)''' (< PW ''ʔeʔeku'')<br />
# '''ndaneįq(e)''' (< PW ''maneʔeku'')<br />
# '''jote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''tehą''' (< PW ''peŋoʔ'')<br />
# '''zhegete(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''ndãchegete(ha)''' (< PW ''mantigipeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotajote(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapeɣapeŋo'')<br />
# '''jotate(ha)''' (< PW ''ɣapepeŋo'')<br />
# '''tate(ha)''' (< PW ''pepeŋo'')<br />
# '''zhegetate(ha)''' (< PW ''tigipepeŋo'')<br />
# '''ahajabą''' (< PW ''ɣoɣoɣebaʔ'')<br />
These are the noun forms; to get the determiner root knock off any final vowels. (5 is '''tehaį-''' though, and 12 is '''ahajaboį'''). Just for convenience, the full list of determiner numbers would be '''man-''', '''eįk-''', '''ndaneįk-''', '''jot-''', '''tehaį-''', '''zheget-''', '''ndãcheget-''', '''jotajot-''', '''jotat-''', '''tat-''', '''zhegetat-''', '''ahajaboį-'''.<br />
<br />
Numbers larger than twelve would be formed haphazardly, e.g. thirteen might be '''ahajabą me mang''', 'twelve and one', and twenty might be '''atte me tte''', 'ten and ten'. Wendoth had no firmly established base system. It also had no way of indicating ordinal numerals. For instance, instead of saying 'He was the first man', you would say 'He lived before all other men.'<br />
<br />
And the demonstratives. Wendoth has no less than seven of them, distinguished on various fine shades of meaning. As pronouns they are:<br />
# '''ṭo''' (< PW ''ta''), used for things near the speaker<br />
# '''oṭse''' (< PW ''tasu''), used for things near the addressee<br />
# '''jhã''' (< PW ''din''), used for things all around the interlocutors<br />
# '''va''' (< PW ''vo''), used for things away from the interlocutors but visible, and fairly near<br />
# '''avva''' (< ''vovo''), used for things very far away, but still in sight<br />
# '''xe''' (< ''xu''), used for things out of sight, but still fairly near<br />
# '''exxe''' (< ''xuxu''), used for things out of sight and far away<br />
<br />
As determiners they are<br />
# '''ṭoį-''' (< PW '''taʔ-''')<br />
# '''ṭosh-''' (< PW '''tas-''')<br />
# '''jhin-''' (< PW '''din-''')<br />
# '''vaį-''' (< PW '''voʔ-''')<br />
# '''vedh-''' (< PW '''vov-''')<br />
# '''xeį-''' (< PW '''xuʔ-''')<br />
# '''xec-''' (< PW '''xux-''')<br />
<br />
=== Reduplication ===<br />
<br />
Reduplication in Wendoth is not obvious, having been obscured by sound change. On most roots make sure it's untransformed, take the first syllable, reverse it and then add it to the front of the root, forming a geminate: so '''boqew''' > '''obboqew'''. There are two exceptions however.<br />
* For some vowel-initial roots, take the first vowel, and put it at the front with '''h''' in between. So '''ekeng''' > '''ehekeng'''.<br />
* For other vowel-initial roots beginning with '''u''' '''i''' or their creaky-voiced counterparts you put the opposite vowel in front: so '''ųwew''' > '''iųwew'''.<br />
<br />
Reduplication is mostly used for derivation purposes.<br />
<br />
== Derivation ==<br />
<br />
=== Compounding ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth compounds are not completely productive. Their meaning is not always regular, and new ones will be seen as incorrect at first. Nonetheless, a lot of Wendoth's lexical items are clear compounds; some seem to have been around since the time of Pre-Wendoth and have gone through all the sound changes, while others are more recent and may show oddities like the second noun being transformed.<br />
<br />
Compounds are head-first, unlike English. So the meaning is generally 'a (noun 1) that acts like/has the qualities of (noun 2)'. But this is not an ironclad rule.<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Noun ===<br />
<br />
In terms of derivation, Wendoth doesn't make much of a distinction between nouns and verbs. Any noun can be derived into a verb meaning the act of the verb being done. E.g. '''jinehą''' 'heal' > '''jinehą''' 'healing', '''ųc''' 'to be unfortunate' > '''ųc''' 'unfortunateness'. This act of derivation is completely productive. The resulting noun is usually class X but may be class XI for actions carried out with volition.<br />
<br />
When deriving a verb to a noun by other means, you use unanalysable suffixes before the case endings. This type of derivation is not quite as productive as most of the others.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| -sh(a)<br />
| -se<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT1<br />
| someone who habitually does the verb<br />
| I/II/III/IV<br />
|-<br />
| -r(e)<br />
| -ri<br />
| palatalising<br />
| AGT2<br />
| something that habitually does the verb<br />
| V/VI/VII/VIII/IX<br />
|-<br />
| (nasal mutation)<br />
| -ŋ<br />
| no effect<br />
| AGT3<br />
| someone/something that has done the verb before<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -k(e)<br />
| -ki<br />
| palatalising<br />
| PAT1<br />
| someone/something that habitually gets the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -f(a)<br />
| -fo<br />
| velarising<br />
| PAT2<br />
| someone/something that has had the verb done to them<br />
| any<br />
|-<br />
| -va(yo/wo)<br />
| -vola<br />
| velarising<br />
| INSTR<br />
| something that is used to accomplish the verb<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| -įṭ(o)<br />
| -ʔita<br />
| palatalising<br />
| RES<br />
| the result of the verb happening<br />
| X/XI<br />
|-<br />
| -x(e)<br />
| -xu<br />
| velarising<br />
| NEG<br />
| negates any of these suffixes if it comes immediately after them<br />
| any<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Verb to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Verb to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| ne- (tr. in-)<br />
| nu-<br />
| unanalysable<br />
| turns transitive verbs intransitive, by allowing you to not specify the object<br />
| removes one argument; same static/dynamic as before<br />
|-<br />
| ou-<br />
| ɣahu-<br />
| '''ou''' 'start'<br />
| INCP<br />
| to begin doing the verb<br />
| same as before, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| au-<br />
| gohu-<br />
| '''au''' 'finish'<br />
| COMP<br />
| to finish doing the verb<br />
| same as before, stative<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ʔoŋ-<br />
| '''u''' 'cause'<br />
| CAUS<br />
| to cause the verb to happen<br />
| adds one extra argument, in the dative; dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ingį-<br />
| mugiʔ-<br />
| '''megį''' 'take'<br />
| PASS<br />
| to have the verb done to the subject<br />
| removes agent; to specify agent put it in as instrumental argument<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| to do the verb again and again<br />
| same as base<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Verb ===<br />
<br />
Noun to verb derivation is done via prefixes, and most of these prefixes are actual verbs themselves when independent.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Corresponding verb<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting transitivity etc.<br />
|-<br />
| u-<br />
| ho-<br />
| '''u''' 'be'<br />
| STAT<br />
| to be the noun<br />
| intransitive, static<br />
|-<br />
| ing-<br />
| ŋun-<br />
| '''ngin''' 'use'<br />
| FAC<br />
| to use the noun<br />
| intransitive, dynamic<br />
|-<br />
| ow-<br />
| la-<br />
| '''wo''' 'to resemble'<br />
| TYP<br />
| to do an action the noun typically does<br />
| varies<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Noun to Noun ===<br />
<br />
Noun to noun derivation is typically done by suffixes which are transparently related to verbs or nouns.<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! Suffix<br />
! Pre-Wendoth form<br />
! Pal/Vel<br />
! Gloss<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Resulting class<br />
|-<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| (reduplication)<br />
| N/A<br />
| N/A<br />
| a group of the noun<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -wį<br />
| -luʔe<br />
| velarising<br />
| DIM<br />
| dimunitive<br />
| same as base<br />
|-<br />
| -ųnjaįk(e)<br />
| -ʔuŋaʔenki<br />
| velarising<br />
| FOOD<br />
| a food associated with the base<br />
| III<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== The Clause ===<br />
<br />
A clause in Wendoth is centred around the verb. Verbs are fixed for transitivity and must be derived if you want to change the transitivity, although often there are separate roots.<br />
<br />
With '''intransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is SV (subject-verb). There will be no accusative or dative object in the clause, though there may be a noun in the instrumental case which functions like an adverbial. All verbs in Wendoth have at least one argument, and there are no dummy pronouns, so verbs like 'to rain' don't exist.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Baham|baham-Ø|rain-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zashą.|zashą|fall}}<br />
{{glend|It's raining.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|jhebou|jhebou|paint}}<br />
{{gl|zhboushã|ezhbou-shã|dye-INS}}<br />
{{gl|ecrauį.|ec-rauį|VI-is_red}}<br />
{{glend|I paint with red dye.}}<br />
<br />
With '''monotransitive''' verbs, the word order in the clause is VSO (verb-subject-object) with the subject being in the nominative. Most of the time, monotransitive verbs take accusative objects, but a few also take dative objects. An instrumental adverbial may also exist, as with intransitive verbs.<br />
<br />
With '''ditransitive''' verbs, the word order is generally VSDI (verb-subject-direct object-indirect object) with the subject in the nominative, the direct object in the accusative, and the indirect object in the dative. The indirect object usually comes after the verb's object, but this is not a fixed rule.<br />
<br />
==== Argument markers ====<br />
<br />
Syntactically, argument markers on the verb are just like real arguments. So you can have sentences like:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Pfaįx.|po-faįx|I-sleep}}<br />
{{glend|Some man is sleeping.}}<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
{{gl|Aḍrojhezh!|aḍro-jhezh|XI-be_true}}<br />
{{glend|That's right!}}<br />
<br />
It's rare for argument markers to be sufficiently specific on their own; generally they are used like a third-person pronoun, to quickly refer to things already said. The second example above is an example of this.<br />
<br />
The reflexive argument marker '''-w(o)''' is used when the verb's object is the same as its subject. Without this marker, it is implied that the object is different from the subject, as in English.<br />
<br />
With a plural subject, '''-w(o)''' can also indicate reciprocity (plural subjects doing the verb to any other member of the group indicated in the plural), as well as reflexivity (plural subjects each doing the verb to themselves). The two are not distinguished in Wendoth.<br />
<br />
==== Passives ====<br />
<br />
To make a passive from a verb, simply omit the subject from the clause.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã.|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed/Someone pushed me.}}<br />
<br />
The passive is generally only used when the subject needs to be left unspecified. There is no simple way to indicate the agent in a passive construction; you would have to use a construction like this:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Įuį|įuį|push}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã;|ḍã|1p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui-Ø|push.AGT-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|sing!|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I was pushed, and the pusher was you!}}<br />
<br />
This transformation does not decrease a verb's valency. So, it is possible to use it on intransitive verbs as well, where it just makes the verb impersonal.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųke.|ųke|laugh.PAST}}<br />
{{glend|Someone was laughing.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Noun Phrase ===<br />
<br />
The only modifiers that can be attached to nouns are determiners, which go in front of it, relative clauses (RCs), which go after it, and prepositional phrases, which go after it (whether they are before or after relative clauses doesn't matter). Relative clauses serve the purpose of what in English would be adjectives.<br />
<br />
To form a relative clause on a noun with that noun as a subject, you just place the verb after that noun with the subject argument marker corresponding to that noun. Likewise, if the noun is an object within the relative clause, you use an object argument marker instead. The verb always comes after the noun in the main clause, so when that noun is an object, the order within the relative clause is OVS. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Qwangi|qwangi|meet.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|sų|sų|man.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|poinxa|op-noix-a|I-travel-PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ushaj.|ushaj|north}}<br />
{{glend|I met the man who travelled north.}}<br />
<br />
Note that only explicit nouns can have a relative clause attached to them, not argument markers.<br />
<br />
This is an example of how they serve as what, in English, would be adjectives:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Upa|upa|enter.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|įbung|įbung-Ø|forest-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ąthnihaį.|ąth-nihaį|IX-be_dark}}<br />
{{glend|I entered the dark forest}}<br />
<br />
Relative clauses can also be attached to no particular noun, where they have a sort of adverbial meaning. The reasoning behind this is that the relative clause is modifying the verb itself. The event of the whole sentence occuring is taken to be the antedecent of the relative clause, and therefore the RC's verb takes the class X classifer, for things which are felt or percieved.<br />
<br />
Here's an example, using the verb '''zoq(e)''' 'follow':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shqathep|shaqathe-p|fight-I}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|mzoq|am-zohe|X-follow}}<br />
{{gl|awmerų.|wamere-ų|dusk-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I will fight him after dusk.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible for the antedecent of a relative clause to be an indirect object, as well. In this case, the antedecent has to be followed by a an appropriate pronoun (first-person or second-person if possible, or a demonstrative), marked according to the antedecent's role in the relative clause. This is then followed by a verb, and then any other parts of the relative clause in normal order.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Chish|chi-sha|remember-HAB}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ithndaų|thinda-ų|woman-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|xxum|exxe-ma|that-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|reimucu|reimu-cu|give.PAST-VI}}<br />
{{gl|be.|1p.SG.NOM}}<br />
{{glend|You know the woman I gave it to.}}<br />
<br />
It's possible to relativise prepositional objects by the same method:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|you}}<br />
{{gl|suų|su-ų|person-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|um|um|2p.SG.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|au|au|be.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ingiqį|ingi-Ø-qį|food-NOM-for}}<br />
{{glend|You're not the person who the food was for.}}<br />
<br />
==== Intransitive clauses ====<br />
<br />
Since intransitive clauses have SV order, using the normal method of relativization is clumsy; you would have two verbs next to each other. To deal with this, the main verb of an intransitive verb is brought to the front and given an argument marker referring to the subject. This is like changing 'my head hurts' to 'it hurts, my head does'. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ųbngaįv,|ųb-ngaįva|VII-blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbsoiz.|ųb-soize|VII-howl}}<br />
{{glend|The howling wind is blowing.}}<br />
<br />
=== Possession ===<br />
<br />
In Wendoth, possession is something only animates can do. Wherever you'd use an inanimate possessor in English, you have to think of the sentence from a different semantic angle. For example, you could rephrase 'the house's bricks' as 'the bricks on the house'.<br />
<br />
The clitic for possession is '''-į'''. Syntactically, it marks the possessor; the possessee is part of the normal flow of the sentence. However it attaches, as a clitic, to the word before the possessor. The case used for the possessor is accusative if the possession is inalienable, and nominative if the possession is alienable.<br />
<br />
The possession clitic is basically a preposition, just like the ones in the next section. It goes after the noun that is being possessed, and before the possessor; so the word order is the same as in 'the elbow of Jane', not 'Jane's elbow'. Since it's a clitic, it goes after any relative clauses, etc. that modify the noun too.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ihį|ihe-Ø-į|elbow-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SG}}<br />
{{glend|My elbow}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaungį|shexaung-Ø-į|spear-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My spear}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Shexaung|shexaung-Ø|spear-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|exxaṭumį|ex-xaṭum-į|VI-black-POS}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My black spear}}<br />
<br />
=== Prepositional phrases ===<br />
<br />
Most of the load of English prepositions in Wendoth is done by reduced relative clauses. In fact, there are only five true prepositions (six if you count the possession clitic as a preposition too). They are all clitics, and their forms, with (very) approximate English glosses, are '''-t(o)''' 'to', '''-zh(a)''' 'from', '''-dh(a)''' 'of', '''-qį''' 'for', '''-c(e)''' 'with'.<br />
<br />
The two locative prepositions '''t(o)''' and '''zh(a)''' are rather different from English in their semantic space. '''-t(o)''', rather than being just 'to', is a general locative; depending on context it might mean 'into', 'on' or 'at' as well. However '''-zh(a)''' specifically marks that the object has gone within the head noun, like English 'in'; it also can mean 'from' though. We might sum up the semantics in this table:<br />
<br />
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Movement away from<br />
! Static<br />
! Movement towards<br />
|-<br />
! To a point<br />
| -zh + ACC (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'at')<br />
| -t + ACC (Eng. 'to')<br />
|-<br />
! To within<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'from')<br />
| -zh + NOM (Eng. 'in')<br />
| -t + NOM (Eng. 'into')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As you can see from the table, '''-zh''' and '''-t''' also have different meanings depending on case. The accusative is used when talking about a point and the nominative is used when talking about somewhere within a larger area. The dative can also be used to indicate imprecision; so '''-t''' + DAT would mean 'near (to)'.<br />
<br />
As for the others: '''-dh(a)''' can be seen as meaning 'of', but its meaning is more specific; the possession clitic '''-į''' also means 'of'. You could say it indicates possession when a possessor is inanimate, but Wendoth speakers would not see much in common semantically between inanimate and animate possession. It is used for genitive meanings that are not actually reflecting ownership, such as talking about one's spouse or kin, or parts of objects (but not body parts, which use '''-į''' and take accusative case). For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Ucoyedh|ucoy-Ø-dh|edge-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|achecą|achecą-Ø|plain-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The edge of the plain}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thindadh|thinda-Ø-dh|woman-NOM-of}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{glend|My wife}}<br />
<br />
Objects of '''-dh''' always take the nominative.<br />
<br />
'''-qį''' is fairly similar to English 'for'. It can indicate a person that something is to the benefit of, in which case the noun takes the accusative. It can also take a nominalised verb in the nominative to indicate a cause, or a nominalised verb in the instrumental to indicate a purpose.<br />
<br />
'''-c''' 'with' is a comitative, not an instrumental; so it only indicates equal participants, not where one participant is using the other to accomplish the task. Wendoth has no word for 'and', so you have to use '''-c''' to get across any meaning of that. The object takes the nominative case.<br />
<br />
==== The rest of the preposition space ====<br />
<br />
English's more complicated prepositions are fulfilled by specialised verbs in Wendoth, such as '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west'. Detail is rarely needed anyway; Wendoth speakers often prefer to use one of the vague locative prepositions rather than use one of these verbs.<br />
<br />
=== Copulas ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth does not need adjectival copulas, along the lines of 'My face is red', since all its adjectives are verbs.<br />
<br />
For nominal copulas, you can use a zero-copula if you are stating that one thing is the same as another.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Toįp|toį-p|this-I}}<br />
{{gl|sųm|sųm-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|Isheq|Isheq-Ø|Isheq-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|This man is Isheq.}}<br />
<br />
However, to indicate that one noun is a part of a category, you must use the noun that the other one is part of as a verb. Many nouns have corresponding verbs that can be used for the same meaning.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ngetodhų.|nge-todhų|see-far}}<br />
{{glend|I am a shaman ('I have experiences of altered consciousness')}}<br />
<br />
When the noun isn't derived from a verb, however, you have to use the derivation prefix -u, which turns a noun into a verb meaning 'to be the noun'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uthind|u-thind|STAT-woman}}<br />
{{glend|I am a woman.}}<br />
<br />
This '''u''' morpheme can also work as an independent verb (its past form is '''au''', formed by suppletion), which can be used for adpositional predicates.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Au|au|is.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|vaqį|va-qį|that-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|That was for me!}}<br />
<br />
This verb basically means 'exist' or 'to be', although it is not a true copula; more like English 'there is'. Depending on context, it can mean proximity or immediacy rather than simple existence.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Mund|munde-Ø|mother-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|u!|u|is}}<br />
{{glend|There's my mother!}}<br />
<br />
=== Complement clauses ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth forms complement clauses by topicalising the complement. This simply entails moving the complement to the front; you don't need to add in any pronouns because the argument markers will adequately indicate the complement's place in the sentence.<br />
<br />
The verb in a complement clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
<br />
An example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opḍajhaq,|op-ḍajha-q|I-is_ill-SUB}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shethoyum|shethoye-m|think-X}}<br />
{{glend|I think he's ill.}}<br />
<br />
=== Benefactives, causals, etc. ===<br />
<br />
One can form these sorts of statements with a simple complement formation, with verbs like '''shum(e)''' 'to cause':<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesop,|xaheso-po|be_angry-I}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã|op-ufnã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ushmãm|shumã-m|cause.PAST-X}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left (lit. 'I'm angry, your leaving caused it')}}<br />
<br />
But it's more usual to form them with the benefactive preposition '''-qį'''.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xahesopoqį|xaheso-po-qį|be_angry-I-for}}<br />
{{gl|opufnã.|op-funã-Ø|I-leave.PAST-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|I'm angry at you because you left.}}<br />
<br />
in a construction that translates literally like 'I'm angry for your leaving'.<br />
<br />
=== Modals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has several modal verbs, such as '''deḍ(e)''' 'be able to do', '''xaṭ(e)''' 'to have to do (for the greater good)', '''jhau(q/he)''' 'to want to do, to have to do for my own sake'. As you can see from the gloss, all of these take an action as an object, i.e. a nominalised verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opjhauq|op-jhauhe|I-want}}<br />
{{gl|uteų.|ute-ų|strong-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to be strong.}}<br />
<br />
Nominalised verbs cannot, however, take subjects, and to form sentences where that is needed you use a complement construction instead.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Opwopaṭi|op-wopaṭi|I-protect}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã,|ḍã|1p.ACC.SING}}<br />
{{gl|opjhauhum.|op-jhauhe-mo|I-want-X}}<br />
{{glend|He wants to protect me.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comitatives ===<br />
<br />
The comitative preposition '''-c''', as well as its normal use for conjuncting nouns, can also be used to conjunct verbs. Simply put the preposition after one verb, then say the other as if it was the only verb there (that means you don't need to say the subject again if it's an explicit noun, but you do have to say the argument markers again).<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqraiuc|oq-raiu-c|II-be_beautiful-COM}}<br />
{{gl|oquįrum.|oq-uįrum|II-be_wise}}<br />
{{glend|She's beautiful and wise.}}<br />
<br />
A different way of forming comitatives, of a sort, is by using a serial verb construction. This is done when two or more actions happen at the same time or following each other, with the same arguments involved. The two verbs are simply put next to each other, the first one chronologically coming first. They must have the same tense, mood and aspect, but any argument markers need only be specified on the first verb. Here's an example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oqthe|oq-the|II-come.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|įui|įui|push.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã!|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|She came up to me and pushed me!}}<br />
<br />
=== Conditionals ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth distinguishes three sorts of conditionals.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'when' type, indicating that you expect the condition to be fulfilled at some point. This are done by putting the particle '''ṭa''' 'if' at the end of the conditional clause, which comes before the main clause (what will happen if the condition is true.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'if' type, indicating that you don't know whether the condition will be fulfilled. These are done in the same way except the verb in the conditional clause must take the subjunctive marker.<br />
* There are conditionals of the 'would' type, indicating you know that the condition is untrue. For these, again use the same particle '''ṭa''', but put the verb in the main clause in the subjunctive.<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|When you're in good health, I'll be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch.|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{glend|If you're in good health, I'm in good health.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|uch|uche|be_healthy}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|be|be|1p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|ucheq.|uche-qa|be_healthy-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|If you were in good health, I'd be in good health.}}<br />
<br />
=== Comparatives ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth has no dedicated way of forming comparatives. Instead you use the verb '''seṭ(o)''' 'to exceed', with possessives and nominalised verbs. This is the transitive version (for comparing two things), but the intransitive verb is '''shek(a)''' 'be more'. For example:<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vauṭį|vauṭe-Ø-į|old-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{gl|ṭa,|ṭa|if}}<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shek|sheka|be_more}}<br />
{{glend|When I am older, I will be stronger.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|mu|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|I'm stronger than you.}}<br />
<br />
Superlatives are not really found in Wendoth even as a concept. Where we would say something like 'He is the kindest person', Wendoth speakers would say 'He is kinder than all other people'.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utųį|ute-ų-į|strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|aupnãn|paun-ãn|all-I.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|sumų|sum-ų|man-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|I am the strongest person (lit. My strength exceeds all other people's strength).}}<br />
<br />
=== Interrogatives ===<br />
<br />
For simple closed questions, you simply use a rising tone on the final syllable of the sentence.<br />
<br />
For more complex questions, where you'd use a wh-word in English, still phrase it as a normal sentence. But replace the word you don't know with '''qe''' 'thing' with the appropriate noun class prefix if it's a noun, '''ndei-''' 'which' if it's a determiner, and '''vį''' 'do, make' if it's a verb, and add the rising tone to that. These are all normal members of the class they replace and decline or conjugate like normal.<br />
<br />
To narrow down the choice of referents, you can add the preposition '''-zh''' to one of these words and use the limiting noun as its object. E.g. '''qezh ni''' would mean 'which one of you'.<br />
<br />
=== Negatives ===<br />
<br />
Negation in Wendoth is done through a negative particle, '''xe'''. The particle can be placed fairly freely within the clause, but usually appears at the end, or start if you want to emphasize it. It never appears before a relativised verb. It negates the verb of the clause, and only the verb.<br />
<br />
The particle may also appear directly after a noun, to negate that. However, this must be combined with the use of '''xe''' as a modifier of the verb too, in a sort of double negative construction.<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{gl|afmi|fami|cook.PAST}}<br />
{{gl|famuįṭ|famuįṭ|food}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|I didn't cook any food (or I cooked no food, or I didn't cook no food).}}<br />
<br />
=== Imperatives ===<br />
<br />
Imperatives are done by adding a particle. You must have a subject for imperative verbs, although this can be just the class I prefix. A plural pronoun may be used to specify that everyone you're talking to must do it. There are three different particles for different necessities:<br />
* '''okkawį''' - from 'must' plus a dimunitive, this indicates that you merely think it'd be a good idea for the addressee to do it, whether for your benefit or theirs.<br />
* '''tok''' - derived from the verb 'must', this indicates that you should do it or things will turn out bad for you. However it also indicates sympathy for the listener; you don't want them to do it, but you know they must.<br />
* '''nex''' - an unanalysable particle that indicates that they have to do it again, but for the benefit of the speaker, not the addressee. Often it carries a sort of pleading tone.<br />
* '''įqoį''' - an unanalysable particle, this is the rudest one. It indicates that you simply need to do it because of the speaker's authority.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbs, particles: the other stuff ===<br />
<br />
A few more miscellaneous adverbs and particles exist in Wendoth.<br />
* The intensive particle '''ez(o)''', which goes immediately after a verb and intensifies it like English '''very'''. It can be reduplicated to '''ezohez(o)''' for extra impact.<br />
* Several particles for controlling speech flow: '''xou''' 'then', '''taw''' 'also', '''asfą''' 'however'.<br />
* A few 'adverbs', such as '''todh''' 'far', '''ndun''' 'always'. These are appended at the end of sentences and add extra meaning to verbs. It is a very small class however, not comparable to English adverbs. Wendoth expresses most adverbial meanings with nominalisations in the instrumental case, such as '''uįchashã''' 'with softness, softly'.<br />
* Various locative expressions such as '''ushaj''' 'north', '''poher''' 'south'. These are pronouns of a sort, being placed where the object of a verb would normally go; howvever they take no inflection.<br />
* Abbreviated prepositional phrases like '''ṭṭoų''' 'here' (an abbreviation of '''-t ṭou''' 'at this'), '''toṭsų''' 'by you'. These are simply prepositional phrases where the clitic preposition has been reinterpreted as a prefix on a demonstrative.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
=== Specificity ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth is quite a verb-heavy language. Verbs are often highly specific compared to English verbs. For example, there is no verb comparable to 'go'; the mode of travel has to be specified. There is no good word matching 'make' or 'do'; there are different words depending on whether:<br />
* An intended action is being made/done: '''sas(a)'''<br />
* An intended state is being entered: '''vahu'''<br />
* A large building or settlement is being constructed: '''įdodh(a)'''<br />
* A tool is being crafted: '''ṭahes(e)'''<br />
* Something is transforming directly into something else: '''ndoth(a)'''<br />
<br />
The opposite applies to nouns, which are smaller in number. Nouns tend to be a lot more general; for example '''caų''' might be said to basically mean 'rock', but is often extended to other stationary, roundish things, such as pebbles, chunks of wood, inedible fruits, bark, etc. Men and women only have different root words referring to them if they are adult fellow tribesmen; children and foreigners are all referred to as '''yaif''' or '''coįã''', with the verbs '''uhacau''' or '''uthind''' added if you really need to specify. Nouns can be counted upon to stay in their class boundaries though.<br />
<br />
=== Friendliness and Politeness ===<br />
<br />
With regard to people, there are many specific guidelines and rules to follow regarding which terms to use, too many to cover in detail here. Generally, unlike with other nouns, specificity is used when talking about people. It would be odd, for instance, to talk with a foreigner and then say 'I was talking to a '''sum''' (person)' rather than 'I was talking to a '''coįã''' (foreigner)'.<br />
<br />
When talking to or about a superior, it is considered polite to be a bit more specific than you normally would when talking about them. You would not say '''sing''' ('you') or related forms to a superior; you'd use their name. You don't say '''indisum''' ('chief') when talking about him; you use his name. In general, using the name of a person is rather polite. Friends talking about themselves will use pronouns whenever possible, and use nicknames rather than actual names (usually agentive verbs).<br />
<br />
=== Kinship ===<br />
<br />
Wendoth uses a Hawaiian kinship terminology: it is rather vague. The term '''ṭare''' can refer to a brother, sister or cousin; gender is not distinguished. For uncles and fathers, you use '''kechã'''; for aunts and mothers, you use '''mund(e)'''. Grandparents of whatever greatness are referred to with a gender-neutral term, '''gazou'''. So basically, '''ṭare''' is your generation, '''kechã/mund(e)''' is your parent's generation, and the only one where gender is distinguished, and '''gazou''' is your grandparent's generation.<br />
<br />
For generations below you, they are referred to with terms you'd use for non-family members. That is, the person's name when being formal, and a nickname when informal. Each family usually makes up a special nickname for each of their children that only the family members use.<br />
<br />
There are some special terms for older brothers and sisters, too. Older siblings are, in a way, seen as part of your parent's generation, and are referred to with '''yehu''' (for sisters) or '''ṭekaį''' (for brothers). '''ṭare''' is only used for younger siblings. With cousins, nothing like this applies; you always say '''ṭare'''.<br />
<br />
As would be expected by these terms, Wendoth places little significance on the nuclear family, and more on the (horizontally) extended family. Descent is ambilineal to some extent. Your mother's and father's relatives are both considered your own relatives, but there is choice over which side to live with and which side to inherit from.<br />
<br />
=== Various spaces ===<br />
<br />
* '''Colours''': Wendoth only divided colours into three categories: red '''rauį''', black '''reįb(e)''' and white '''įw(o)''', like many African languages. These are verbs, not determiners.<br />
* '''Body parts''': Wendoth's body parts are rather unspecific compared to ours. The word '''įą''', for example, can mean 'foot' or 'hand'; the distinction is not particularly important so speakers can do away with it. Another, '''i(he)''', basically means a hard body part, and so can mean 'knee', 'elbow', 'shoulder', or 'heel'.<br />
* '''Directions''': Egocentric directions are not distinguished from compass points; so there's no words for left or right, you just remember what way is north. They are expressed with verbs. There is '''ṭųpau''' 'be to the north', '''pohere''' 'be to the south', '''kų(q/ha)''' 'be to the west', '''fehi''' 'be to the east'. These can also be used as locative particles, except '''ṭųpau''', which is '''ushaj''' as a locative particle.<br />
* '''Animals''': Due to name taboos, very few names for dangerous or hunted animals can be reconstructed. One that can is '''qanan(e)''' 'beast' which refers to any large mammal. Outside of the culturally important ones, the Wendoth didn't do much distinguishing of animals. Everything in the sea was a '''mop(e)''', everything that flew was a '''fe(q/he)''', all land invertebrates were '''jen(aum/au)'''. If you wanted to be more specific, animals were often given nicknames, like '''agyak(e)''' 'the sneaker' for mice and rats, or compounds like '''feqagyak(e)''' 'mouse-bird; bat' were used.<br />
<br />
=== Borrowings ===<br />
<br />
There are several words in Wendoth which are probably borrowings. Words like this are ones like '''mitur(e)''' 'boat' which have lots of phonated vowels and would have had to come from monstrous Pre-Wendoth roots like ''muhitihuri'', ones with phonated versions of '''a''' within words such as '''Sąr(e)''' 'tree goddess', or ones with medial consonant clusters such as '''omban(e)''' 'flower'.<br />
<br />
The borrowed-from language seems to have had a five-vowel /a e i o u/ system, and Wendoth borrowed /e i u/ as '''ą i u'''. The epenthetic vowel in these roots is always '''e''', a very unmarked sound that was likely inserted by the Wendoth speakers themselves. It allowed final and medial clusters of nasal + stop, liquid + stop, and liquid + fricative. The borrowings show a lack of many Wendoth consonants, namely '''f v th dh z sh zh c j h nj'''; '''k''' only turns up in these borrowings before '''i ą''' while '''q''' is found elsewhere, suggesting that the language had just a /k/ which was allophonically palatalised before /i e/.<br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
<br />
=== The North Wind and the Sun ===<br />
<br />
The original English text (for Proto-Isles): ''The North Wind and the sun are disputing, which one is stronger than which? When a traveller, wrapped in a cloak, comes. They say, that the one who makes the man take off the robe, then of course it's this one that's stronger. Then the north wind blows as hard as he could, as the poor sod wraps himself up in the robe just as hard. So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop, and called upon the sun to see what he would do. Then the sun comes up and shines strongly, and the man takes his cloak off, and look, goes into the stream and bathes himself! So North Wind says, "That, oh well, the sun really is the stronger." Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.''<br />
<br />
Translation into Wendoth: ''Vayash ṭethoy ųtṭųpauc ḍeįj; seṭoq utį ųqqų utuį wosaų? Xou tha iḍihesh tamegįxandeq yobetteheshã. Vazh ezbų poudi yobettehų, vazh ezbų, ųpshek utį ṭoų, įpshi. Xou ngaįv ṭethoy ųtṭųpau paungeį ḍḍeshã įx satehezh sum poṭahã yobetteheshã zheweį ḍḍeshã. Taw woubeq ṭethoy ųtṭųpau biųc, bųtokam; bųshehuįhą ḍeįjaųįq ngeshãdh qe zvįq. Xou ijaṭ ḍeįjac ųp ambuim—taw di sum yobettehų. Prakazum okkawį, pokaut ųwewį xou prafam! "Taw utį ḍeįjaų shekazh ungash," chim ṭethoy ųtṭųpau. Utį moḍebaų adroqapį seṭ utuį įuių.''<br />
<br />
Fairly literal translation back into English: "The North Wind and the sun are quarreling; which one is stronger than the other? Then a traveller, covered with a cloak, comes. The one of us who makes the man take off the cloak, that one of us, he is stronger, they say. Then the north wind blows with all his effort, but the poor man wraps himself up in the cloak with equal effort. So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop; he summons the sun for a sight of what he would do. Then the sun rises, shining intensely—so the man takes the cloak off. Look at it, he goes into a stream and bathes himself! "So in reality, the sun is stronger," the North Wind says. Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vayash|vayash|quarrel}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpauc|ųb-ṭųpau-c|VII-be_to_north-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįj;|ḍeįj-Ø|sun-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|The North Wind and the sun are quarreling;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Seṭoq|seṭo-qa|exceed-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ųqqų|ųb-qe-ų|VII-thing-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|wsaų?|owsa-ų|other-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Which one is stronger than the other?}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|tha|tha|come}}<br />
{{gl|iḍihesh|iḍihe-sh-Ø|travel-AGT1-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|otingįxandeq|op-ingį-xandehe|I-PASS-cover}}<br />
{{gl|oybetteheshã.|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then a traveller, covered with a cloak, comes.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-IN}}<br />
{{gl|ezbų|ezbų|1p.ACC.EXCL}}<br />
{{gl|pudi|op-u-di|I-CAUS-take_off}}<br />
{{gl|ybettehų,|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|The one of us who makes the man take off the cloak,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|vazh|va-Ø-zh|that-NOM-in}}<br />
{{gl|ezbų,|ezbų|1p.ACC.EXCL}}<br />
{{gl|ųbshek|ųb-shek|VII-be_more}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|įbchi.|ųb-chi|VII-say}}<br />
{{glend|that one of us, he is stronger, they say.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ngaįv|ngaįva|blow}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|aupngeį|paun-eį|all-IV.ACC}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|Then the north wind blows with all his effort,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|įx|įx|but_then}}<br />
{{gl|satehew|satehe-wo|wrap-REFL}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|poṭahã|po-ṭahã|I-unlucky}}<br />
{{gl|ybetteheshã|yobettehe-shã|cloak-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zhweį|zhey-eį|same-IV.OBL}}<br />
{{gl|dḍeshã.|deḍe-shã|be_able-INS}}<br />
{{glend|but the poor man wraps himself up in the cloak with equal effort.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|woubeq|woube-qe|stop-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{gl|ųbųc,|ųb-ųce|VII-be_unfortunate}}<br />
{{gl|ųbtokam;|ųb-toka-m|VII-must-X}}<br />
{{glend|So the unfortunate North Wind has to stop;}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|ųbshehuįhą|ųb-shehuįhą|VIII-summon}}<br />
{{gl|eįdjaųįq|ḍeįja-ų-įq|sun-ACC-for}}<br />
{{gl|engshãdh|nge-shã-dh|sight-INS-of}}<br />
{{gl|qe|qe-Ø|thing-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zvįq.|oz-vį-qe|IV-do-SUBJ}}<br />
{{glend|he summons the sun for a sight of what he would do.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|ijaṭ|ijaṭa|rise}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjac|ḍeįja-Ø-c|sun-NOM-COM}}<br />
{{gl|ųp|ųp-Ø|IV-shine-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ambuim—|am-buim|X-be_intense}}<br />
{{glend|Then the sun rises, shining intensely—}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|di|di|take_off}}<br />
{{gl|sum|sum-Ø|man-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|oybettehų.|yobettehe-ų|cloak-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|so the man takes the cloak off.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Oprakazum|op-rakaze-mo|I-look-X}}<br />
{{gl|okkawį,|okkawį|IMP1}}<br />
{{gl|opkaut|op-kau-t|I-go-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|ųwewį|ųwewį-Ø|river-DIM-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|prafam!|op-nafam|I-wash_oneself}}<br />
{{glend|Look at it, he goes into a stream and bathes himself!}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|utį|ute-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|ḍeįjaų|ḍeįja-ų|sun-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|shekazh|sheka-zh|be_more-LOC2}}<br />
{{gl|ungash,"|ungash-Ø|be_real-NOM}}<br />
{{glend|"So in reality, the sun is stronger,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|chim|chi-mo|say-X}}<br />
{{gl|ṭethoy|ṭethoya-Ø|wind-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ųbṭųpau.|ųb-ṭųpau|VII-be_to_north}}<br />
{{glend|the North Wind says.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Utį|ute-Ø-į|be_strong-NOM-POS}}<br />
{{gl|omḍebaų|moḍebą-ų|persuade-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|adroqapį|aḍro-qapį|XI-be_gentle}}<br />
{{gl|seṭ|seṭo|exceed}}<br />
{{gl|utuį|ute-ų-į|be_strong-ACC-POS}}<br />
{{gl|įuių.|įui-ų|push-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|Gentle persuasion is stronger than force.}}<br />
<br />
=== The Wolf and the Goat ===<br />
<br />
English: A goat on a steep cliff is eating, when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him. So the wolf begins to call to him, "You should come so that you will not fall; also, there are meadows where I am, and here the grass is most tender." The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my benefit, you're calling so that you can eat!"<br />
<br />
Wendoth: ''Thoraų vauṭeze zpe ṭohoų ųqezheįq, xou inginge oiszeshashã zdeḍ ejzozam xe. Taw soizesh ouyotez, "Ozthaq, sing tokemoqį zzashąxeshã, wã u chevorotet exceų u bet ṭoų, wã orot ṭṭoų uįch ezohez. Yotum vauṭeze: "Sing shojaqį ḍã xe, sing shojaqį thoraųshãqį mu!''<br />
<br />
{{gl|Thoraų|thoraų|eat}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|zpe|zo-pe|IV-be_on}}<br />
{{gl|ṭhoų|ṭoho-ų|cliff-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|ųqezheįq,|ų-qezheįqa|VIII-be_steep}}<br />
{{glend|A goat on a steep cliff is eating,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|xou|xou|then}}<br />
{{gl|inginge|ingį-nge|PASS-see}}<br />
{{gl|oiszeshashã|soizesha-shã|wolf-INS}}<br />
{{gl|zdeḍ|zo-deḍe|IV-be_able}}<br />
{{gl|ejzozam.|jezo-zo-ma|reach-IV-DAT}}<br />
{{gl|xe|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|when he is seen by a wolf, who is not able to reach him.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Taw|taw|so}}<br />
{{gl|soizesh|soizesha-Ø|wolf-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ouyotez,|ou-yote-zo|INCP-call-IV}}<br />
{{glend|So the wolf begins to call to him,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|"Ozthaq,|oz-tha-qe|IV-come-SUBJ}}<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|tokemoqį|toka-mo-qį|must_do-X-for}}<br />
{{gl|zzashąxeshã,|oz-zashą-xe-shã|IV-fall- NEG-INS}}<br />
{{glend|You should come so that you will not fall,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|chevorotet|chevorote-Ø-t|meadow-NOM-LOC1}}<br />
{{gl|exceų|xece-ų|place-ACC}}<br />
{{gl|u|u|be}}<br />
{{gl|bet|be-t|1p.NOM.SN-t}}<br />
{{gl|ṭoų,|ṭo-ų|this-ACC}}<br />
{{glend|also, there are meadows where I am,}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|wã|wã|also}}<br />
{{gl|orot|orote-Ø|grass-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|ṭṭoų|ṭṭoų|here}}<br />
{{gl|uįch|uįcha|soft}}<br />
{{gl|ezohez.|ezo~ezo|very~EMP}}<br />
{{glend|and here the grass is most tender.}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|Yotum|yote-mo|call-X}}<br />
{{gl|vauṭeze:|vauṭeze-Ø|goat-NOM}}<br />
{{gl|"Sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|ḍã|ḍã|1p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{gl|xe,|xe|not}}<br />
{{glend|The goat calls this: "You are not calling for my sake,"}}<br />
<br />
{{gl|sing|sing|2p.NOM.SN}}<br />
{{gl|shojaqį|shoja-qį|call-for}}<br />
{{gl|thoraųshãqį|thoraų-shã-qį|eat-INS-for}}<br />
{{gl|mu!"|mu|2p.ACC.SN}}<br />
{{glend|You're calling so that you can eat!}}<br />
<br />
=== The Crow and the Travellers ===<br />
<br />
This is based on a Nivkh myth. (in [http://f.cl.ly/items/678712614dfbd6a69364/Nivkh.pdf])<br />
<br />
<small>I see the link has died, so here's the original text, if you want to see it:<br />
<br />
''Going out from Tymy, two men were going to the west coast of Sakhalin. On the way, going for a long time, they passed the night in the forest. One man was father-in-law, the other was son-in-law. After laying the fire, [they] were sitting [near] the fire. A hare cried in the forest. Using the hare's voice, father-in-law excited [the hare]. Son-in-law said: "Stop [that], why do you excite the hare?" Not wanting to listen to [what] his friend was saying, father in law continued to use the hare's voice. The hare's voice was heard more and more [strongly], [and] the fire was more and more burning. Son-in-law was becoming more and more afraid. Going, lying on his sledge, covering himself with the grass, hiding for a long time, son-in-law [fell] asleep. At dawn, when [it was] light, son-in-law woke up. Waking up, when [he] was looking round, the fire has gone out, father-in-law disappeared, the dogs were lying as [they] lied in the evening. There was only the footwear on the place of his father-in-law. That is why people do not want to excite the hare. The place [where] two friends passed the night is called Xaunuzu.''</small><br />
<br />
''Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq. Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų, taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut ṭeinamereų. Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų. Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų. Kaukau zįkahazh įbung. Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã. Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?" Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe. Taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou. Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum; yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum. Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai. Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum. Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob. Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe. Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą. Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.''<br />
<br />
In pre format for now.<br />
<br />
Eįkin acau iḍihi kųq.<br />
eįq-in acau-Ø iḍihi kųq<br />
two-I.NOM man-NOM travel.PAST west<br />
Two men were travelling to the west.<br />
<br />
Opngopou nshu ųveį onsų,<br />
op-ngopou mo-shu ųv- eį nose-ų<br />
I- walk.PAST X- take many-IV.ACC time-ACC<br />
They walked for a long time,<br />
<br />
taw omjenaum idių, pwoḍenjezh įbut eiṭnamereų.<br />
taw om-jenaum iḍi- ų op-woḍenje- zh įbung- Ø- t ṭeinamere-ų<br />
so X- be_during travel-ACC I- rest.PAST-in forest-NOM-at night- ACC<br />
so in the middle of their journey, they rested in the forest at night.<br />
<br />
Manin sum eįkin ekchãį owsãn usmų.<br />
mang-in sum-Ø eįq-in kechã- Ø- į wos- sum- ų<br />
one- I.NOM person-NOM two-I.NOM father-NOM-POS other-I.ACC person-ACC<br />
One man was the father-in-law of the other man.<br />
<br />
Opfaut yįm amzoq wauįdodhezoų.<br />
op-fau- t yį- ma mo-zoqe wau- įdodhe- zo-ų<br />
I- sit.PAST-at fire-DAT X- follow COMP-make.PAST-IV-ACC<br />
They sat near the fire after they finished making it.<br />
<br />
Kaukau zįkahazh įbung.<br />
kaukau-Ø oz-įkaha- zh įbung- Ø<br />
crow- NOM IV-make_noise.PAST-in forest-NOM<br />
A crow cried in the forest.<br />
<br />
Aut aukkauų, eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukauqį va shã.<br />
au- Ø- t kaukau-ų eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø- qį va- shã<br />
make_effect-NOM-to crow- ACC two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM-for that-INS.<br />
To excite the crow, the father-in-law made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Chum yaif, "Wauḍax nex! Au sing aukkauųqį qeshã?"<br />
chu- mo yaif- Ø wau- ḍaho IMP au sing kaukau-ų- qį qe- shã<br />
say.PAST-X child-NOM stop-XI IMP make_effect 2p.NOM.SN crow- ACC-for what-INS<br />
The son in law said, "Stop it! Why are you exciting the crow?"<br />
<br />
Chum ewaįshaį ekshaų, opḍau assathumoų xe,<br />
chu- mo ewaįsha-Ø- į kechã- ų op-ḍau sasathe- mo-ų xe<br />
say.PAST-X friend- NOM-POS father-ACC I- want.PAST understand-X-ACC not<br />
What father-in-law's friend was saying, he didn't want to listen to it,<br />
<br />
taw eįkin kechã įkaha vįshem kaukau sou.<br />
taw eįq-in kechã- Ø įkaha vį-sha-mo kaukau-Ø sou<br />
so two-I.NOM father-NOM make_noise.PAST do-HAB-X crow- NOM still<br />
so the father-in-law still made the noise crows make.<br />
<br />
Kaukau įkahaq, psathum psathum;<br />
kaukau-Ø įkaha- qa op-sathe-mo op-sathe-mo <br />
crow- NOM make_noise-SUB I- hear- X I- hear- X<br />
The crow making noise, they heard it more and more strongly;<br />
<br />
Yį uhoqeqe uhoqeqe; yaif autahehum autahehum.<br />
yį- Ø uhoqeqe uhoqeqe yaifa-Ø au- tahehu-mo au- tahehu-mo<br />
fire-NOM burn.PAST burn.PAST child-NOM COMP-fear- X COMP-fear- X<br />
the fire burned more and more; the son-in-law was getting more and more afraid.<br />
<br />
Ḍeįj oumeri; yaif aytorai.<br />
ḍeįja-Ø oumeri yaifa-Ø yatorai<br />
sun- NOM rise.PAST child-NOM wake_up.PAST<br />
The sun rose; the son-in-law woke up.<br />
<br />
Pouįhãm; yį yehoi, opngum.<br />
po-uįhą-mo yį- Ø yehoi op-nge-mo<br />
I- ask- X fire-NOM be_dead.PAST I- see-X<br />
He looked around; the fire had gone out, he saw it.<br />
<br />
Shez weiu mzhe pweuiųzh merewob.<br />
sheza-Ø weiu mo-zhe op-weiu- ų- zh merewobe- Ø<br />
dog- NOM lie.PAST X- be_same_as I- lie.PAST-ACC-in yesterday-NOM<br />
The dogs were lying as they had done yesterday.<br />
<br />
Įx opngeq eįkãn ekshaų, opedḍum xe.<br />
įx op-nge-qa eįq-ãn kechã- ų op-deḍe- mo xe<br />
but I- see-SUB two-I.ACC father-ACC I- can_do.PAST-X not<br />
But he could not see the father-in-law.<br />
<br />
Manehã ṭasehakįą įdhat exceų ppithą.<br />
maner-ã ṭasehake-įą- Ø įdha- t xece- ų op-pi- thą<br />
only- III.ACC clothes- foot-NOM be.PAST-at point-ACC I- be_on.PAST-IX<br />
At the place where he had stood there was only footwear.<br />
<br />
Taw aush sum aukkauų xeqį ṭo.<br />
taw au- sha sum- Ø kaukau-ų xe- qį ṭo- Ø<br />
so make_effect-HAB person-NOM crow- ACC not-for this-NOM.<br />
So that is why people do not excite crows.<br />
<br />
This is a more typical example of Wendoth narrative than the other texts. Note the stylistic reduplication of verbs in the translation of 'the fire burned more and more' etc.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Wendoth/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wendoth languages|*]]<br />
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]</div>Alces