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Habíci

2021-10-23T14:28:51Z

Zju: /* Numerals */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, consonantal (AC)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
! OBL
| hi- / hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, vocalic (AV)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
! OBL
| j- || aj-
|}

* Nouns denoting humans take '''kub-''', other nouns take '''kųj-'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, consonantal (IC)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| fâta- || pã-
|-
! OBL
| hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, vocalic (IV)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| fad- || pam-
|-
! OBL
| j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
! 2
| O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

Nominative
{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| ornit || nírit
|-
! 2
| cɹábi || bíbi
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| ɹõs
|}

Oblique
{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| jornit || hinírit
|-
! 2
| hícɹabi || hibíbi
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| hiɹõs, jɹõs
|}

== Other pronouns ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || interrogative || indefinite || negative || universal || proximal || distal
|-
! object
| nɹáda || pãɹada || kúpak || kúric || ɹâ || ɹõbas
|-
! object (oblique)
| jɹáda || âjanɹada || hikúpak || hikúric || jɹâ || jɹõbas
|-
! person
| úbas || ɹajúbas || kúpak || kúric || ɹâ || ɹõbas
|-
! person (oblique)
| júbas || ajúbas || hikúpak || hikúric || jɹâ || jɹõbas
|-
! time
| nõbaɹ || pãnųbaɹ || nõbak || nõbic || nõbas || nųbâ
|-
! place
| númą || pãnumą || númak || númic || pãɹų || pã
|-
! manner
| núdaj || pãnudaj || || ||colspan=2| kât
|-
! reason
| núsą
|-
! quality
| jíhix || pãjihix || jíhipak || kúrihix ||colspan=2| ɹųjíhix
|}

== Numerals ==

* 1 '''fú'''
* 2 '''kúka'''
* 3 '''ɹõda'''
* 4 '''xíbij'''
* 5 '''kúni'''
* 6 '''ɹúhuf'''
* 7 '''xíri'''
* 8 '''úką'''
* 9 '''kúhį'''
* 10 '''núba'''
* 100 '''nabába'''

* Ordinals are formed by means of the postposition '''ɹâk''' 'in'.

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:25:08Z

Zju: /* Other pronouns */

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:15:30Z

Zju: /* Personal pronouns */

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:11:11Z

Zju: /* Nominal morphology */

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:09:32Z

Zju: /* Group 1: most finite forms */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, consonantal (AC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, vocalic (AV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|}

* Nouns denoting humans take '''kub-''', other nouns take '''kųj-'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, consonantal (IC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, vocalic (IV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
! 2
| O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

== Other pronouns ==

== Numerals ==

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:08:22Z

Zju: /* Group 1: most finite forms */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, consonantal (AC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, vocalic (AV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|}

* Nouns denoting humans take '''kub-''', other nouns take '''kųj-'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, consonantal (IC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, vocalic (IV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

== Other pronouns ==

== Numerals ==

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:07:36Z

Zju: /* Nominal morphology */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, consonantal (AC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, vocalic (AV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|}

* Nouns denoting humans take '''kub-''', other nouns take '''kųj-'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, consonantal (IC)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, vocalic (IV)
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

== Other pronouns ==

== Numerals ==

Habíci

2021-10-23T14:01:51Z

Zju: /* Lexicon */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

== Other pronouns ==

== Numerals ==

Habíci

2021-10-23T13:58:28Z

Zju: /* Modal verbs */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:57:39Z

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Habíci/Lexicon 2

2021-10-23T13:57:29Z

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Habíci/Lexicon 3

2021-10-23T13:57:20Z

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Habíci/Lexicon 4

2021-10-23T13:56:55Z

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File:Habici vocabulary.pdf

2021-10-23T13:55:19Z

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Habíci/Lexicon 4

2021-10-23T13:32:38Z

Zju: Created page with " pamíji | n | IV | stone pãmijini | n | IC | product pãmijis | n | IC | center pamíkakis | n | IV | pneumonia paminína | n |..."

pamíji | n | IV | stone

pãmijini | n | IC | product

pãmijis | n | IC | center

pamíkakis | n | IV | pneumonia

paminína | n | IV | sling

pamõbą | n | IV | animal fat

pamõbi | n | IV | word

pamõbuk | n | IV | fermented milk, curds

pamõdą | n | IV | animal path

pamõdani | n | IV | type of pulled grain

pamõji | n | IV | salt

pamõjį | n | IV | seashell

pamõjik | n | IV | blight

pamõkuc | n | IV | penalty

pamõkut | n | IV | cloud; fog

pamornis | n | IV | high tide

pamõɹac | n | IV | sinew, ligament, tendon

pamubaɹâkatą | v | -atą | to threaten

pamúhą | n | IV | star

pamúhut | n | IV | throat

pamúhux | n | IV | toe

pamújį | n | IV | wing

pamúmit | n | IV | station, post, duty

pamúna | n | IV | chest; breast

pamúnak | n | IV | shell

pamúnik | n | IV | sled

pamúnuc | n | IV | summit

pamúnuk | n | IV | fish sauce

pamúri | n | IV | flea; louse

pamuɹípij | n | IV | ball

pãnahubaɹip | n | IC | tomato

pãnųbaɹ | pr | | at some point

pãnubi | n | IC | waterskin

pãnųdą | n | IC | bean

pãnudaj | pr | | in some way

pãnuhup | n | IC | fruit

pãnųji | n | IC | tool; instrument

pãnųjik | n | IC | pox, boils, ulcers

pãnumą | pr | | somewhere

pãnumat | n | IC | horn; antler

pãnumį | n | IC | sulfur

pãnunaf | n | IC | flower

pãnunu | n | IC | anus

pãnunuf | n | IC | needle

pãpabuɹi | n | IC | knife

pãpahahij | n | IC | pineapple

pãpahak | n | IC | warehouse

pãpahiji | n | IC | helmet

pãpahit | n | IC | boulder

pãpahu | n | IC | down feather

pãpajibu | n | IC | coconut

pãparumi | n | IC | sandstone

pãpaɹaji | n | IC | cooking pot

pãpijidu | n | IC | coat

pãpɹadufuri | n | IC | treaty

pãpɹadufux | n | IC | agreement; oath

pãpɹajik | n | IC | palm of the hand

pãpɹajik | n | IC | worked fabric

pãpɹajix | n | IC | infection

pãpɹamuk | n | IC | soup

Habíci/Lexicon 3

2021-10-23T13:29:36Z

Zju: Created page with " pãciɹa | n | IC | deck (of a boat) pãcɹajix | n | IC | disgrace, dishonor pãcɹami | n | IC | luster, shine pãcɹanat | n | IC | me..."

pãciɹa | n | IC | deck (of a boat)

pãcɹajix | n | IC | disgrace, dishonor

pãcɹami | n | IC | luster, shine

pãcɹanat | n | IC | method, manner, way

pãcɹi | n | IC | sauce

padubúdą | v | -dą | to cast a shadow

pãhąbaji | n | IC | riverbank

pãHabici | n | IC | land of ɹiHabíci people; land autonym

pãhaduba | n | IC | fields; plains

pãhahaɹas | n | IC | shale

pãhajibif | n | IC | peninsula

pãharunij | n | IC | burial mound

pãharunijimiji | n | IC | cemetary

pãhaɹaka | n | IC | north

pahejɹakatą | v | -atą | to ensnare, entrap

pahekatą | v | -atą | to repeat

pãhiha | n | IC | rod, staff, large stick

páhihik | pr | | every now and then

pahíji | adj | | distressed

páhik | pr | | then

pahítu | adj | | customary

pãhubij | n | IC | island

pãhųbit | n | IC | lake; lagoon; estuary

pãhųdap | n | IC | fur; hair

pãhųdax | n | IC | cup

pãhųdų | n | IC | grave

pãhųduk | n | IC | stockpile

pãhuhį | n | IC | beak, bill

pãhųjiɹ | n | IC | shooting star

pãhumą | n | IC | pine cone

pãhumif | n | IC | spade

pãhumut | n | IC | dew

pãhurą | n | IC | dusk; evening

pãhuri | n | IC | foreleg; foot

pãhurut | n | IC | knuckle

pãhuɹą | n | IC | musk, scent, odor

pãjahiji | n | IC | napkin

pãjąnamat | n | IC | collection

pãjarnudu | n | IC | duckweed

pãjihix | n | IC | branch

pãjihix | pr | | some kind of

pajimádą | v | -dą | to shine

pãjɹafuk | n | IC | trail, footprint

pãjųbak | n | IC | bed

pãjųdą | n | IC | rope

pãjuhu | n | IC | cane; walking stick

pãjuhuj | n | IC | stem, trunk

pãjųji | n | IC | ditch, furrow

pãkabaji | n | IC | camp

pãkąbiji | n | IC | village

pãkabijibahix | n | IC | coin; currency

pãkabijibij | n | IC | circle

pãkabijix | n | IC | large boat

pãkabuba | n | IC | guts

pãkabut | n | IC | algal bloom

pãkacį | n | IC | beard

pãkadana | n | IC | Psilocybe yungensis (psychedelic mushroom sp.)

pãkądax | n | IC | dung, feces

pãkahą | n | IC | berry

pãkahą | n | IC | pine tree

pãkahabina | n | IC | maize fiber shoe

pãkahac | n | IC | ulluku

pãkahaciji | n | IC | corn beer

pãkahajiji | n | IC | flower wine

pãkahara | n | IC | foreign land

pãkahaɹa | n | IC | shame

pãkahic | n | IC | thumb

pãkahiji | n | IC | alcoholic beverage

pãkahik | n | IC | farm; garden

pãkajiji | n | IC | bag

pãkąjik | n | IC | powder

pãkajix | n | IC | tumor

pãkamibif | n | IC | midnight

pãkamina | n | IC | frill, crest

pãkapubik | n | IC | moustache

pãkarajas | n | IC | eyelash

pãkaɹą | n | IC | yurt, large tent

pãkąɹahaf | n | IC | barrier

pãkąɹahux | n | IC | safety; protection

pãkąɹakaci | n | IC | wall

pãkaɹiba | n | IC | hut

pãkaɹik | n | IC | ringstone

pãkas | n | IC | hair

pâkatą | v | -atą | to smash

pãkibac | n | IC | money

pãkiji | n | IC | time

pãkɹabak | n | IC | spike

pãkɹabu | n | IC | gem, jewel

pãkɹanu | n | IC | pebble

pãkɹarabux | n | IC | love

pãkuba | n | IC | berry wine

pãkubą | n | IC | tail

pãkųba | n | IC | home

pãkubij | n | IC | sandal

pãkubis | n | IC | orchid

pãkųbu | n | IC | mosquito

pãkųdų | n | IC | west

pãkuhą | n | IC | intestine

pãkuhac | n | IC | slope

pãkuhaf | n | IC | food

pãkuhit | n | IC | cycad

pãkuji | n | IC | mist; steam

pãkųji | n | IC | year

pãkųjį | n | IC | side opposite, other side

pãkųjij | n | IC | herb

pãkuma | n | IC | hatchet, wood-splitting axe

pãkumą | n | IC | grass

pãkumi | n | IC | night

pãkumu | n | IC | lunar eclipse

pãkuni | n | IC | hand, forearm

pãkupakic | n | IC | adobe

pãkurat | n | IC | ear

pãkurik | n | IC | spear

pãkuɹa | n | IC | earth

pãkuɹak | n | IC | wave

pãkuɹap | n | IC | upper arm

pãkuɹik | n | IC | arrow

pãmababu | n | IC | seed (for planting)

pamáhą | n | IV | straw

pãmahaduj | n | IC | particle, grain, mote, bit

pamáhat | n | IV | jade

pamáɹak | n | IV | anger, fury

pamihíhi | n | IV | tent

Habíci/Lexicon 2

2021-10-23T13:26:52Z

Zju: Created page with " kɹanúdą | v | -dą | to sneak kɹanujídą | v | -dą | to grind kɹarâpatą | v | -atą | to care for kɹarepatą | v | -atą | to..."

kɹanúdą | v | -dą | to sneak

kɹanujídą | v | -dą | to grind

kɹarâpatą | v | -atą | to care for

kɹarepatą | v | -atą | to surprise

kúbak | adj | | fatal

kubâɹtą | v | -tą | to run a fever, to have a temperature

kubejitą | v | -itą | to gather

kubekatą | v | -atą | to escape

kúbį | adj | | alone

kúbij | adj | | round

kuboka | adj | | possible

kubúdą | v | -dą | to bury

kúdą | adj | | straight

kudâkatą | v | -atą | to perch

kudekatą | v | -atą | to refuse

kudoɹtą | v | -tą | to stutter

kufotatą | v | -atą | to drain

kúhak | adj | | patient

kuhetą | v | -(f)tą | to pleat, to plait

kúhį | num | | nine

kujídą | v | -dą | to spit; vomit

kúka | num | | two

kukâkatą | v | -atą | to cough

kukâtatą | v | -atą | to check

kumâpatą | v | -atą | to feast

kumetą | v | -(x)tą | to balance

kumokatą | v | -atą | to outlast

kúnak | adj | | reliable, dependable

kunâtatą | v | -atą | to sneak onto

kúni | num | | five

kunotą | v | -tą | to cling

kúpak | pr | | nothing, nobody

kúra | part | | (comparitive marker)

kurepatą | v | -atą | to challenge

kúric | pr | | everyone, everything

kúrihix | pr | | all kinds of

kuɹekatą | v | -atą | to shoot

mabíbi | adj | | temporary

mabibúdą | v | -dą | to approach, to get close

manijijídą | v | -dą | to throw

mej | postp | | away from

mɹádą | adj | | soft, squishy

nabába | num | | one hundred

nãdahų | adj | | female

náhit | adj | | spontaneous

nijẽtą | v | -tą | to live

nijijúdą | v | -dą | to drown, suffocate

nõbak | pr | | never

nõbaɹ | pr | | when

nõbic | pr | | always

nõdątą | v | -tą | to freeze

nõjitą | v | -itą | to turn over

nomi | adj | | steep

nɹá | part | | (generic intensifier)

nɹabâkatą | v | -atą | to work

nɹabecatą | v | -atą | to heal, to cure

nɹáda | pr | | what

nɹajẽtą | v | -tą | to commemorate, to celebrate

nɹanaháju | adj | | holy, sacred; forbidden

nɹanahijídą | v | -dą | to be made holy or forbidden

nɹanâkatą | v | -atą | to forbid

nɹekatą | v | -atą | to warm s.th.

nɹetą | v | -(f)tą | to ask

núba | num | | ten

nųbâ | pr | | now

núbap | adj | | foolish

nubetą | v | -(x)tą | to aim

nubúdą | v | -dą | to slip, to slide

núdaj | pr | | how

nujâpatą | v | -atą | to squeeze

númą | pr | | where

númak | pr | | nowhere

numãtą | v | -tą | to hear

numepatą | v | -atą | to stall

númic | pr | | everywhere

numúdą | v | -dą | to mumble

nunúdą | v | -dą | to sew; create

núsą | pr | | why

õbadą | v | -dą | to lament

õbujitą | v | -itą | to rot, to decay

õbukatą | v | -atą | to nurse, to breastfeed

õbųtą | v | -tą | to travel

õdą | adj | | dirty

õjidą | v | -dą | to rub

õkadą | v | -dą | to exist

õkijitą | v | -itą | to err

omapatą | v | -atą | to hit, to strike

omik | adj | | blatant, egregious

õmikatą | v | -atą | to find

omipatą | v | -atą | to unwind, to unravel

õmu | adj | | cold

õnikatą | v | -atą | to bluff

ornitą | v | -tą | to squat

õɹakatą | v | -atą | to bar a door, to barricade o.s. in somewhere

õɹik | adj | | shiny

pã | pr | | there

pãbaha | n | IC | cycad dish

pãbahak | n | IC | awl

pãbahax | n | IC | feather

pãbahiɹara | n | IC | village center

pãbąkahu | n | IC | fishing boat

pãbąmidux | n | IC | mandible

pãbąɹici | n | IC | market

pãbij | n | IC | horn of summons

pãbik | n | IC | soapstone

pãbit | n | IC | kind

pãbɹabį | n | IC | shoe

pãbɹadak | n | IC | melody, tune, song

pãbɹajik | n | IC | hurdle, obstacle, difficulty, block

pãbɹajis | n | IC | clover

pãbu | n | IC | foot

pãbubik | n | IC | potato

pãbųdak | n | IC | tooth cavity

pãbuha | n | IC | pond

pãbuhi | n | IC | knee

pãbuhiɹ | n | IC | corpse

pãbųjis | n | IC | nose

pãbumį | n | IC | fork (two-prong)

pãbuną | n | IC | title

pãbunį | n | IC | zodiacal light

pãbunij | n | IC | plant

pãburik | n | IC | frost

pãbųɹą | n | IC | meal

pãci | n | IC | name

pãcį | n | IC | jaw

pãcibaf | n | IC | bridge

pãcibuha | n | IC | edible meat dish

pãcibuka | n | IC | tuber, edible root of plant

pãcįdup | n | IC | maize bread

pãcihi | n | IC | lichen

pãcihiji | n | IC | ridge, rock formation

pãcihiji | n | IC | south

pãcįjijic | n | IC | section of a path or a river where direction changes; angle

pãcįjik | n | IC | incisor

pãcįjiɹ | n | IC | elbow

pãcikakat | n | IC | town

pãcimą | n | IC | premises, enclosure

pãcimit | n | IC | tattoo

pãcini | n | IC | finger

pãciɹ | n | IC | platform; dais

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:07:45Z

Zju:

= Lexicon =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
| juhokatą || verb || -atą || to quench
|-
| juhotą || verb || -tą || to taste sweet
|-
| jukâtą || verb || -tą || to creep
|-
| júma || adj || || ceremonial; (col.) fancy
|-
| junejitą || verb || -itą || to avoid
|-
| júnij || adj || || certain, definite
|-
| jurẽtą || verb || -tą || to smell, to emit scent
|-
| kã || postp || || with
|-
| kabahetatą || verb || -atą || to surround
|-
| kabetatą || verb || -atą || to spoil
|-
| kábį || adj || || stable
|-
| kabijídą || verb || -dą || to clean
|-
| kabíju || adj || || unstable
|-
| kabotą || verb || -tą || to warn, to threaten
|-
| kãdadą || verb || -dą || to swap
|-
| kadãtą || verb || -tą || to meet
|-
| kadõtą || verb || -tą || to break
|-
| káhak || adj || || unique, one and only
|-
| kahãtą || verb || -tą || to cut, to chip away at, to carve
|-
| kaheɹtą || verb || -tą || to miss
|-
| kahídą || verb || -dą || to recover
|-
| kahijídą || verb || -dą || to mesmerize
|-
| káhip || adj || || smooth
|-
| káhup || adj || || crude
|-
| kahurídą || verb || -dą || to taste savory
|-
| káhus || adj || || edgy
|-
| káji || adj || || various
|-
| kãjidą || verb || -dą || to reach for
|-
| kãjikatą || verb || -atą || to echo
|-
| kâmakatą || verb || -atą || to lure
|-
| kaɹâkatą || verb || -atą || to push
|-
| kaɹecatą || verb || -atą || to taste spicy
|-
| kaɹẽtą || verb || -tą || to lean
|-
| káɹij || adj || || hard, difficult
|-
| kât || conj || || like, as, so
|-
| kât || pronoun || || so, in this way
|-
| kijekatą || verb || -atą || to fear
|-
| kijetatą || verb || -atą || to grill
|-
| kõba || adj || || full
|-
| kõbakatą || verb || -atą || to trample, to stamp down
|-
| kõbidą || verb || -dą || to fall ill
|-
| kõda || adj || || stale
|-
| kõdątą || verb || -tą || to roar
|-
| kõdudą || verb || -dą || to nest
|-
| kõjį || postp || || through
|-
| kõjijitą || verb || -itą || to streak, dash, stride
|-
| kõjįtą || verb || -tą || to see
|-
| kopatą || verb || -atą || to buy
|-
| kõɹakatą || verb || -atą || to protect; make safe
|-
| kɹabãtą || verb || -tą || to be cooked
|-
| kɹadãtą || verb || -tą || to be evident
|-
| kɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to come
|-
| kɹanâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to confuse, to baffle
|}

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:05:16Z

Zju: /* Lexicon pt. IV */

= Lexicon pt. I =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|}

= Lexicon pt. II =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|}

= Lexicon pt. III =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
| juhokatą || verb || -atą || to quench
|-
| juhotą || verb || -tą || to taste sweet
|-
| jukâtą || verb || -tą || to creep
|}

= Lexicon pt. IV =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| júma || adj || || ceremonial; (col.) fancy
|-
| junejitą || verb || -itą || to avoid
|-
| júnij || adj || || certain, definite
|-
| jurẽtą || verb || -tą || to smell, to emit scent
|-
| kã || postp || || with
|-
| kabahetatą || verb || -atą || to surround
|-
| kabetatą || verb || -atą || to spoil
|-
| kábį || adj || || stable
|-
| kabijídą || verb || -dą || to clean
|-
| kabíju || adj || || unstable
|-
| kabotą || verb || -tą || to warn, to threaten
|-
| kãdadą || verb || -dą || to swap
|-
| kadãtą || verb || -tą || to meet
|-
| kadõtą || verb || -tą || to break
|-
| káhak || adj || || unique, one and only
|-
| kahãtą || verb || -tą || to cut, to chip away at, to carve
|-
| kaheɹtą || verb || -tą || to miss
|-
| kahídą || verb || -dą || to recover
|-
| kahijídą || verb || -dą || to mesmerize
|-
| káhip || adj || || smooth
|-
| káhup || adj || || crude
|-
| kahurídą || verb || -dą || to taste savory
|-
| káhus || adj || || edgy
|-
| káji || adj || || various
|-
| kãjidą || verb || -dą || to reach for
|-
| kãjikatą || verb || -atą || to echo
|-
| kâmakatą || verb || -atą || to lure
|-
| kaɹâkatą || verb || -atą || to push
|-
| kaɹecatą || verb || -atą || to taste spicy
|-
| kaɹẽtą || verb || -tą || to lean
|-
| káɹij || adj || || hard, difficult
|-
| kât || conj || || like, as, so
|-
| kât || pronoun || || so, in this way
|-
| kijekatą || verb || -atą || to fear
|-
| kijetatą || verb || -atą || to grill
|-
| kõba || adj || || full
|-
| kõbakatą || verb || -atą || to trample, to stamp down
|-
| kõbidą || verb || -dą || to fall ill
|-
| kõda || adj || || stale
|-
| kõdątą || verb || -tą || to roar
|-
| kõdudą || verb || -dą || to nest
|-
| kõjį || postp || || through
|-
| kõjijitą || verb || -itą || to streak, dash, stride
|-
| kõjįtą || verb || -tą || to see
|-
| kopatą || verb || -atą || to buy
|-
| kõɹakatą || verb || -atą || to protect; make safe
|-
| kɹabãtą || verb || -tą || to be cooked
|-
| kɹadãtą || verb || -tą || to be evident
|-
| kɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to come
|-
| kɹanâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to confuse, to baffle
|}

= Lexicon pt. V =

= Lexicon pt. VI =

= Lexicon pt. VII =

= Lexicon pt. VIII =

= Lexicon pt. IX =

= Lexicon pt. X =

= Lexicon pt. XI =

= Lexicon pt. XII =

= Lexicon pt. XIII =

= Lexicon pt. XIV =

= Lexicon pt. XV =

= Lexicon pt. XVI =

= Lexicon pt. XVII =

= Lexicon pt. XVIII =

= Lexicon pt. XIX =

= Lexicon pt. XX =

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:04:55Z

Zju: /* Lexicon pt. III */

= Lexicon pt. I =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|}

= Lexicon pt. II =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|}

= Lexicon pt. III =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
| juhokatą || verb || -atą || to quench
|-
| juhotą || verb || -tą || to taste sweet
|-
| jukâtą || verb || -tą || to creep
|}

= Lexicon pt. IV =

= Lexicon pt. V =

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= Lexicon pt. VIII =

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= Lexicon pt. XVIII =

= Lexicon pt. XIX =

= Lexicon pt. XX =

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:04:38Z

Zju: /* Lexicon pt. II */

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:04:09Z

Zju: /* Lexicon pt. I */

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-23T13:03:11Z

Zju: Replaced content with "= Lexicon pt. I = = Lexicon pt. II = = Lexicon pt. III = = Lexicon pt. IV = = Lexicon pt. V = = Lexicon pt. VI = = Lexicon pt. VII = = Lexicon pt. VIII = = Lexicon..."

= Lexicon pt. I =

= Lexicon pt. II =

= Lexicon pt. III =

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= Lexicon pt. V =

= Lexicon pt. VI =

= Lexicon pt. VII =

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= Lexicon pt. IX =

= Lexicon pt. X =

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= Lexicon pt. XII =

= Lexicon pt. XIII =

= Lexicon pt. XIV =

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= Lexicon pt. XVI =

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= Lexicon pt. XVIII =

= Lexicon pt. XIX =

= Lexicon pt. XX =

Habíci

2021-10-08T19:35:04Z

Zju: /* Participles */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci

2021-10-08T19:31:56Z

Zju: /* Subordinate clauses */ punctuate I am

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci

2021-10-08T18:49:50Z

Zju: /* Nominal morphology */ me grammars correctly

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:54:17Z

Zju: /* Lexicon pt. II */

= Lexicon =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
| juhokatą || verb || -atą || to quench
|-
| juhotą || verb || -tą || to taste sweet
|-
| jukâtą || verb || -tą || to creep
|-
| júma || adj || || ceremonial; (col.) fancy
|-
| junejitą || verb || -itą || to avoid
|-
| júnij || adj || || certain, definite
|-
| jurẽtą || verb || -tą || to smell, to emit scent
|-
| kã || postp || || with
|-
| kabahetatą || verb || -atą || to surround
|-
| kabetatą || verb || -atą || to spoil
|-
| kábį || adj || || stable
|-
| kabijídą || verb || -dą || to clean
|-
| kabíju || adj || || unstable
|-
| kabotą || verb || -tą || to warn, to threaten
|-
| kãdadą || verb || -dą || to swap
|-
| kadãtą || verb || -tą || to meet
|-
| kadõtą || verb || -tą || to break
|-
| káhak || adj || || unique, one and only
|-
| kahãtą || verb || -tą || to cut, to chip away at, to carve
|-
| kaheɹtą || verb || -tą || to miss
|-
| kahídą || verb || -dą || to recover
|-
| kahijídą || verb || -dą || to mesmerize
|-
| káhip || adj || || smooth
|-
| káhup || adj || || crude
|-
|}

= Lexicon pt. II =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| kahurídą || verb || -dą || to taste savory
|-
| káhus || adj || || edgy
|-
| káji || adj || || various
|-
| kãjidą || verb || -dą || to reach for
|-
| kãjikatą || verb || -atą || to echo
|-
| kâmakatą || verb || -atą || to lure
|-
| kaɹâkatą || verb || -atą || to push
|-
| kaɹecatą || verb || -atą || to taste spicy
|-
| kaɹẽtą || verb || -tą || to lean
|-
| káɹij || adj || || hard, difficult
|-
| kât || conj || || like, as, so
|-
| kât || pronoun || || so, in this way
|-
| kijekatą || verb || -atą || to fear
|-
| kijetatą || verb || -atą || to grill
|-
| kõba || adj || || full
|-
| kõbakatą || verb || -atą || to trample, to stamp down
|-
| kõbidą || verb || -dą || to fall ill
|-
| kõda || adj || || stale
|-
| kõdątą || verb || -tą || to roar
|-
| kõdudą || verb || -dą || to nest
|-
| kõjį || postp || || through
|-
| kõjijitą || verb || -itą || to streak, dash, stride
|-
| kõjįtą || verb || -tą || to see
|-
| kopatą || verb || -atą || to buy
|-
| kõɹakatą || verb || -atą || to protect; make safe
|-
| kɹabãtą || verb || -tą || to be cooked
|-
| kɹadãtą || verb || -tą || to be evident
|-
| kɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to come
|-
| kɹanâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to confuse, to baffle
|-
| kɹanúdą || verb || -dą || to sneak
|-
| kɹanujídą || verb || -dą || to grind
|-
| kɹarâpatą || verb || -atą || to care for
|-
| kɹarepatą || verb || -atą || to surprise
|-
| kúbak || adj || || fatal
|-
| kubâɹtą || verb || -tą || to run a fever, to have a temperature
|-
| kubejitą || verb || -itą || to gather
|-
| kubekatą || verb || -atą || to escape
|-
| kúbį || adj || || alone
|-
| kúbij || adj || || round
|-
| kuboka || adj || || possible
|-
| kubúdą || verb || -dą || to bury
|-
| kúdą || adj || || straight
|-
| kudâkatą || verb || -atą || to perch
|-
| kudekatą || verb || -atą || to refuse
|-
| kudoɹtą || verb || -tą || to stutter
|-
| kufotatą || verb || -atą || to drain
|-
| kúhak || adj || || patient
|-
| kuhetą || verb || -(f)tą || to pleat, to plait
|-
| kúhį || num || || nine
|}

= Lexicon pt. III =

= Lexicon pt. IV =

= Lexicon pt. V =

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:47:47Z

Zju: /* Lexicon */

= Lexicon =

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
| juhokatą || verb || -atą || to quench
|-
| juhotą || verb || -tą || to taste sweet
|-
| jukâtą || verb || -tą || to creep
|-
| júma || adj || || ceremonial; (col.) fancy
|-
| junejitą || verb || -itą || to avoid
|-
| júnij || adj || || certain, definite
|-
| jurẽtą || verb || -tą || to smell, to emit scent
|-
| kã || postp || || with
|-
| kabahetatą || verb || -atą || to surround
|-
| kabetatą || verb || -atą || to spoil
|-
| kábį || adj || || stable
|-
| kabijídą || verb || -dą || to clean
|-
| kabíju || adj || || unstable
|-
| kabotą || verb || -tą || to warn, to threaten
|-
| kãdadą || verb || -dą || to swap
|-
| kadãtą || verb || -tą || to meet
|-
| kadõtą || verb || -tą || to break
|-
| káhak || adj || || unique, one and only
|-
| kahãtą || verb || -tą || to cut, to chip away at, to carve
|-
| kaheɹtą || verb || -tą || to miss
|-
| kahídą || verb || -dą || to recover
|-
| kahijídą || verb || -dą || to mesmerize
|-
| káhip || adj || || smooth
|-
| káhup || adj || || crude
|-
|}

= Lexicon pt. II =

= Lexicon pt. III =

= Lexicon pt. IV =

= Lexicon pt. V =

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:47:11Z

Zju: /* Lexicon */

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:45:09Z

Zju:

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:42:15Z

Zju:

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | Word
! scope="col" | PoS
! scope="col" | Inflection class
! scope="col" | Meaning
|-
| áhu || adj || || old
|-
| babâtą || verb || -tą || to beget
|-
| bahâcatą || verb || -atą || to rake
|-
| bahetatą || verb || -atą || to tap
|-
| bahíɹa || adj || || communal
|-
| bahiɹádą || verb || -dą || to become
|-
| bãmidudą || verb || -dą || to be located in, to be found in
|-
| bãmidųtą || verb || -tą || to be rhythmic
|-
| bârnahidą || verb || -dą || to accept
|-
| Bíji Bíji || adj || || Habíci language (alternative name)
|-
| bijídą || verb || -dą || to appear, arise
|-
| bõjikatą || verb || -atą || to have a stroke
|-
| bõmatatą || verb || -atą || to impregnate
|-
| bõmikatą || verb || -atą || to answer
|-
| bõɹį || adj || || good
|-
| bõɹipatą || verb || -atą || to trade
|-
| burekatą || verb || -atą || to warn
|-
| bureɹtą || verb || -tą || to conceal
|-
| búɹap || adj || || strong; powerful; threatening
|-
| cẽbątą || verb || -tą || to wrap
|-
| cẽdakatą || verb || -atą || to recall, to remember
|-
| cẽdutą || verb || -(f)tą || to bather
|-
| cẽjidą || verb || -dą || to lack
|-
| cẽjip || adj || || green; blue
|-
| cẽjįtą || verb || -tą || to cool sth.
|-
| cepatą || verb || -atą || to dry sth.
|-
| cetatą || verb || -atą || to shiver
|-
| cibãtą || verb || -tą || to season, to salt
|-
| cijẽtą || verb || -tą || to give
|-
| cijídą || verb || -dą || to come, to arrive
|-
| cínij || adj || || whole, entire
|-
| cínuk || adj || || recent
|-
| cirâpatą || verb || -atą || to suck
|-
| cíɹ || adj || || overcast, cloudy; murky
|-
| cɹadâɹtą || verb || -tą || to leave, to go away
|-
| cɹadetą || verb || -tą || to hover
|-
| cɹadõtą || verb || -tą || to argue, to dispute
|-
| cɹarídą || verb || -dą || to search, look for
|-
| cɹekatą || verb || -atą || to perform a ritual
|-
| cúbaf || adj || || fresh, ripe
|-
| cúbij || adj || || hot; warm
|-
| cúbik || adj || || thick
|-
| cúfų || postp || || under
|-
| cújij || adj || || sick
|-
| cúk || adj || || primary
|-
| cukãtą || verb || -tą || to lag behind
|-
| cúnuɹ || adj || || yellow; orange
|-
| cús || postp || || up until
|-
| fa || postp || || (possession marker)
|-
| fejitą || verb || -itą || to summon
|-
| fijekatą || verb || -atą || to make
|-
| fõ || postp || || to
|-
| fõjikatą || verb || -atą || to teach
|-
| fokatą || verb || -atą || to be able to
|-
| fɹa || part || || (quotative speech marker)
|-
| fɹabúdą || verb || -dą || to stutter, to stammer
|-
| fɹadâcatą || verb || -atą || to deform
|-
| fɹadâkatą || verb || -atą || to rot
|-
| fɹadejitą || verb || -itą || to pass, to hand over
|-
| fɹadekatą || verb || -atą || to improve
|-
| fɹajídą || verb || -dą || to decline, to refuse
|-
| fú || num || || one
|-
| fúhak || adj || || foul, spoilt, decayed
|-
| fuhâpatą || verb || -atą || to change
|-
| fuhâtą || verb || -(x)tą || to sieve
|-
| fuhekatą || verb || -atą || to guess
|-
| fuhẽtą || verb || -tą || to follow
|-
| fuhúdą || verb || -dą || to stock up
|-
| fúk || postp || || from
|-
| fumekatą || verb || -atą || to fly
|-
| fúmut || adj || || dull
|-
| funâkatą || verb || -atą || to mean, to intend
|-
| funejitą || verb || -itą || to throw, to hurl
|-
| funẽtą || verb || -tą || to wrinkle
|-
| funokatą || verb || -atą || to have to, to must
|-
| hãbahi || adj || || wrong
|-
| Habíci || adj || || Habíci; adjectival autonym
|-
| hahiɹãtą || verb || -tą || to farm; plot a garden
|-
| hajibídą || verb || -dą || to marry
|-
| hajijídą || verb || -dą || to sneeze
|-
| hí || postp || || towards; to
|-
| hõbątą || verb || -tą || to absorb
|-
| hõbi || adj || || dry
|-
| hõbikatą || verb || -atą || to portion out
|-
| hõbipatą || verb || -atą || to whimper; to cry in pain/fear
|-
| hõbitą || verb || -tą || to fart
|-
| hõbutą || verb || -(f)tą || to free, to set s.o. free
|-
| hõbutatą || verb || -atą || to carve wood
|-
| hõdak || adj || || square, rectangular
|-
| hõdątą || verb || -tą || to float
|-
| hõdatatą || verb || -atą || to dig in
|-
| hõjidą || verb || -dą || to cut; split
|-
| hõjijitą || verb || -itą || to fall over, to fall down
|-
| hõjįtą || verb || -tą || to notice
|-
| hõkątą || verb || -tą || to begin
|-
| homidą || verb || -dą || to dig
|-
| hõmis || adj || || fat
|-
| homut || adj || || flat
|-
| hornas || adj || || fast
|-
| hornątą || verb || -tą || to be struck; attacked
|-
| hubejitą || verb || -itą || to boil, to bubble over, to foam
|-
| hubẽtą || verb || -tą || to turn; to alter course
|-
| hudâpatą || verb || -atą || to drink
|-
| hudâtą || verb || -(f)tą || to stab
|-
| hudetą || verb || -(f)tą || to fall
|-
| hudõtą || verb || -tą || to blink
|-
| húhat || adj || || small
|-
| huheɹtą || verb || -tą || to whistle
|-
| humejitą || verb || -itą || to stuff
|-
| humetatą || verb || -atą || to be eaten
|-
| húna || adj || || beautiful, pretty, handsome
|-
| hunâkatą || verb || -atą || to be called, to be named
|-
| hunekatą || verb || -atą || to grab; hold
|-
| hurõtą || verb || -tą || to attack, to strike
|-
| ijeɹtą || verb || -tą || to gossip
|-
| ijídą || verb || -dą || to be interesting
|-
| ijimádą || verb || -dą || to follow, to accompany, to tag along
|-
| jahirídą || verb || -dą || to wind in
|-
| jahodubudą || verb || -dą || to bandage, to dress wounds
|-
| jek || adj || || tough
|-
| ji || conj || || or
|-
| jibádą || verb || -dą || to swim
|-
| jídat || adj || || wet
|-
| jidãtą || verb || -tą || to pull
|-
| jíhax || adj || || natural, pristine
|-
| jíhipak || pronoun || || no kind of
|-
| jíhix || pronoun || || what kind of
|-
| jihõtą || verb || -tą || to walk, to go
|-
| jíhu || adj || || brittle
|-
| jijẽtą || verb || -tą || to flow
|-
| jimetą || verb || -(x)tą || to join
|-
| jõbįtą || verb || -tą || to crumble
|-
| jõbukatą || verb || -atą || to puff out one's cheeks
|-
| jõdųtą || verb || -tą || to defile
|-
| jõjįtą || verb || -tą || to trim, to cut
|-
| jõnikatą || verb || -atą || to hum
|-
| jɹáfuk || postp || || after
|-
| jɹajẽtą || verb || -tą || to forget
|-
| jɹejitą || verb || -itą || to pierce
|-
| júbą || adj || || empty
|-
| jubâkatą || verb || -atą || to lauɡh
|-
| juhejitą || verb || -itą || to eavesdrop
|-
|}

Habíci/Lexicon

2021-10-06T19:40:28Z

Zju: Created page with "{|class="wikitable sortable" ! scope="col" | Word ! scope="col" | PoS ! scope="col" | Inflection class ! scope="col" | Meaning |- | áhu || adj || || old |- | bab..."

Habíci

2021-10-06T19:11:49Z

Zju: /* Nominal morphology */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBL || hi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci

2021-10-06T19:11:08Z

Zju: /* Copula */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci

2021-10-06T19:04:40Z

Zju: /* Modal verbs */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:57:01Z

Zju: /* The infinitive */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:55:20Z

Zju: /* The gerund */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:44:39Z

Zju: /* Participles */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:40:21Z

Zju: /* Existential clauses */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:39:27Z

Zju: /* Possessive clauses */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:35:59Z

Zju: /* Possession */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:34:22Z

Zju: /* Subordinate clauses */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|leave}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:23:28Z

Zju: /* Circumstantial voice */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:16:56Z

Zju: /* Patientive voice */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

'''Hudâtadajɹą kõsinatutuɹ Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.

'''Hudâtadajɹą pãpabuɹi Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:16:06Z

Zju: /* Locative voice */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

'''Hudâtadajɹą kõsinatutuɹ Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.

'''Hudâtadajɹą pãpabuɹi Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:12:06Z

Zju: /* Patientive voice */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

'''Hudâtaribą fâtasinatus Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

'''Hudâtadajɹą kõsinatutuɹ Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.

'''Hudâtadajɹą pãpabuɹi Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:10:59Z

Zju: /* Agentive voice */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

'''Hudâtaɹbitą Ihúɹihus Bɹútus âjapabuɹi kã.'''

Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

'''Hudâtaribą fâtasinatus Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

'''Hudâtadajɹą kõsinatutuɹ Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.

'''Hudâtadajɹą pãpabuɹi Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T18:00:06Z

Zju: /* Clausal word order */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exception.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || anim, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
| OBLvhi- / hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || anim, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, cons ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fâta- || pã-
|-
| OBL || hí- || âja-
|-
|
|-
| || inan, voc ||
|-
| || DEF || INDEF
|-
| NOM || fad- || pam-
|-
| OBL || j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || SG || PL
|-
| 1 || U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
| 2 || O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
| 3 ||colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
| PRS || ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
| PST || ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
| PRS || ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
| FUT || ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

'''Sornųtąmų kõxɹik.'''

The thylacine was far away.

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus âjapabuɹi kã.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

'''Hudâtaɹbitą Ihúɹihus Bɹútus âjapabuɹi kã.'''

Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

'''Hudâtaribą fâtasinatus Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

'''Hudâtadajɹą kõsinatutuɹ Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.

'''Hudâtadajɹą pãpabuɹi Bɹútus Ihúɹihus ɹâk.'''

Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

'''Hudâtąmų Bɹútus Ihúɹihus kątahẽtąmųbak.'''

Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų Bɹútus, hudâf fa Ihúɹihus jɹáfuk.'''

After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition fa. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõką Bɹútus fa.'''

Brutus' sharp knife.

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą Bɹútus.'''

Brutus had a sharp knife.

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being pã 'there':

'''Pãpabuɹi tõkątaribą pã.'''

There was a sharp knife.

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

'''Cɹadâɹtąmų kõhudatąmų.'''

The one who stabbed left.

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about an action:

'''Káɹijitąbak fâtajiba.'''

Swimming is easy.

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

'''Káɹijitąbak jibá.'''

Swimming is easy.

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

'''Cijí!'''

Come here!

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

'''Funokaką jibãmuɹci.'''

'''(Funokaką jibá.)'''

We have to swim.

'''Fokaką crekamuɹci.'''

(Fokaką creka.)

We can perform rituals.

Habíci

2021-10-06T17:43:05Z

Zju: /* Group 1: most finite forms */

Habíci

2021-10-06T17:39:32Z

Zju: /* Group 1: most finite forms */