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Zeluzh

2019-09-02T16:35:02Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* The arrival of the Isles people */

{{Article}}
{{Nation
| nation = Zeluzh
| native = Zeluzh
| map =
| capital = Sumateguhi & Rerãnahi
| cities = Mearenami & Rubiseashim Gukelihi & Pumekor
| language = [[Zele]]
| demonym = Zele
| gov-type = council with elected monarch
| rise = -224 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| fall = ''unknown''
| succ = ''unknown''
| author = brandrinn, [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Zeluzh''' is a nation on the northwest coast of [[Zeluzhia]]. By the beginning of the first millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], it was one of the dominant powers of the northern part of the continent.

==Geography and Climate==

Zeluzh consists of three main zones: a very narrow coastal strip (about 15 km wide at maximum), a broader arid strip up to 200 km wide, and a high volcanic mountain range - the '''Seahagazhi'''. Originally the name Zeluzh (literally meaning "dust sea") referred only to the arid zone, but later came to refer to the entire Zele-speaking area, which stretched for over 1500 km along the coast.

The northern part of Zeluzhia is on the edge of the tropics, and as such is subject to hot and generally dry weather. However, the large area of Zeluzhia generates a monsoon effect, with the southern part of the continent developing a powerful anticyclonic system in the southern hemisphere summer; this draws moist air in from the surrounding seas. As a result Zeluzh itself is subject to a cooler winter with a moderate amount of rain, followed by an intensely hot and dry summer. Close to the coast, this is tempered by sea breezes and dew.

==History==

===The arrival of the Isles people===

The region was settled in the middle of the second millennium BP by [[Isles languages|Isles]] peoples fleeing the invasions of the [[Wendoth]]. Archaeological finds dating to before this time are scant, but indicate that the indigenous peoples were not very populous, subsisting mainly on coastal fishing and some herding.

The Isles peoples brought with them a strong agricultural base and a good understanding of animal husbandry. This allowed them to quickly establish their dominance, as they could support a relatively high population even in the marginal climate.

In the centuries after their arrival in Zeluzhia, the immigrants, referred to by historians as the ''Proto-Zelic'' peoples, diverged into two main groups - the [[Zele]], living on the northern side of the Seahagazhi, and the [[User:Radius/Kiizwaye|Kiizwaye]] south of the range.

===Early transhumance===
[[Image:Sc_river-4_.png|thumb|right|300px|A river canyon of the northern Seahagazhi range in early summer.]]

The Isles immigrants mainly settled in small villages in the narrow coastal strip and on the lower slopes of the mountains, the areas most suitable for agriculture. Around -1000 YP, permanent towns started to appear in both these areas, but with a peculiar twist - the mountain towns and coastal towns were associated in pairs ('''kelebashazh''') with one town in each zone. The two factors causing this development appear to have been the climate (the mountains were more productive in spring and summer, the coast in autumn and winter) and the domestication of the camel ('''zesushim'''), which greatly eased travel across the desert zone. By -500 YP it was not unheard of for more than half of the population in a ''kelebashazh'' to migrate from one town to the other each season.

By the coast, fishing continued to be a major source of food, but cereal crops were the staple; these were supplemented by drought-tolerant fruits such as dates and olives. In the mountains, summer fruits such as apples and pears were grown. The practice of transhumance also encouraged herding, since herds could be brought along with the seasonal migration where crops could not. The favoured animals were goats ('''shãyam''') and sheep ('''mimazhi''').

The most favourable areas for this system were those where the mountains reached down to the sea. This meant that seasonal migrations were shorter, and produce could be easily transported between mountain and coastal towns. A handful of the best-placed towns came to dominate the region: Mearenami and Rubiseashim, Sumateguhi and Rerãnahi, Gukelihi and Pumekor. (In all of these ''kelebashazh'', the mountain town is named first.) The more stable cultivation, with less need for seasonal migration, encouraged these towns to grow to a considerable size, with populations exceeding 15,000 for the largest ''kelebashazh''.

===The development of cities===

As the towns grew, there was an increasing need for organisation. During the early first millennium BP, governing councils developed; they were called '''tsonãsosh''' and generally comprised the leaders of the most important clans ('''meazuhi'''). These councils served a number of purposes - arbitrating disputes, allocating farmland, overseeing civic building work, and coordinating defence.

This last was a concern because of growing rivalry between ''kelebashazh'', and also because of the threat of raids from jealous nomadic Zele. Weapons at this time were simple, consisting mainly of spears ('''nemazh''') tipped with obsidian ('''seayulihi'''). However, conflicts could be bitter; the nomads had capable fighters and considerable mobility, while the towns had strong defences, including stone walls ('''shonoafabam''') and a ready supply of obsidian, and in emergencies could mobilise forces into the thousands of men.

One contributing cause for the towns' rivalry was the increasing importance of trade. Camels were well-established as the mainstay of overland travel, and allowed the larger towns to send trade forays across the mountains to the savannah inhabited by the Kiizwaye. Boats developed quickly, too; the Zele had not forgotten their homeland of [[Tuysáfa]] - which they called '''Tsashigimi''', "the great North" - and kept building seagoing vessels ('''mer''') in which they could make summer voyages across the sea and trade for the produce of the temperate zone. (In winter the prevailing winds are in the wrong direction.)

===War and unification===

In -227 YP all-out war broke out between Mearenami-Rubiseashim and Gukelihi-Pumekor over the control of a stretch of coast between the two that was rich in pearls ('''tedãmãhi''', an important trade good). Gukelihi-Pumekor won a crushing victory on the field of battle - but, not content with this, attacked Rubiseashim itself by sea and occupied the city. Mearenami fell a few months later. This fledgling empire, flush with this success, prepared for a campaign against the other major ''kelebashazh'', Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi. However, the fear of invasion pushed the smaller towns into forming an alliance; Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi also joined and soon came to lead it (albeit in a rather informal sense). Gradually, the smaller towns of the alliance pressured Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi to grant them representation on an overall council, the '''Mati Tsonãsosh''' or "wide council", which convened in Sumateguhi or Rerãnahi depending on the season; this was agreed to, in exchange for a formal pledge of military support.

In the spring of -224 the alliance raised an army and laid siege to Gukelihi, eventually starving out the defenders. The army moved on to Pumekor and captured it by force (although fewer people were there anyway because of the season). Mearenami and Rubiseashim surrendered soon after this; many of the townspeople were grateful to be free from the Gukeli occupation. Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi were wary of rebellion, and decided to ease the hardship of conquest by granting the defeated cities councillors in the Mati Tsonãsosh, which soon came to take on the functions of government.

Although the individual ''kelebashazh'' retained their autonomy in most matters, with decisions made by their own councils, the Mati Tsonãsosh took control of the armies; most of the soldiers went back to their ordinary jobs - there were almost no professionals - but a small force was maintained for suppressing banditry and keeping watch on the nomads. It also worked to improve communications between towns (including building proper roads), to coordinate trade expeditions to the south and to Tuysáfa, and to mediate disputes between ''kelebashazh'' much as ordinary councils did for their citizens. The actual amount of power exercised by the Mati Tsonãsosh was limited, mainly because of the lack of serious external threats; in spite of its relatively small size Zeluzh was one of the larger and more advanced states on the continent. Nevertheless, it was too indecisive as a body to deal with any immediate issues that could arise, and chose a leader or '''zhealenam''' for this purpose. Over many years this position came to dominate the Mati Tsonãsosh, and although in principle they could be removed by their fellow councillors, it became customary for a new ''zhealenam'' to be chosen only upon the death of the previous. Most historians therefore consider the ''zhealenam'' of the mature Zele state to be an elected monarch, rather than just a council leader.

It is notable that unlike in contemporary states in [[Peilaš]], there was no particular barrier to a woman becoming ''zhealenam'', although there were more male rulers ('''zhealekãmabi''') than female rulers ('''zhealekispibi'''). At most levels, Zele society seems to have been relatively egalitarian; war, and times of war, were the only circumstances in which men were unquestionably preeminent (and even then, a significant minority of fighters were women).

==Technology==

By 100 YP Zeluzh was still in the strict sense a chalcolithic society; it had no writing, little metallurgy, and few cities of any size. However, while it was not as technologically advanced as the contemporary civilisations of northern Peilaš, it was not as primitive as such a simple assessment might suggest.

===Stone and metal===

One of the most important factors in the development of Zele technology was the scarcity of wood and coal in the region coupled with the ready availability of obsidian. With little fuel available, the process of smelting metals ('''tabisosh''') was difficult and expensive; obsidian, though it has some drawbacks compared to bronze or iron, is common in the Seahagazhi and as such was favoured for making tools and weapons. It was also a significant export of Zeluzh.

The only metals worked in any significant quantity were silver, copper, and gold, all of which occur in the region as pure metals. Other metals (such as bronze) were known from trade with Tuysáfa and were used as ornaments and weapons by the élite, but these were expensive to import and do not seem to have been considered particularly more useful than obsidian.

Other, more common, kinds of stone ('''sumazhi''') were used extensively by the Zele for a wide range of purposes. Most buildings were constructed from stone, although mud bricks were also used in river deltas. Stone tools, such as pestles, mauls, and hammers ('''tsedabi''') were very common, as were the characteristic granite millstones ('''renastizh''' - often so large that they could only be turned by a donkey). In cities, the streets were paved with stone slabs, and roads between towns were marked at regular intervals by stone cairns.

===Agriculture===

The Isles tribes that travelled to Zeluzhia following the invasions of the Wendoth were already settled agriculturalists, cultivating wheat ('''matatazh'''), barley ('''mashor'''), bitter vetch ('''tsoyaban''') and chickpeas ('''tsozhim''') along with a variety of vegetables. They had also domesticated the sheep, goat, and donkey ('''rorazhi''').

In Zeluzh, these crops and animals continued to be staples of agriculture, but developments continued to be made. The camel was domesticated around -1000 YP, and superseded the donkey as the most important pack animal. The other significant invention was irrigation; the use of simple canals for watering fields greatly increased the area that could be used for crops, and allowed further increases in population.

[[Category:Zeluzhia]]
[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Culture]]

Meshi

2019-03-25T14:41:09Z

Thedukeofnuke: Modified sound changes

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Meshi''' is the northwestern branch of the Eigə-Isthmus language family, which is marked in red colors.'']]

The '''Meshi''' were a nomadic people in central [[Peilaš]], who in [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] times lived mostly along the middle [[Eigə]] and one of its major northern tributaries (which was named after them; cf. {{Ad|Mexi}}), in the regions west of [[Lasomo]]. They spoke [[Aysuchi Meshi|a language]] belonging to the Eigə Valley branch of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus]] family.

At the end of the second millennium [[YP|BP]], when nomadic peoples on horseback had gained a military advantage due to the invention of the stirrup and the saddle, the Meshi set out to create one of the largest empires in the history of Peilaš. They conquered almost all of the Eigə valley, ruling the [[Ndok]], the [[Buruya]]ns, and even large parts of [[Kasca]] and what was later to become the southern part of [[Huyfárah]]. Traces of Meshi culture can be found throughout this vast region, in the form of physical artifacts such as artwork and inscriptions as well as in the form of loanwords (most numerous in [[Ndok Aisô]]) and placenames (for instance, the name ''Buruya'' contains the Meshi term '''buru''' "encampment; fortification"). However, the empire was short-lived; it disintegrated around 900 BP, and the Meshi retreated back into their homeland, where they were gradually assimilated by [[Habeo languages|Habeo]] tribes in the course of the following centuries.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

The Meshi of pre-Ndak times left few material traces. They had no towns or writing, and did not practice large-scale agriculture. Despite this, the development of their language provides some clues as to their early history.

Proto-Meshi shares some common sound changes with Proto-Miwan (/*ts *dz/ > /t d/ in onsets, /*aj *aw/ > /*e *o/ and /*o/ > /u/) and there are a number of loans between the two. 
The change of /kw gw/ > /fw zw/ is however characteristically Meshi and turns out to be important in dating the Miw-Meshi split. A few early loans from [[Proto-Habeo]] and [[Gezoro]] show the change ({{PHab|Taʔuqʷuʔe}} "[[Thabīa]]" > ''*Tawkwuy'' > '''Tawfwe''', {{Gez|gwaːmɔ}} "fortress" > '''zwama''') and it is present in at least one loan into Miwan (''*za-fwinta'' > {{FMiw|zafwiːta}}). This demonstrates that the Meshi had contact with all three of these groups in the same period.

Based on this evidence we can safely say that before the Ndak expansion the Meshi occupied a stretch of the southern Eigə valley from southern Lasomo perhaps as far west as the confluence of the Mexi with the Eigə. They were probably semi-nomadic and sustained themselves by a mix of hunting, gathering, fishing, small-scale cultivation, and (increasingly) pastoralism.

=== Ancient era ===

The turn of the second millennium BP was a period of conflict. The [[Ndak]] migrated south into Lasomo ca. 2200 BP and spent the next three hundred years waging a series of wars against the [[Ngauro]], [[Talo]], [[Gezoro]], [[Faraghin]], and briefly the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]. In the west, the lowlands were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the Ndak empire, as was the [[Rathedān]] to a [[Dāiadak|lesser extent]]. 
This definitively cut off the Meshi from the Miw. In response they moved north into the Mexi valley in the low [[Eiwəl Gourun|Xoron]] and resisted any further encroachment. They still maintained contact with neighbouring peoples including the Ndak, Habeo, and Antagg; some Meshi lived within the empire's borders and served in the imperial cavalry.

The Meshi economy shifted towards pastoralism in this period, partly to adapt to the drier terrain and partly due to developments in husbandry. The majority of the people were nomadic although they had some permanent villages ('''sanu''') and strongholds ('''buru''').

Ndak descriptions of the Meshi are not extensive. As rulers of a prosperous agricultural empire, they had little interest in such a 'primitive' people. The Meshi lacked political unity, cities, writing, and nearly everything else the Ndak valued besides horses. 
However, the Ndak - not known for squeamishness - were particularly shocked by their religious rituals. As well as practicing human sacrifice, the Meshi subjected their young men (and to a lesser extent women) to elaborate initiation rites intended to inure them to pain and mark their passage to adulthood with permanent scarification.

=== Dark Ages ===

As the second millennium wore on the Antagg state collapsed, the Ndak fell into decline, and 'barbarian' nations gained ground at their expense. Similar societal disturbances across [[Akana]] suggest that this was exacerbated by climatic change.

Meshi culture gradually became more warlike in response to these social and ecological pressures. This was particularly marked from the 15th century BP with the Hitatc Empire's brief expansion into the Xoron and the subsequent rise of the Habeo nomad confederation. The Meshi disdained the idea of joining the Habeo even as equals, instead seeing them as rivals to test themselves against, and for three hundred years there was increasingly frequent conflict between the two peoples.

=== Empire ===

By the early 13th century BP the Habeo had developed (or adopted) the saddle, which allowed them to fight much more effectively from horseback. The Meshi quickly copied this advance and around 1100 BP further improved it with the invention of stirrups - which gave them a decisive edge. They beat back the Habeo over the course of a generation and forced them into a truce.

With their traditional enemies defeated, the low Xoron under their control, and their drive to prove themselves in war undimmed, the Meshi needed new objectives. They pushed east into the [[Bwimbai]] valley and quickly subjugated the [[Mohudza]] - another mostly pastoral people - cementing their position of dominance among the nomads. Then they turned their attention south to the settled nations of the Eigə.

The last centralised Ndak states had collapsed generations before, and the city-states and petty kingdoms that succeeded them were in no position to mount a defence. Lasomo had just barely pulled back from the brink of anarchy; Kasca had not. The Meshi swept down from the northwest, demanding surrender from each city they encountered and treating any resistance as a grievous insult. In a few decades they conquered most of the Bwimbai, Eigə, and Milīr valleys and the southern parts of Huyfárah. 
Meshi chieftains established themselves as replacements or superiors of local rulers throughout their empire.
Their centre of power shifted in part to Lasomo (particularly [[Ngahêxôldod]]) and Buruya, which they established as a trading post and stronghold.

=== Collapse and later history ===

While the Meshi readily accepted the submission of other peoples, their society did not adapt well to ruling a much larger agricultural population. To maintain control, they were obliged to either settle in one place or to rely on local client rulers, neither of which suited them. At the same time the traditions of initiation and testing in battle that reinforced their identity became harder to maintain and distanced them from their subjects. 
The empire therefore lacked stability, and friction grew not just between Meshi rulers and subjects but also between 'purist' ('''Meshi beyu''') and 'civilised' ('''Meshi zwama'''). The latter were regularly accused of decadence ('''badachi''').

The invasion of Kasca in the late tenth century BP exposed these weaknesses in the empire and indirectly brought about its downfall. 
A large number of Meshi from the purist faction joined the campaign under the banner of chief Kayri. At first they made good progress, securing the northwestern fringe and the Vuzëi before circling round to the south to capture [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]]. However they ran into difficulties after this point. Securing enough boats to enter the delta proper exhausted the resources of the locals and the patience of the Meshi, leading to ongoing outbreaks of violence. Kayri and a force of Meshi warriors made the crossing to [[Momuva'e]] and captured it but found it disappointingly poor compared to the cities of Lasomo. Further advances gave steadily diminishing returns: the Meshi's cherished horses were of little use in the swampland, and the delta dwellers were impoverished, at best sullenly accepted conquest and at worst hardly understood what it meant. 
In short, the riches and glory the Meshi had expected did not materialise.

After years of fruitless campaigning the horde turned back to Lasomo. Kayri, hungry for a real fight, claimed that the city of [[Akôdaig]] had broken its terms of surrender and needed punishment. To his disgust he was met by a combined army of Ndok and 'civilised' Meshi. Kayri was eventually killed following a series of raids and battles, but the unity of the Meshi had been irreparably broken. Internecine conflict, subject revolts, and counter-invasions by the Habeo, Faraghin, and Hitatc tore the empire apart even more quickly than it had risen. 
By 900 BP the Meshi had lost too much prestige to dominate their neighbours, and no longer had a monopoly on the military advantage of the stirrup. They retreated to the Mexi valley, where they remained as a distinct ethnicity subject by turns to the Mohudza, [[Damak]], and Habeo before being incorporated into the [[Empire of Athalē]].

== Culture ==

=== Tribal structure ===

Like many of the Eigə-Isthmus peoples the Meshi had a decentralised, tribal society.

The basic unit of organisation was the clan or patrilineage ('''kaws'''), which claimed descent from a usually legendary ancestor ('''mifwan'''). These followed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_kinship Omaha] system of kinship. Some noteworthy features were:
* Terms were most descriptive for people in someone's own patrilineage.
* A man called his children '''min''' (son) and '''zak''' (daughter), which also applied to a brother's children.
* A woman called her children '''anar''' (child of a clan woman), which also applied to a sister's children or a father's sister's children.

Chieftains were titled '''jil''' and each held sway over a tribe or group of clans ('''kikaw'''). Socially, they were always men, but in exceptional circumstances a woman could take on the role by undergoing the male initiation rite, taking a wife, and assuming paternity of her wife's children; this was the only circumstance in which extramarital sex was permitted to a woman.

All tribes together made up the Meshi nation ('''aswun Meshi'''). Even in the empire, there was never a single unquestioned leader, a factor that certainly contributed to its instability. Instead the chieftains formed an oligarchy from which campaign leaders or generals ('''jil kana''') emerged or were chosen.

=== Spirituality and honour ===

Meshi religion was polytheistic with elements of animism. They believed in gods ('''nak''') and lesser spirits ('''kayr''') that controlled the powers of nature, the fortunes of humanity, and the afterlife.

Initiation rites ('''bawshis''' for men, '''bawset''' for women) were a core part of Meshi faith and identity. The details varied by tribe and era but they were always tests of endurance and pain tolerance, more exacting for men than for women, and left distinctive scars. Completing the rite was considered a sign of divine favour and worth ('''zasachi chi Meshi'''), and no Meshi man was permitted to marry or become a warrior until he had been initiated. A very few people undertook the initiation twice - which was considered a truly heroic feat.

Personal honour ('''zus''') was also crucial in Meshi society. Courage in battle ('''nyazachi zwip gwun'''), justice ('''zanachi zasa'''), hospitality ('''fwulachi tan''') and skilful riding ('''zazar zwip ashe''') could all increase honour; weakness ('''munachi'''), cowardice, infidelity (of a woman) and especially failure to respond to an insult would lose honour. 
The worst insult possible was '''swu''', "worthless". If anyone - man or woman - was accused of this and did not retaliate it would be considered true.

The Meshi conducted warfare ('''kana''') mainly to pursue disputes over honour, resources, territory, or other matters. Conflict between Meshi individuals or tribes was partly ritualised, with small numbers of combatants and often prearranged terms of victory. Even against other peoples they did not aim to slaughter as many opponents as possible but to kill, maim, or humiliate particular targets - usually leaders or personal enemies. 
They took a fairly consistent approach during their wars of conquest. They would first call on the enemy leaders to surrender. If the offer was rejected, they would kill anyone involved in the negotiations before giving battle, with the two main aims of killing enemy commanders and breaking the morale of the line troops. Their greatly superior speed and mobility meant that they could engage the enemy piecemeal, often defeating much larger armies in this manner. A city or region that did surrender would become the possession of a Meshi chief and required to pay tribute ('''nape'''), while those that refused were pillaged without mercy ('''bwur zwip wesaw''').

=== Oral and written tradition ===

Stories, legends and myths were transmitted by bards ('''kene''') in the form of narrative poems or songs ('''tum'''), which were distinguished from improvised or celebratory songs ('''li'''). However, the Meshi made no distinction between legend and history and saw significant lives and events as potential new legends. To have one's deeds immortalised in story cemented this and was believed to strengthen the spirit ('''zhin''') in life and death.

The Meshi adopted the inscriptional form of the [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary|Ndak logosyllabary]] to write their language and maintained a tradition of scribes or memorialists ('''kenwa'''). Their use of writing was narrower than the Ndak's - they were concerned almost entirely with commemorating notable deeds and events. The great majority of surviving Meshi texts are from stone monuments ('''awkwai''', a Ndak loan) dedicated to battles, conquests, foundations, and especially to dead heroes. Shorter inscriptions appear on movable goods such as weapons, horse tack, and jewellery.

== See also ==

* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
* [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2019-03-25T14:40:44Z

Thedukeofnuke: Modified sound changes

Aysuchi Meshi/Lexicon

2019-03-25T14:40:32Z

Thedukeofnuke: Modified sound changes

Unless otherwise noted, "morphology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|bawset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|bawshis
|
|n
|male initiation
|''*puwsg-sits''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gise
|giseyi
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s-uj, *kI(d)z-uj''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*kluŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shis
|
|n
|man
|''*sits''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Proto-Eigə-Isthmus

2019-03-25T14:40:25Z

Thedukeofnuke: Modified sound changes

{{Language
| language = Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
| date = 5th millenium [[YP|BP]]
| place = [[Huyfárah]]
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
| word-or = VO
| mor-type = agglutinative
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], with help from [[User:Cedh|Cedh]], [[User:Radius|Radius]], and others
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]. It was spoken in eastern Peilaš, probably in the region that later became [[Huyfárah]], during the 5th millenium [[YP|BP]].

The reconstruction of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus is based primarily on comparison of [[Miwan languages|Eastern and Forest Miwan]], [[Ngauro]] loans found in [[Ndak Ta]], and [[Faraghin]] and its ancestor [[Proto-Isthmus]].

= Phonology =

== Syllable structure ==

The Proto-Eigə-Isthmus syllable may be conceived in terms of the following structure:

# an '''onset''' consisting of an initial consonant '''''*Ci''''', which may be followed by an optional liquid or glide '''''*(G)''''' (one of ''*r *l *j *w'');
# a '''vocalic nucleus''' consisting of a vowel '''''*V'''''; and
# an optional '''coda''', consisting of a final consonant '''''*(Cf)''''', which may optionally be preceded by one of '''''*s *n *r *l *j *w''''' to form a coda cluster.

The syllable structure is thus '''''*Ci(G)V((s,n,G)Cf)'''''.

There are of course some further restrictions on possible syllables; for example, the combinations ''*ji *wu'' do not occur (although ''*ij *uw'' do). For restrictions on onset and coda clusters, see the more detailed discussions below.

Many PEI roots consist of a single syllable with this structure. However, no attested EI language is as monosyllabic as this might suggest; compounding and affixation are highly productive derivational processes in all branches of the family, and have been for thousands of years. Indeed, the difficulties of reconstructing PEI arise in large part from the multiple layers of prefixes and suffixes that have attached themselves to roots over time, often causing changes in the root itself before wearing away and being replaced by new affixes.

A prevocalic glide ''*(G)'' sometimes acts as part of the vocalic nucleus rather than the onset. For example, in the changes leading to Proto-Isthmus, sequences of [''*w'' + vowel] have distinct vocalic reflexes when they follow an initial consonant (e.g. PEI ''*Cwa'' > PIsth. ''*Co''). Similarly, postvocalic glides form diphthongs with distinct reflexes in the daughter languages.

== Onsets ==

=== Onset consonant inventory ===

The following onset consonants are reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| *ʔ
|-
|
| *θ *ð
| *s *z
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | *w
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | *j
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

Plosives are reconstructed at three places of articulation: labial '''''*p *b''''', coronal (possibly dental) '''''*t *d''''', and dorsal (presumably velar) '''''*k *g'''''.

There are also coronal affricates '''''*ts *dz''''', and two pairs of coronal fricatives: sibilant '''''*s *z''''' and non-sibilant (probably dental) '''''*θ *ð'''''. These sounds have tended to shift around in the descendant languages, making them considerably more difficult to reconstruct than the plosives. (Labial fricatives are not reconstructed for PEI, although many descendant languages have one or both of /f v/; the Miwan labial fricatives are mainly descended from ''*θ *ð'', while Proto-Isthmus ''*f'' descends from ''*w'' word-initially and ''*θ'' elsewhere.)

Nasals are reconstructed at the same three places of articulation as plosives. The labial and coronal nasals '''''*m *n''''' are perhaps the easiest to reconstruct of the PEI onsets, as they remain unchanged in most of the descendant languages and are found in many clear cognates. By comparison, the evidence for the dorsal nasal '''''*ŋ''''' is extremely murky: it seems to be uncommon, and has merged with other phonemes in many languages.

Liquids '''''*r *l''''' and glides '''''*j *w''''' are reconstructed as well. Of these, ''*l'' survives unchanged in most of the descendant languages; the others are preserved most clearly in the Miwan branch. A number of Eigə-Isthmus languages do not contrast /r l/ with each other, having deleted ''*r'' or shifted it to something else; on the other hand, several Isthmus languages (including Faraghin and Doroh) have innovated new /r/ despite its absence in Proto-Isthmus.

A glottal stop '''''*ʔ''''' is reconstructed for what would otherwise be vowel-initial syllables; this simplifies the syllable structure by making the onset obligatory, and explains some developments in the daughter languages. Most notably, the final consonants of verbal roots regularly develop as codas, even though they're nearly always followed by a stem vowel; this makes sense if the stem vowel was preceded by an onset ''*ʔ''. Further evidence may be found in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages: it's been suggested that ''*ʔ'' induced glottalization or creaky voice on nearby vowels. It's also possible that the phonemic glottal stop found in some Eigə Valley languages is partly descended from PEI ''*ʔ''.

Finally, a second glottal onset '''''*h''''' has been suggested to account for some words which unexpectedly show breathy voice in Eigə Valley languages. However, since it has no consonantal reflexes and only affects one branch of the family, it may make more sense to simply reconstruct this as a tonal distinction in Proto-Eigə Valley.

=== Voicing ===

A simple two-way voicing contrast is reconstructed for all PEI obstruents (plosives, affricates, and fricatives). In plosives and affricates this contrast seems to have been somewhat unstable in the early Eigə-Isthmus family; the regular correspondences in onset position are:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="row" | Proto-Isthmus
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *ts
| *dz
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Eigə Valley
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *ts
| *ts
|}

That is, Proto-Isthmus voiceless plosives correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiced plosives and vice versa, while Proto-Isthmus voiced and voiceless affricates both correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiceless ones.

The evidence (notably from the affricates ''*ts *dz'', whose PIsth. reflexes are not predictable from the merged PEV form) suggests that Proto-Isthmus preserves the original voicing, and that Proto-Eigə Valley onsets underwent the following changes:

# *b *d *dz *g > *bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ > *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ
# *p *t *k > *b *d *g
# *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ > *p *t *ts *k

The murmured or breathy-voiced onsets ''*bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ'' induced breathy voice on the following vocalic nucleus before being devoiced to aspirates. This may have been the first step in the process of tonogenesis among the Eigə Valley languages.

Fricatives did not undergo these changes. The voiced fricatives ''*ð *z'' are reconstructed where Proto-Isthmus ''*d *dz'' correspond to Miwan ''/v z/'': e.g. Faraghin ''daradan'' and Miwan ''varja(:)'' 'dance', both from PEI ''*ða(r)j-ʔa''.

=== Onset clusters ===

Onset consonants may form clusters with a following liquid or glide (''*r *l *j *w''). Miwan preserves more of these clusters than the other branches; the following table shows the clusters found in wordlists from three Miwan languages:

{|
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| ''pl''
|  
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
| bl
|
|
|-
| tr
|
|
| tw
| ''dr''
|
|
| ''dw''
|-
|
| kl
|
| kw
| gr
| ''gl''
|
| gw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| fl
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| sl
|
| sw
|
|
| ''zj''
| ''zw''
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|
|
|
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
|  
| bj
|
|-
| tr
|
| tj
| tw
| dr
|
| dj
| dw
|-
| ''kr''
|
| ''kj''
| kw
|
|
| ''gj''
| gw
|-
|
|
|
| qw
|
|
|
|
|-
| fr
| ''fl''
| fj
| fw
| ''vr''
|
|
| ''vw''
|-
|
|
| sj
|
|
|
|
| ''zw''
|-
|
|
| ''χj''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''nj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| pl
| pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
|  
|  
|
|
|-
| ''tr''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| zw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
| ''lw''
|}
|}
(The entries in ''italics'' are attested only medially, and thus some of them might not represent original onset clusters.)

The set observed in the reconstructed lexicon for Proto-Isthmus is somewhat different:
{|
! Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *pl
| *pj
| rowspan="6" |
| *bl
|
|-
| *tl
| *tj
| *dl
|
|-
|
|
|
| ''*dzj''
|-
| *kl
| *kj
|
|
|-
|
| ''*sj''
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| *nj
|}
|}

Comparing these two sets, we can see that Proto-Isthmus has entirely lost ''*r'' and ''*w''; other interesting differences include PIsth.'s lack of clusters beginning in ''*f'' (because this corresponds to Miwan ''w''), and its very frequent ''*tl *dl'' (which have simplified to ''d t'' in Miwan).

Based on this comparison, a probable set of onset clusters may be reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus (those in parentheses are unattested in any reconstructable vocabulary so far):

{|
! Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| (*pr)
| *pl
| *pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
| *br
| *bl
| *bj
|
|-
| *tr
| *tl
| *tj
| *tw
| *dr
| *dl
| *dj
| *dw
|-
|
| (*tsl)
| (*tsj)
| *tsw
|
| (*dzl)
| *dzj
| (*dzw)
|-
| *kr
| *kl
| *kj
| *kw
| *gr
| *gl
| *gj
| *gw
|-
| *θr
| *θl
| *θj
| *θw
| *ðr
| (*ðl)
| (*ðj)
| *ðw
|-
|
| *sl
| *sj
| *sw
|
| (*zl)
| *zj
| *zw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*mj)
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *nj
| (*nw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*ŋj)
| *ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *rj
| (*rw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *lj
| *lw
|}
|}

A few phonotactic restrictions can be discerned here: onset clusters of [labial + ''*w''] are forbidden, as are [sibilant (''*ts *dz *s *z'') + ''*r'']; ''*r *l'' cannot cluster with each other, nor with nasals. On the other hand, the absence of ''*pr'', ''*tsj'', and ''*dzw'' is doubtless just an accident of our incomplete knowledge of these languages. In between these extremes, it's difficult to tell what the status of such unattested clusters as ''*tsl *dzl'', ''*ðl *ðj'', or ''*mj *ŋj'' is. Further work is needed here; it may also be that some of the clusters found only in one branch or the other are innovations.

Another question worth exploring is whether there are onset clusters ''*ʔr *ʔl *ʔj *ʔw'': if so, they would contrast with plain ''*r *l *j *w'', and would develop differently in some instances (for example ''*wa *ʔwa'' would become ''*fa *o'' respectively in Proto-Isthmus).

=== Proposed correspondences ===

The charts below show the development of onset consonants and clusters in three early daughters of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus: [[Proto-Isthmus]], [[Ngauro]], and [[Miwan languages|Proto-Miwan]]. It will be updated as comparative work continues.

(NB: Correspondences in '''bold''' are attested in fairly certain cognate pairs; those in ''italics'' are postulated to exist but currently unattested. Entries in (parentheses) are not actually found in the relevant lexicon at all. Particularly uncertain correspondences are marked with a "?", whether attested or not. As-of-yet unknown reflexes are left blank.)

==== Onset consonants ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| *p
| (''b'')
| *b
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''d'''
| '''*d'''
|-
| *ts
| '''*ts'''
| '''s'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *k
| *k
| (''g'')
| *g
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| '''*b'''
| ''p''
| '''*p'''
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ''s''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| '''k'''
| '''*k'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| ''*t''¹, ''*f''²
| (''h'')
| ''*f''
|-
| *s
| ''*s''
| (''ś'')³
| ''*s''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ð
| '''*d'''
| (''∅'')
| '''*v'''
|-
| *z
| '''*dz'''
| '''z'''
| '''*z'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| '''*m'''
| '''m'''
| '''*m'''
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| '''n'''
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*nj''¹, ''*jn''²
| ?(''ŋ'')
| ''*ŋ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ''∅''
| (''j'')
| ''*r''
|-
| *l
| '''*l'''
| ''l''
| '''*l'''
|-
| *j
| ''*j''
| ''z''
| ''*j''
|-
| *w
| ''*f''¹, ''∅''²
| (''w'')
| ''*w''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ʔ
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|}
1. Initial.

2. Medial.

3. Possibly pronounced [θ].

4. Presumably with tonal effects.

==== Onset clusters ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| (*pr) *br
| ''*ʈ *ɖ¹''
|
| (''*br'') ''*pr''
|-
| *pl *bl
| ''*pl *bl''
|
| ''*bl *pl''
|-
| *pj *bj
| ''*pj *bj''
|
| ''*bj *pj''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *tr *dr
| '''*ʈ''' *ɖ
| '''dj''' (''tj'')
| ''*dr'' *tr
|-
| *tl *dl
| '''*tl *dl'''
|
| '''*d *t'''
|-
| *tj *dj
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*dj *tj''
|-
| *tw *dw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*dw *tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*tsl *dzl)
| (''*tsl'' ''*dzl'')
|
|
|-
| (*tsj) *dzj
| (''*tsj'') ''*dzj''
|
| ''*tj *tj''
|-
| *tsw (*dzw)
| '''*ts''' ''*dz''¹
|
| '''*tw''' ''*tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *kr *gr
| ''*ʈ *ɖ''
|
| ''*gr *kr''
|-
| *kl *gl
| *kl (''*gl'')
|
| *g(l) ''*kl''
|-
| *kj *gj
| ''*kj'' (''*gj'')
|
| ''*gj *kj''
|-
| *kw *gw
| ''*k'' '''*g'''¹
|
| ''*gw'' '''*kw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θr *ðr
| ''*ʈ''² ''*ɖ''
|
| ''*fr *vr''
|-
| *θl (*ðl)
| ''*tl *dl''
|
| ''*fl'' (''*vl'')
|-
| *θj (*ðj)
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*fj'' (''*vj'')
|-
| *θw *ðw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*fw *vw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *sl (*zl)
| (?''*sl *dzl'')
|
| ''*sl'' (''*zl'')
|-
| *sj *zj
| ''*sj *dzj''
|
| ''*sj *zj''
|-
| *sw *zw
| ''*s'' '''*dz'''¹
|
| ''*sw'' '''*zw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*mj)
| (''*mj'')
|
| (''*mj'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *nj
| '''*nj'''
| '''z'''
| ''*nj''
|-
| (*nw)
| ''*n''¹
|
| (''*nw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ŋj)
| ?''*nj''
|
| (''*ŋj'')
|-
| *ŋw
| ?''*nj''¹
|
| ''*ŋw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *rj
| ?''*j''
|
| ''*rj''
|-
| (*rw)
| ?''∅''¹
|
| (''*rw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *lj
| (''*lj'')
|
| ''*lj''
|-
| *lw
| ''*l''¹
|
| ''*lw''
|}
1. With w-coloring of the following vowel; see vowel correspondences below.

2. Medially > ''*f'', possibly with w-coloring of the following vowel.

== Vowels ==

=== Vowel inventory ===

The vowel systems of the Eigə-Isthmus family show a large amount of variation, even among closely related languages:

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Faraghin
|  
! scope="col" | Feråjin
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
| rowspan=2 | eu
|
| rowspan=2 | oi
|
|-
|
| e
|
| o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
|
|
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
| o oː
|-
|
|
| æ æː
|
| ɒ ɒː
|}
|}

The Miwan languages tend to have particularly small inventories (which they make up for by having length and tone distinctions):

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
|  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|  
|
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|}

Comparison of Ngauro with the reconstruction of Proto-Isthmus is particularly important for understanding the PEI vowel system.

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Ngauro
|  
! scope="col" | Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
|
|
| u
|-
|
| e
| colspan=2 | aü
|
|-
|
|
| ai~ɛ
|
| au~o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *i *ij
|
|
| *u *uj
|-
|  
| rowspan=2 | *e *ej
|
| rowspan=2 | *o *oj
|-
|  
|
|-
|
|
| *a *aj
|
|}
|}

A simple 4-vowel system is reconstructed for PEI, but with a full inventory of diphthongs formed by following semivowels:

{|
! '''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus'''
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| '''*i''' *ij *iw
|
|
| '''*u''' *uj *uw
|-
|
| '''*e''' *ej *ew
|
|
|-
|
|
| '''*a''' *aj *aw
|
|}
|}

The open vowel '''''*a''''' and close vowels '''''*i *u''''' are quite easy to reconstruct, being unchanged in many of the descendant languages. The front mid vowel '''''*e''''' appears somewhat less frequently, and seems to occur only in roots, not in affixes.

All of the diphthongs have tended to merge with monophthongs in many descendant languages, again making them somewhat difficult to reconstruct. In particular, only Isthmus languages distinguish between ''*e'' and ''*aj'' or ''*i'' and ''*ej''; and only Eigə Valley languages distinguish between ''*a'' and ''*aw'', ''*e'' and ''*ew'', or ''*u'' and ''*uw''. (On the other hand, ablaut patterns in the verbal morphologies of the EI languages help quite a bit to clarify the picture.)

===Proposed correspondences ===

Here Old Eastern Miwan and Forest Miwan are listed separately, as they seem to have simplified the vowel system in slightly different ways. Vowels with preceding ''*w-'' are included to show their distinctive reflexes in Proto-Isthmus. There are many points of uncertainty here; the bold, italics, and parentheses have the same meanings as in the consonant charts above.

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | OEMiw
! scope="col" | FMiw
|-
| *a
| '''*a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
|-
| *e
| '''*e'''
| ai~ɛ
| '''e'''
| i
|-
| *i
| '''*i'''
| '''i'''
| i
| '''i'''
|-
| *u
| '''*u'''
| ''u''
| u
| '''u'''
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *aj
| (''*aj'')
| ai~ɛ
| ''e''
| i
|-
| *ej
| ''*ej''
| ''i''
| ''i''
| ''i''
|-
| *ij
| *ij
| ''e''
|
| ?a, u
|-
| *uj
| '''*uj'''
| '''aü'''¹
| a
| i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
|-
| *aw
| '''*a'''
| ''au''~'''o'''
| ''u''
| ''u''
|-
| *ew
| '''*e'''
| '''e'''
| '''iw'''
| ''iw''
|-
| *iw
| ''*(j)u''
| e
| ''iw''
| ''iw''
|-
| *uw
| *u
| ?aü¹
|
| ?i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *wa
| '''*o'''
| (''wa'')
| ''wa''
| '''wa'''
|-
| *we
| '''*o'''
| (''wai~wɛ'')
| ''we''
| '''wi'''
|-
| *wi
| *ji
| wi
| wi
| ''wi''
|}
1. Borrowed as /au/ in Ndak Ta, but /oi/ in Faraghin; probably pronounced something like [œy] in early Ngauro.

== Codas ==

=== Coda inventory ===

Most consonants may be found in coda position:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| (*ʔ)
|-
|
| *θ
| *s
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | (*w)
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | (*j)
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

There is no evidence for a voicing contrast in coda fricatives. On the other hand, although ''*ŋ'' is not well attested in codas, it seems clear that it must have existed. Coda glottals ''*ʔ *h'', like the glottal onsets, might be reflected in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages; there is no other evidence for them.

Postvocalic ''*j *w'' form diphthongs, which are discussed with vowels in the previous section. Coda ''*ts *dz *s'' seem to have merged to ''*s'' in PEV; when followed by a consonant in Proto-Miwan, this usually becomes breathy voice on the preceding vowel (indicated by ''*ʱ'' in the correspondence charts). (However, Forest Miwan does contrast coda /s z/, so it may be that coda ''*dz'' sometimes remained voiced in that branch.)

Coda clusters, consisting of a final consonant (usually a stop or affricate) preceded by one of ''*s *n *r *l *j *w'', are well attested. In this prefinal position, ''*n'' assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, giving ''*mp *mb *ŋk *ŋg''. However, ''*s'' does not assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant: in clusters of ''*s'' + a voiced consonant, the voicelessness of ''*s'' is preserved. Again, ''*j'' and ''*w'' produce diphthongs which are discussed above. The other coda clusters behave differently in different daughter languages, with the prefinal consonant sometimes affecting the vowel (as in Proto-Miwan, where ''*sC'' clusters were one source of breathy-voiced vowels) and sometimes the final consonant (as in Proto-Isthmus, where ''*rC'' clusters became retroflex stops).

Codas were not affected by the changes that reversed the voicing of onset stops and affricates in Proto-Eigə Valley, so voicing in codas is normally consistent across the entire family.

=== Proposed correspondences ===

==== Coda consonants ====
(For coda ''*j *w'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| '''*p'''
| ?(''p'')
| '''*p'''
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *ts
| ''*ts''
| ''s''
| ''*s'', ''*ʱ''
|-
| *k
| '''*k'''
| '''k'''
| ?''*k''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| *b
| ?(''b'')
| ?(''*b'')
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''d'''
| ?''*d''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ?s
| ?''*s'', '''*ʱ'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| ?(''g'')
| '''*g'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| *f
|
| *f
|-
| *s
| '''*s'''
| '''s'''
| '''*s''', ''*ʱ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| *m
| m
| *m
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| (''n'')
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*j''
| (''*ŋ'')
| (''*ŋ'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ?''∅''
|
| *r
|-
| *l
| *l
|
| *l
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ʔ)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ˀ''
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ʱ''
|}

==== Coda clusters ====

(For ''*jC *wC'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *sC
| '''*sC'''
| '''sC'''
| '''*ʱC'''
|-
| *nC
| '''*nC'''
| '''nC'''
| '''*nC'''
|-
| *rC
| *ʈ, *ɖ, ?''*C''¹
| ?*jC
| ?*rC
|-
| *lC
| *lC
| ?C
| ''*lC''
|}
1. Plosives > ''*ʈ *ɖ''. Medial ''*rp *rb'' trigger w-coloring of a following vowel; word-finally, they become ''*ʈu *ɖu''.

== Sound changes ==

These are partly tentative and definitely incomplete.

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Isthmus ===

* Fricative changes:
** ð z > d dz
** initial θ > t
** remaining θ > f

* Retroflexion:
** tr, kr, rt, rk > ʈ
** dr, gr, rd, rg > ɖ
** pr, rp > ʈw
** br, rb > ɖw
** rts rs > ʂ
** rdz > r
** fr, rf > ʂw
** rn, rŋ > ɳ
** rm > ɳw
** rl > ɭ (if this cluster occurs)
* Retroflexion is blocked when the cluster is immediately followed by l, j, or w.

* initial r > ∅
* remaining r > w

* initial w > f

* geminate consonants simplify

* ʔ, (h) > ∅
* intervocalic w > ∅ (probably not including /Vj_V)

* Hiatus reduction: before any vowel, or after a stressed vowel
** first, unstressed a, e > ∅
** then unstressed i u > j w

* W-coloring:
** wa, we > o
** wi > ji
** wo wu > o u

* iw > ju
* remaining coda w > ∅

* w > u when not adjacent to a vowel

*ŋ changes:
** initial ŋ > (ɲ) > nj
** intervocalic ŋ > (ɲ) > jn
** coda ŋ > (ɲ) > j (except perhaps before k g)

* j > ∅ after a retroflex consonant, an onset Cl cluster, or another j

* i e > u o between a labial consonant and a following retroflex consonant

* ʂ ɳ ɭ > s n l

(For subsequent changes in the Isthmus family, see [[Proto-Isthmus]].)

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Eigə Valley ===

* onset voicing shift (and rise of breathy voice on vowels)
** b d dz g > bʱ dʱ dzʱ gʱ > pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ + breathy voice on following vowel
** p t k > b d g
** pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ > p t ts k
** (this shift is blocked in medial clusters of two stops with the same voicing, e.g. PEI ''gasd~gasd'' ‘stream~PL’ > PEV ''kasd~ga(s)d'' > Ng. ''kasdgad'' > NT ''kasadgad'')
(Since *ts doesn't become voiced, *ts and *dz merge: cf. EMiw ''tun'' 'red' < ''*dzusn-'', ''timpi:za'' 'necklace' < ''*tsimp-''.)

* coda ts dz > s z
* ? z > s /V_C

* vowel mergers: e ej ew > aj i iw (although maybe ej > ij in some environments)

* intervocalic ʔ h (if they both existed) induce phonation—creaky voice and breathy voice respectively—on adjacent syllables, then are deleted

* the preposition ''ʔum'' > a prefix ''m-'', which then assimilates to the POA of a following stop (perhaps some other unstressed initial vowels are deleted too; but ''ʔas-'' seems to be preserved as Miwan ''as-'')

* onset tl dl > tɬ dɮ > ts dz (I think it'd be fun to have some hints of the lateral affricate stage in the daughters)
(This change has to happen after the merger of original *ts *dz > *ts; cf. FMiw ''dimbal'' 'wife' < ''*tlujb-''.)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Ngauro ====

(Not all these changes occur before the beginning of Ngauro writing.)

* *aj *aw > ai au in open syllables, > ɛ o in closed syllables
* *iw, *ij > e (maybe [ei])
* *uw, *uj > aü (maybe [œy])

* ? *ɛl > a before a coda consonant
* (other changes involving coda liquids)

* ? *s > θ in onsets
* *ts *dz > s z

* *nj > *ɲ > *j
* *j > z (at least initial)
* *r > j (at least /C_V)

* *m > n /_[+coronal]

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Meshi ====

The order of these changes is not completely certain. However the /*kw *gw/ > /fw zw/ change must take place before ca. 2250 BP.

* *a̤j *a̤w > *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw > e o
* *ʔ > ∅ / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d / in onsets
* *ts *dz → s z / elsewhere
* *w > v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o > ∅ / _#
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C > ∅ / _# in most polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C > ∅ / C_#
* *e *o > i u
* *kw *gw > fw zw
* [+obstruent] > ∅ / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj > *ø > e / _C, _#
* *uj > *øj > ej / _V
* *ij *uw > *əj *əw > aj aw
* *θ *ð > s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → j / u_, a_
* *ŋ → Ø (elsewhere)
* *r *l > j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Proto-Miwan ====

* *ts *dz > *t *d (only occurs in onsets)
* *θ *ð > *f *v

* *aj *aw > *e *o
* *o > *u
* ? *uw > *uj (maybe)

* *s > *ʱ (breathy voice on preceding vowel) /V_C$
(This change may be blocked by morpheme boundaries in the dialect that led to Forest Miwan.)

Breathy voice is now phonemic and found in at least a third of Proto-Miwan roots.

* ? *t, *d > *s~z /_[+plosive] (voicing assimilates to the following consonant)

* tonogenesis

===== Proto-Miwan > Forest Miwan =====

* *e > i
* ? *ij *uj > i/a/u (depending on environment)
* *ŋ > n

===== Proto-Miwan > Old Eastern Miwan =====

* ? some instances of *k *g > q χ (possibly due to early Hitatc influence)
* intervocalic ʔ develops (maybe *wu *ji > ʔu ʔi; possible Hitatc influence here too)
* *z > *s in codas (if this hasn't happened already)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Eastern Miwan ======

* loss of e (probably > i)
* ? u > o /_m (maybe not)
* loss of q χ ʔ (maybe χ > ʁ)
* loss of ŋ (mostly > n)
* loss of coda obstruents
* ? loss of b d g (maybe by lenition to v z ʁ; or by devoicing to p t k, with tonal effects on adjacent vowels; or maybe both: devoiced word-initially, lenited medially?)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Southern Miwan ======

* r > ʀ
* ? χ > ʀ
* ? other uvulars merge into velars except adjacent to /a/
* ʔ > h
* v > w / #_
* l > w / _C, _#
* word-final obstruents become voiced and acquire a trailing short echo vowel, e.g. *dje:zuf > dje:zuvu (this last change is areal; Pirikõsu also inserted vowels after word-final consonants around 500 YP)
* sj > ʃ
* o develops from a variety of sources (< u adjacent to original uvulars, < a /Vw_, < am, etc.)

= Morphosyntax =

== Verbal morphosyntax ==

There are two layers of morphology that can be securely reconstructed for PEI verbs, traditionally known as the '''grades''' and the '''stem vowel'''.

=== Aspect: the grades ===

Aspect in PEI was marked by a somewhat heterogeneous set of inflections applied directly to the verb stem; the resulting forms are called '''grades'''. In the descendant languages, the grades have produced ablaut patterns and even, in the case of Miwan, derivational tone.

Aside from the unmarked '''Zero-grade''' and the '''Reduplicated grade''', the grades were marked by infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others (dividing the verbs into two conjugational classes). These infixes and suffixes were clearly allomorphs of one another, but were not necessarily identical in form. Both infixes and suffixes could be syllabic or non-syllabic, depending on the phonological shape of the stem to which they were attached (the nonsyllabic forms were apparently the result of a reduction of unstressed syllables sometime before the PEI stage).

In infixing verbs, the infixes were inserted immediately before a stem-final consonant. When the stem ended with a single consonant, the infix was normally non-syllabic and a coda cluster was formed. The behavior of infixes in stems that already ended with coda clusters was more complex; syllabic infixes were used here, and probably came between the two consonants of the stem coda, but the details are still being worked out.

In suffixing verbs, the suffix immediately followed the stem. When the stem ended in a consonant, the suffix was normally syllabic. Verbs whose stems ended in a vowel were always suffixing, with a non-syllabic suffix normally forming a coda consonant.

(The infixing verbs were apparently descended from forms in which another set of suffixes followed the aspect suffixes; verb forms marked with these secondary suffixes became lexicalized, leaving the aspect markers trapped inside the newly formed stems. The suffixing verbs were descended from verb forms without the secondary suffixes. The function of the lexicalized secondary suffixes can only be guessed at; one possibility is that they marked something like a telicity distinction.)

Many originally suffixing verbs (if their stems ended in a consonant) could become infixing by analogy. In this way, the infixing pattern gradually spread through the lexicon, leaving fewer suffixing verbs in the descendant languages.

The original system is further obscured by the incomplete preservation of the grades: no one EI language seems to preserve all of them, and they have tended to become derivational. As a result the precise forms and meanings of some of them are difficult to reconstruct, and even the existence of others remains uncertain.

The following grades can be reconstructed with some assurance:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
! scope="col" | Grade
! scope="col" | Marking
! scope="col" | Aspect
|-
! scope="row" | Zero-grade
| unmarked
| perfective
|-
! scope="row" | Reduplicated grade
| partial reduplication (first *CV of stem)
| iterative and/or intensive
|-
! scope="row" | S-grade
| ''*-(u)s''
| resultative
|-
! scope="row" | N-grade
| ''*-(i)n''
| imperfective or continuous
|-
! scope="row" | J-grade
| ''*-i ~ *-j''
| inceptive, inchoative
|}

In addition to those listed above, there may have been up to three more infixing-suffixing grades (the R-, L-, and W-grades).

=== Voice and valency: the stem vowel ===

PEI verbs were obligatorily marked for voice with a suffix traditionally called the '''stem vowel''': this suffix, consisting of a vowel with a glottal stop onset, marked the verb as either '''active''' (''*-ʔa''), '''causative''' (''*-ʔi''), or '''detransitive''' (''*-ʔu''). These suffixes could also be combined with each other to recursively change the valency of verbs (''*-ʔi'' increases valency, while ''*-ʔu'' decreases it); when combined the vowels were not separated by another glottal stop, but merged into diphthongs (''*-ʔaj *-ʔaw *-ʔij *-ʔiw *-ʔuj *-ʔuw'').

This system is easiest to see in Ngauro, where it produces chains of derived verbs; for example, ''kaima'' 'learn, know' → causative ''kaimi'' 'teach' → middle of causative ''kaime'' 'study' (< PEI ''*gajm-ʔiw'' or ''*gem-ʔiw''). It's also reflected (in a more limited way) in Faraghin: most verbs end in ''-an'' (< ''*-ʔa + *ŋwaw''), but causatives are derived with ''-oin'' (< ''*-ʔaj + *ŋwaw'') and past participles with ''-od'' (< ''*-ʔu-di-ʔa'' or ''*-ʔu-di-ha'').

=== Deverbalization ===

PEI had several ways of forming nouns from verbal roots, with at least one acting at each layer of verbal morphology. At the innermost layer, the S-Grade very frequently forms resultative nouns in both branches of the family.

At the next layer, there seems to be an old nominalizing suffix ''*-ga'' that could be added to the root in place of a stem vowel. The semantics of this suffix are somewhat obscure, and it seems to have become unproductive early on; nouns derived with it were already lexicalized in PEI. Examples include ''*njadz-ga'' 'war', and possibly ''*na-ga'' 'lord, chief'.

Finally, there was a newer deverbalizing suffix ''*-di'' which followed the stem vowel. This suffix was quite regular, and remained productive in many descendant languages into the historical period. It is reflected in the Faraghin past participles in ''-od'' and the Ngauro and OEMiw action nominalizer ''-ti''. (The latter was borrowed from Ngauro into Proto-Ferogh or Early Faraghin, producing the Faraghin action nominalizer ''-č''.)

=== Other verbal marking ===

Most other verbal markers seem to be restricted to one group or another of descendant languages. A few examples are discussed here.

==== Agreement in Faraghin ====

Faraghin verbs agree with their subjects; agreement is marked by suffixes that are clearly derived from the personal pronouns. For example, the citation form of Faraghin verbs is the third person singular, marked with the suffix ''-n'' which is clearly related to the 3SG pronoun ''ni'' (both < PIsth. ''*njo'', < PEI ''*ŋwaw''). These agreement suffixes apparently date to Proto-Isthmus; it's still unknown whether any Eigə Valley languages have subject agreement.

(It seems that third person agreement affixes are often grammaticalized later than first and second person ones, if at all. So we could easily posit an older, more fusional pattern for first and second person agreement, maybe dating back to before Proto-Isthmus.)

==== Verbal markers in Miwan ====

The following is a list of verbal affixes (both inflectional and derivational) that appear in attested Miwan words:

* '''''*d-''''' appears to form patientive nouns in OEMiw, cf. '''''d'''re:χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together" ~ ''*re:'' "to speak", possibly ''saχu'''d'''wa'' "flat-food" ~ ''*wa'' "to eat"
* '''''*-ju''''' (very productive in OEMiw) forms agentive nouns
* '''''*sa:v-''''' marks a reciprocal action in OEMiw '''''sa:v'''re:χati'' "not speaking to each other"
* '''''*-s''''' might be an exhaustive plural, cf. OEMiw ''*re:'''s'''ti'' "election" (lit. "everyone speaking").
* '''''*-stu''''' appears to form a cessative aspect, cf. FMiw/OEMiw ''gwa'''stu''''' (n. or v.) "(to) dump" ~ FMiw ''gwa:'' "to use", FMiw ''nidri:'''stu''''' "to regret" ~ ''nidri:'' "to feel warm towards"
* '''''*-χa(s)''''' negative suffix (OEMiw)
* '''''*-ʔi''''' privative (with nouns) or non-potential (with verbs) suffix in OEMiw, cf. ''gwa:'''ʔi'''ti'' "not important, useless" (becomes ''-hi'' in Southern)

In addition to this, Old Eastern Miwan had a hearsay marker ''tu:zi'', which apparently was a free-standing particle (loaned into Naidda as ''tuze'' "I guess"). This appears to be an inflected verb meaning something like "(it) is told", from PEI ''*dlum'' "to tell".

== Nominal morphosyntax ==

=== Number ===

There seem to be two ways of forming plurals in Eigə-Isthmus languages:

* A PEI suffix ''*-wa'' is the source of the plural marker in Faraghin (where it's usually realized as ''-a'').

* Reduplication marks plurals in Ngauro (maybe with the additional meaning 'many', as in ''kasd~ga(s)d'' 'many streams'). It's possible that this is an innovation in the Eigə Valley branch.

=== De-nominalization ===

PEI had a suffix ''*-ʔa'' or ''*-ha'' that derived adjectives from nouns. This suffix was quite regular and remained productive in both branches of the family: it can be seen in Ngauro ''dyaka'' 'kingly, royal' (< PEI ''*trelk-ʔa'' or ''*trelk-ha''), and in the Isthmus participles formed with Proto-Isthmus ''*-dja'' (< ''*-di-ʔa'' or ''*-di-ha'').

=== Case and adpositions ===

==== Case prefixes ====

PEI had two morphemes that were either prepositions or case prefixes: ''*ʔas(-)'' and ''*za(-)''.

In Proto-Isthmus they are definitely case prefixes (genitive-accusative ''*as-'' and dative ''*dza-''), and they still fill this role in the Faraghin pronoun system; some other Isthmus languages also retain an oblique noun stem reflecting the ''*as-'' prefix.

Elsewhere they seem to have become derivational:

* Several FMiw nouns and adjectives begin with ''as-'', likely < PEI ''*ʔas(-)''. There are also a good number of Faraghin nouns that exhibit the consonant mutation caused by PIsth. ''*as-''.

* It's also been proposed that the Meshi-derived word ''zafwi(:)ta(:)'' 'bird's nest' should be interpreted as < ''*za-gwenta'' 'LOC-bird', with a locative ''*za-'' < PEI ''*za(-)''. The reflexes of PIsth. ''*dza-'' also form locative adverbs in Doroh, and directional ones in archaic Boésin.

==== Other adpositions ====

There is at least one other morpheme that becomes a nominal affix in both branches of the family: the name ''Miw'' seems to be formed from PEI ''*pews'' with a nasal prefix derived from the same ''*ʔum'' that becomes a genitive case ''suffix'' in Faraghin and Feråjin. (The first syllable of ''Meshi'' is cognate with ''Miw'', so this word—including the prefix—apparently goes back to Proto-Eigə Valley.) It seems that ''*ʔum'' was a preposition in the branch that led to the Eigə Valley languages, and a postposition in Isthmus.

===== Isthmus =====

The oldest case markers in the Isthmus languages are the two prefixes mentioned above. But newer case markers (at least in Faraghin, Feråjin, and Doroh) are suffixes derived from postpositions. This suggests that the language changed from prepositional to postpositional early on—certainly before the Western Isthmus stage. Since postpositions are pretty strongly (though not exclusively) associated with OV order, that order is the most likely for Proto-Isthmus; but the old prefixes hint at an earlier VO, head-initial stage of the language.

===== Miwan =====

FMiw ''di:za:'' "to wilt" might be formed from ''za:'' "to die" (attested in OEMiw) by prefixing a morpheme possibly meaning "away". If this is derived from an adposition, it would support the assumption that PEI was prepositional.

=== Compounding and noun-phrase syntax ===

Aside from this, there are some other similar developments in both branches, and analysis of noun-noun compounds has proved fruitful for understanding the changes to word order that have happened in the EI family.

==== Compounding in Faraghin ====

In Faraghin compounds, a genitive follows its head noun (NG), but adjectives precede (AN). (These compounds are probably not very old, since they include semantic fields like political, military, and nautical terminology that were probably developed after the Faraghin conquest of Huyfárah. On the other hand the compounding rule may be older than the rule used for clauses.)

In any case, NG order normally coincides with VO order; NG with OV is much rarer, especially when combined with AN (WALS, out of a sample of 1099 languages, lists only one—Tigré—with this combination of features). Since Faraghin compounds are AN, it seems that the NG order should be associated with an earlier VO order. So once again we have evidence for an early head-initial stage.

==== Compounding in Miwan ====

In Miwan, compounds with both head-initial (NA/NG) and head-final (AN/GN) order are attested. However, the distribution of these compound patterns gives a fairly clear picture:

* Old Eastern Miwan, the best-attested language of the family, is overwhelmingly head-final. The only known compound in OEMiw that might possibly be head-initial is ''dre:-χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together", which is reflected in Naidda ''jeorvi'' "chorus, harmony", but it seems rather likely that ''*χurfī'' is actually a nominalised verb form, which would make the compound one of the common GN type.
* Later forms of Eastern Miwan seem to also contain head-initial compounds, including NA compounds such as EMiw ''zuka-tun'' "fruit-red" > "tomato" and ''pa:n-tun'' "music-red" > "guitar". This might be an indication that these dialects switched their compound order at some point during the 1st millennium YP (possibly through influence from Edastean).
* Both genitive compounds attested in Late Eastern Miwan, ''fur-zin'' "tree-life" > "elm tree" and ''za-fwita:'' "nest-bird", follow NG order and, interestingly, have almost identical cognates in western Miwan: FMiw ''fur-zi:n'' and ''za-fwi:ta'', respectively. If these are not borrowings, one can conclude that genitives followed the noun in Proto-Miwan or earlier, and that this ordering was changed later on at least in the eastern dialects. A strong argument in favour of this is presented by the word ''za-fwita:/-fwi:ta'', whose second element is clearly cognate to FMiw ''kwintas'' "bird", but exhibits - in both dialects! - several sound changes not present in the uncompounded form, and therefore appears to be a very old formation. The lenition process turning ''*kw'' into ''fw'' seems similar to the Western Isthmus change of ''*p t k > f s x'' after the genitive preposition ''*as-'', but the word can't be a loan from WI since it would have been ''*ɣonta'' there. It is probably a borrowing from proto-Meshi ''*fwinta'', whose classical Meshi reflex is ''fwina''.
* Forest Miwan does have a head-final AN compound, ''ti:-vur'' "funny-tree" > "hickory tree", but this does not prove that FMiw also switched to head-final compounding because it is identical to a Late Eastern word and might be a borrowing.

As a summary, it seems likely that PEV (pending evidence from Ngauro and/or Meshi) or a slightly later form of the language (i.e. Proto-Miwan) had head-initial compounds, with at least Old Eastern Miwan—but quite possibly all Miwan languages—later switching to head-final order. My guess is that this would have happened before -2000 YP because the strong superstratum influence of Ndak Ta (which is head-initial) would certainly not have encouraged this change.

Furthermore, if PEV was probably head-initial, and a head-initial ancestral stage underlies PIsth., then it seems almost certain that PEI was head-initial.

However, if we allow that the proto-languages need not have been entirely either head-initial or head-final, a slightly different scenario emerges which may provide a simpler explanation. The attested compounds in Forest Miwan show the same orders as Faraghin: NG and AN. It may be that both languages inherited these compound orders from PEI, and that only Eastern Miwan has changed its compound orders—first shifting from NG to GN (to become more consistently head-final), and then later shifting to NG and (mostly) NA under Edastean influence.

If this scenario is correct, PEI turns out to have had a somewhat mixed word-order pattern (but not a particularly rare one according to WALS): NG, VO, and prepositions, but AN.

= Proposed roots =

:{{main|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus/Lexicon}}

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Eigə-Isthmus]]

Dumic languages

2019-02-11T13:15:56Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Family tree */

{{Article}}

[[Image:SE_Tuysafa_languages_0YP.png|thumb|right|512px|A map of southeast Tuysáfa, showing the distribution of [[T1 languages]] (in green) and [[Dumic languages]] (in red) around 0 YP. (''"DLNAF"'' is not indicated; it is spoken between Potansʉti and Jouki Stəy.)]]
The '''Dumic languages''' a.k.a. '''Team-2 languages''' (abbreviated as '''T2''') are a family of related languages spoken in the southeastern part of [[Tuysáfa]], from all sides of the [[Great Bay]] to the coast south of the nearby mountains. Their last common ancestor language [[Proto-Dumic]] is tentatively dated to c. -2000 YP, probably along the gentle slopes to the southwest of the [[Great Bay]]. As of 0 YP, modern languages are found throughout the southeastern part of the continent, and on several islands off shore in the case of [[Trinesian]] and [[Swopsoch]].

==Family tree==

Known members of the Dumic language family include:

{{:Languages of Akana/Dumic}}

Among the first generation of Dumic languages, Jouki Stəy, Swopsoch, and to some extent Tetey share some common developments, as do Kataputi and Trinesian.

==See also==

* [[The chief and the mouse]]
* [[Dumic languages/Sound changes]]
* [[Proto-Dumic (reconstructed)]]
* [[Proto-Dumic (reconstructed)/Lexicon]]

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Dumic languages|*]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Dumic languages/Sound changes

2019-02-11T12:48:35Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Kataputi */

The sound changes of the [[Dumic languages]].

Below, following abbreviations are used:
* C — any consonant
* N — any nasal consonant
* P — any plosive consonant
* V — any vowel
* # — word boundary
* $ — syllable boundary

== [[Wokatasuto]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1071#p1071]

; Vowel shift
* i u → e o / in closed syllables
* o u → ɤ ɯ / unless next to a labial
* aN → ɑ̃ → o / _$

; Assimilation
* imi unu → ini umu

; Gemination
* r → [ɾ] / V_V, purely allophonic, has no impact on future changes
* C → Cː / _V[+stress], feeding:
** mː nː → mb nd (→ m n / #_)
** pː tː kː sː → pf ts kx ʃː → f ts x ʃ
** wː ðː ɣː rː → bː dː ɡː rː → b d ɡ r
* ts s → s h
* s → ʃ / _i

; Approximants shift
* ðVð wVw ɣVɣ → ðVr wVp ɣVk
* ð ɣ → ð̞ ɰ
* ɰ → j / _{e i}

; Syllable simplification
* ð̞i ð̞e ð̞ɯ → ə
* wu wo → ʉ
* ɰɯ ɰɤ ɰa → ɑ
* ji je → i

; Vowel simplification
* aə iə uə ɯə → aː iː uː ɯː
* aʉ iʉ uʉ → ɤː iː uː
* aɑ iɑ uɑ ɯɑ → aː ia̯ ua̯ ɯː
* ai ii ui ɯi → ai̯ iː ui̯ ɯː

; Second vowel shift
* ɯ ɤ ɑ ʉ → ə o o u
* a → ɑ → o / _C[+velar]
* ai̯ → eː
* ð̞ ɰ → ∅ w

; Nasalization
* i(ː) e(ː) + m n → ẽː / _$
* ə(ː) a(ː) + m n → ãː / _$
* u(ː) o(ː) + m n → õː / _$

== [[Potɑnsʉti]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1182#p1182]''

; Reduction of R
* r → ɾ
* V₁ɾV₁ → V₁l
* w ð ɣ ɾ → p t k s / l_

; Reduction of N
* V → V[+nasal] / _N$
* n → ∅ / _$
* m → m~n~n̠~ŋ / _C, assimilates wrt the POA
* m → n / _#

; Vowel chain shift
* u → o
* ã ĩ ũ → ɑ ɛ ʉ

; Transformation of approximants
* ð → ɦ
* ɣ → ɰ
* ɰ → j / i_
* w → β

== [[Kataputi]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1053#p1053]''

; Consonant changes
* ð → z
* ɣ → h / #_
* ɣ → ∅ / elsewhere

; Reduction of vowel clusters — [?]
* aa ii uu → aː iː uː
* ia ua → eː oː
* iu ui → iː / {i} in strong syllable
* iu ui → uː / {u} in strong syllable
* V[-long] → ∅ / in weak syllables
* V[+long] → [-long] / in unstressed syllables

; Consonant shift
* p → ɸ → h
* Nh → NN
* ns ms → nts mps → nt mp

; Vowel simplification
* Vː → V / _V
* ai au → eː oː

; Voicing shift
* t k s → d ɡ z / V_V
* mp nt nk → p t k

; Vowel syncope
* V → ∅ / P_{s z r w}, {s z}_{P s z r w}, unstressed
* V → ∅ / h_C, except initially, unstressed
* V → ∅ / C_h

; Consonant cluster simplification
* C → [α voicing] / C[α voicing]_ (assimilation to preceding consonant)
* sr zr → sw zw
* hC Ch → Cː
* V → Vː / C_Cː
* Cː → C
* C → ∅ / _#

== [[Trinesian]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1040#p1040]''

; Consonant changes
* ð ɣ → l ∅
* m → n / _$
* np nt ns nk → b d z ɡ
* nm → m

; Palatalization
* k ɡ → s z / _i

; Reduction of vowel clusters
* aa ii uu → aː iː uː
* ia ua → eː oː
* iu ui → iː / {i} in strong syllable
* iu ui → uː / {u} in strong syllable
* V[-long] → ∅ / in weak syllables
* V[+long] → [-long] / in unstressed syllables

; Reduction of initial consonant clusters
* P → ∅ / #_P
* NP → P[+voiced] / #_
* w r l → u ∅ ∅ / #_C
* s → z / #_{b d ɡ}

== [[Jouki Stəy]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1848#p1848]''

; Phonemicization of /ɨ/
: (common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)
* i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
* w → ∅

; Approximant shift
: (common to JS and Sw.)
* ɣ → w / kV_, _Vk
* ɣ → j / elsewhere
* ða ði ðu → a ji wu / V_

; Nasal changes
: (common to JS and Sw.)
* m n → ∅ / V_V
* NC → Cː

; Resolving vowel hiatus
* ∅ → {j w} / V_ˈVV, VV_ˈV, {j} after {i}, {w} after {a u}
* aa ii uu → aː iː uː
* ia ai → eː
* iu ui → ɨː
* ua au → oː

; Final nasal reduction
* i u → ə / _N#, unstressed
* ən əm → ẽ õ
* am → ãu / _#, stressed
* VN → V[+nasal] / _#

; Syncope
* V[-long] → ∅ / _CV[+stress], also in every other preceding syllable

; Cluster simplification and metathesis
* pp tt kk → pf ts ks / #_
* ss → ts / #_
* NB jC rC jr → BN Cj Cr rj / B = any obstruent
* Cː → C / _C, C_
* z → s / _C, C_

; Intervocalic lenition
* p → f / V_V

; Vocalic shift
* aː eː oː iː uː ɨː → au ei ou əi əu əɨ
* ẽ õ → ẽi õu
* a e i o u → ja je ji vo vu / #_
* aja awa → ei ou
* ji → i / C_
* j w → ʝ v / #_, V_V

== [[Swopsoch]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1847#p1847]''

; Phonemicization of /ɨ/ (-1900 ÷ -1700)
: (common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)
* i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
* w → ∅

; Approximant shift (-1600)
: (common to JS and Sw.)
* ɣ → w / kV_, _Vk
* ɣ → j / elsewhere
* ða ði ðu → a ji wu / V_

; Nasal changes (-1550)
: (common to JS and Sw.)
* m n → ∅ / V_V
* NC → Cː

; Resolving vowel hiatus (-1500)
* aa ai aɨ au → aː aj aj aw
* aˈa iˈa ɨˈa uˈa → aː ja ja wa
* ia ii iɨ iu → eː iː iː iː
* aˈi iˈi ɨˈi uˈi → eː iː je wi
* ɨa ɨi ɨu → eː eː eː
* aˈɨ iˈɨ uˈɨ → eː je wi
* ua ui uɨ uu → oː uː uː uː
* aˈu iˈu ɨˈu uˈu → oː ju ju uː
* Vː → V / unstressed

; Loss of /ɨ/ (-1400)
* ˈɨ → eː / _CV, _C#
* ˈɨ → i / _Cː
* ɨ → i

; Loss of /ð/ (-1400)
* ð → l

; Creation of initial clusters (-1300)
* V → ∅ / {l s r m n}_C, C_{l s r m n}, unstressed
* Cl Cs Cr Cm Cn → lC sC rC mC nC
* Cː → C / C_
* m n → [α place] / _C[α place], assimilation to the following consonant

; Tonogenesis (-1100)
* V → V́ / adjacent to {pː tː kː sː}
* V → V̀ / adjacent to {m n}, except when adjacent to {pː tː kː sː}

; Voicing — [?]

; Labial lenition (-900 ÷ -800)
* m → w / $_{a e i}
* mw → m / $_u
* mb mp → m / #_

; Consonant reduction (-700)
* n m → ∅ / _$, includes geminates
* p b → f / _V[+back][+stress]

; Short vowel shift (-600)
* ˈa → wa / after labials, velars, {s z}; unless near {i y}
* ˈa → oː / before labials, velars
* ˈa → eː / n_
* ˈa → aː / otherwise
* ˈi → oj / after labials, velars, {s z}
* ˈi → uː / before labials, velars
* ˈi → eː / otherwise
* ˈu → ow / after labials; before labials, velars
* ˈu → wo / after velars, {s z}; unless near {i y}
* ˈu → oː / otherwise

; Lenition of geminates (-500)
* Cː → C

; Palatalization (-400)
* t k d ɡ s z → tʃ tʃ dʒ dʒ ʃ ʒ / _V[+front]

; Loss of final high vowels (-200)
* i u → ∅ / _#
* ij uw → e(j) o(j)

; Consonant mergers (-100)
* nt nd nk ng → t t k k
* j → ∅ / next to {tʃ dʒ ʃ ʒ}
* b d ɡ dʒ z ʒ → p t k tʃ s ʃ / _#

== [[Tetey]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1902#p1902]''

; Phonemicization of /ɨ/ (-1900 ÷ -1750)
: (common to JS, Sw. and Tty.)
* i → ɨ / w_, only in Sw. and Tty.
* w → ∅

; Vowel contraction (-1650)
* ∅ → ʔ / VV_V
* aa aɨ au → aː aɨ̯ au̯
* ia iɨ iu → eː iː ʉː
* ɨa ɨɨ ɨu → əː ɨː ʉː
* ua uɨ uu → oː ʉː uː

; Intervocalic lenition (-1650 ÷ -1400)
* p m n → ɸ β l / V_V

; Short /ɨ/ dropped, glottal stops added (-1600)
* ɨ → ∅ / #_CV
* ∅ → ʔ / #_V

; Nasalization (-1500 ÷ -1400)
: (this step generated an intermediate set of nasal vowels that was lost short afterwards, omitted here for readibility)
* oːn → ɵː / _$
* an am → aɨ̯ au̯
* in im ɨn ɨm → iː ɨː iː ɨː
* un um → ʉː uː
* {m n} → ∅ / V_$

; Vowel shift (-1450)
* aː aɨ̯ au̯ → æː əː ɑː
* a i u → ɐ ɪ ʊ / _[short]

; Second vowel shift (-1350 ÷ -1200)
* ə → ɵ / C[+labial]_
* ʊ → ə / {ʊ uː}C_
* ɪ ʊ ɐ → ɨ u ɜ
* Vː → V

; Syncope (-1100)
* P = {p t k ʔ}
* F = {p t k ʔ ɸ s}
* PɨFV → PFV
* PVPɨ → PVP / _$
* pp tt kk ʔʔ → ʔp ʔt ʔk ʔ

; Third vowel shift (-1000)
* ɜ ə o ɨ u → e e ɵ i ʉ / _tC, _t$
* ɜ e ə ɨ → o ɵ ɵ ʉ / _pC, _p$
* e i → ə ɨ / _kC, _k$, _ʔC, _ʔ$

; Affrication and glottalization (-1000 ÷ -800)
* kt → ktʲ → kts
* {p t k ʔ} + s → ts
* p t k → ʔ / _C (except _ʔ), _$
* ʔp ʔt ʔk ʔts → pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ
* pʔ tʔ kʔ → pʼ tʼ kʼ
* ʔ → ∅ / #_C

; /i/ backing (-800)
* i → ɨ / r_

; Devoicing and flapping (-700)
* ð ɣ r → θ x ɾ

; /ɨ/ reduction (-700)
* ɨ → ə

; Second syncope (-600)
* ə → ∅ / {p t k pʼ tʼ kʼ ɸ s θ x}_{β ɾ l}V
* ə → ∅ / β_{ɾ l}V
* ə → ∅ / {ɸ s θ x}_{m n}V
* ɸm ɸβ pβ pʼβ → xm xβ kβ kʼβ

; Fourth vowel shift (-500 ÷ -300)
* æ e ɵ ʉ → ja je jo ju
* ɜ ɑ → e a / after -300 YP

; Derhotization (-400 ÷ -300)
* ɾ ʔ → ∅ / _j
* ɾ → j / after -300 YP
* ij → iʔ / after -300 YP

; Third syncope (-200)
* ə → ∅ / {m n l j ʔ}_$
* ə → ∅ / {m n l j}_ʔ$

; /ə/ backing (-100)
* ə → o

; /ʔ/ dropping (0)
* ʔ → ∅ / {m n l}_

== [[Tetlo]] ==
: ''based on [http://akana.conlang.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1444#p1444]''

; Phoneme realization (-1900)
* a i u → ɐ ɪ ʊ
* w → β

; Nasalization (-1900)
* ɣ → ŋ / _VN$
* ɣ → ŋ / N#_ (''on word boundaries when pronounced without a pause'')

; Palatalization and labialization (-1900)
* C → Cʲ / _ɪ
* C → Cʷ / _ʊ

; Sound shift (-1800 ÷ -1700)

* r → l
* sʲ → ɕ → xʲ

; Intervocalic lenition (-1700)

* ɣʲ → j / V_V
* ɣʷ → w / V_V
* ɣ → ∅ / V_V

; Fortition (-1600)

* β ð ɣ → b d ɡ

; Glide elision (-1500)

* VwV → ʊ
* VjV → ɪ

; Vowel shift (-1800 ÷ -1400)

* ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɐ ɛ ə → ɐ~ə / _$ ([ɐ] in the initial syllable, [ə] otherwise)
* ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɛ ɪ ə → ɪ / _n$
* ɐ ɪ ʊ → ɔ ɪ ʊ → ʊ / _m$

; Velarization and uvularization (-1500 ÷ -1400)

* k ɡ ŋ l → q ɢ ɴ ɫ / except _ʲ
* j → ∅
* kʲ ɡʲ ŋʲ xʲ lʲ → k ɡ ŋ x l

; Coda simplification (-1400)

* N → ∅ / _$

; Labio-velarization and palatalization of dentals (-1300)

* pʷ bʷ mʷ → kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ
* tʲ dʲ nʲ → c ɟ ɲ
* ɫʷ → w

; Coalescence (-1200)

* əə → ə (pairs counted left-to-right)

; Palatalization of labials (-1200 ÷ -900)

* pʲ → pc → pʷc → pʷcʷ → cʷ
* bʲ → bɟ → bʷɟ → bʷɟʷ → ɟʷ
* mʲ → mɲ → mʷɲ → mʷɲʷ → ɲʷ

; Hiatus elimination (-1100)

* ∅ → ʔ / V_V

; Debuccalization of [q ɢ ɴ x] and their labialized equivalents (-1000)

* q ɢ ɴ x → ʔ ʕ ʕ h

; Fortition of [w] (-1000)

* w → β

; Sound shifts (-900)

* ɫ → ɫʷ
* h → ʔ

; Contraction of [ʔʷə] (-800)

* ʔʷə → w / V_{p b m β Cʷ} (''sequences of such syllables are treated pairwise counting left-to-right'')

; Alveolarization of [c ɟ] (-800 ÷ -600)

* c ɟ → ʧ ʤ → ʦ ʣ

; Syncope of [ə] (-700)

* ə → ∅ / VC_$, except {ʕ ʕʷ}_
* ''in each pair of syllables having [ə] as their nuclei, where the intervening onset consonant is not [ʕ(ʷ)], it's the second [ə] that drops (counting left-to-right)''

; Vowel shift (-600 ÷ -400)

* ɐ~ə ɪ → ɑ ɞ / _{Cʷ w}$
* ɐ~ə → ɛ / elsewhere
* ʊ → ɔ / except _{Cʷ w}$
* ʊ → u → ʉ / Cʷ_, {p b m β}_w

; Delabialization (-400 ÷ -300)

* w → ∅
* Cʷ → C / _$

; Vowel shift (-300)

* ɑ ʊ ɪ → a u i

; Deglottalization (-200)

* ʔ → ∅ / _$

; Sound shifts (-100)

* ɲ → ʝ
* l → ɫ

[[Category:Dumic languages|Sound changes]]
[[Category:Sound changes]]

Buruya

2019-01-10T15:53:29Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Names */

{{Article}}
[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of Kasca (c. 170 YP), showing the location of '''Buruya''']]
'''Buruya''' is a town on the lower [[Eigə]] west of the Delta zone; it is at the western fringe of the area that could be called culturally [[Kasca|Kascan]]. In the early 1st millennium BP it emerged as one of the five major Kascan city-states; several conquests later, it slogged along independently even as central Kasca foundered. In 351 [[YP]] it was acquired by the expanding Empire of [[Huyfárah]], but was lost again in the early 6th century, and fell into the hands of the [[Dāiadak]].

The city is the sole major connection point between two economic spheres - Huyfárah and Kasca on the coast, and [[Lasomo]] and the [[Rathedān]] further inland - which has helped Buruya become one of the most important trade hubs in northeastern [[Peilaš]].

=== Language ===

{{Main|Buruya Nzaysa}}

Until it was replaced by [[Fáralo]], Buruya spoke an [[Edastean]] dialect classified, by convention, as a divergent western dialect of [[Naidda]].

=== Names ===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Buruya
| [ˈbu.ru.ja]
| ← {{Me|buru}} "stronghold" + ''-ya'' (honorific)
|-
! [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]]
| Buruya
| ['bu.ru.jə]
| ← {{BNz|Buruya}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Buruya
| [ˈbu.ɾu.ja]
| ← {{BNz|Buruya}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Buxói
| [buˈʔɔːj]
| ← {{BNz|Buruya}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Buruia, Buroi
| [ˈbu.ru.ja], [ˈbu.roɪ]
| ← {{BNz|Buruya}} / {{NAis|Buxói}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Burujĕ
| [ˈbu.ɾu.jə]
| ← Vulgar Adāta ''*Burūia'' (partially reborrowed)
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Fúrja
| [ˈfuɾ.ja]
| ← {{Ad|Buruia}}
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| Vôrъja
| [ˈβo.rja]
| ← {{Ad|Buruia}}
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| Wryï, Ḃuruja
| [ˈu.ɹɨ.i], [ˈu.ɹɯ.jɑ]
| ← {{Ad|Buruia}}
|-
! [[Wippwo]]
| Burša
| ['bur.ʃa]
| ← {{Ndd|Buruya}}
|}

=== Calendar ===

Under the influence of Huyfárah, Buruya adopted the '''kəsusa xara''' ("Faraghin calendar"), which divided the year ('''lɛ''') into eight full months ('''xaw{{IPA|ə́}}be''') of 48 days ('''əsu'''), each consisting of six eight-day weeks ('''yɔti'''). Most days and months still retained their inherited names; the [[Etúgə]]-influenced name for day 3 was borrowed from Fáralo, with the characteristic suffix '''-yo''' added.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
! Day || Name || Meaning || Comments
|-
| 1 || palmayo || the secret one ||
|-
| 2 || atsɔyo || the old wise one ||
|-
| 3 || ɛkuyo || blessing || < {{Fá|ekúi}}
|-
| 4 || əbeyo || moon ||
|-
| 5 || buliyo || earth ||
|-
| 6 || omɔyo || the mother goddess ||
|-
| 7 || toyo || sun || day of rest
|-
| 8 || tsuyo || the cold one ||
|}

However, the original [[Ndak Calendar]] with eight and a half months of 45 days per year and the characteristic alternating 7- and 8-day weeks was not abandoned completely: Since the [[Ndok]] – important trade partners of the Buruyans – still used this system as their primary calendar, the '''kəsusa nzok''' was required knowledge for any Buruya merchant, all the more so because the different week lengths ('''gɔyto mvɔ''' "small Ndok week" and '''gɔyto tətsɔ''' "big Ndok week") meant that the days of the week in one calendar constantly shifted relative to those of the other calendar. Most people used the same names for days and months in both calendars, with the mandatory qualifier '''nzok''' added when referring to the Ndok system. The [[Ndok#Calendar|original Ndok Aisô terms]] were preferred among educated speakers though.

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Kasca]]
[[Category:Cities]]

Kasca

2019-01-10T15:52:51Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Buruya */

{{Article}}
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Kasca''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:82px; right:160px; font-size:smaller">
'''Kasca'''
</div>
</div>

Kasca is a region in the conworld of [[Akana]]. It has a longer civilized history than most other regions in the world, stretching at least as far back as the [[Ngauro]] civilization of approximately -4000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. At times in its history Kasca could be called a nation; at other times, it has been divided between others. It has also been the center of at least one empire.

This article focuses on the state of affairs in Kasca during the classical era, around 200 YP.

== Names ==

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Kasadgad
| [ka.sɐd.ɡɐd]
| presumably {{Ng|*kazd-kazd}} "many rivers"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Kāxad
| [ˈkaː.xad]
| ← {{NT|Kasadgad}}
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Kazəgad
| [ˈka.zə.ɡad]
| ← {{NT|Kasadgad}}
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Kasca
| [ˈkas.t̠ʃə]
| ← {{NT|Kasadgad}}
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Kaš
| [ˈkaʃ]
| ← {{Ndd|Kasca}}
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Kasaga
| [ˈkʰa.sa.ɡa]
| ← {{NT|Kasadgad}}
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Axôkseuhod
| [a.ʔɞk.sɛwˈhoʔ]
| ← toponym prefix ''a-'' + {{NT|Kasadgad}}
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| Koxað
| [ˈkɔ.xað]
| ← {{Ad|Kāxad}}
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| Cáġat
| [ˈkɑː.ɦɑt]
| ← {{Ad|Kāxad}}
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Kozyad
| [ˈkʰʌz.jad]
| ← {{Fá|Kazəgad}}
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Kažžad
| [ˈkaʒ.ʒɐt]
| ← {{Fá|Kazəgad}}
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Kargan
| [ˈkɑɾ.ɡɑɳ]
| ← {{Fá|Kazəgad}}
|-
! [[Erhadzy]]
| Kálesə
| [ˈkɑ.lɛ.sə]
| ← Yhát ''Qáles''
|-
|}

== History ==

=== Ndak Empire ===

{{Main|Ndak Empire}}
[[Image:Ndak Empire.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the '''Ndak Empire''', c. -1900 YP]]

Kasadgad had no natural defenses (except the sea), and had thus been invaded and conquered many times. The Ndak were not the earliest recorded inhabitants; those were the [[Ngauro]], who established civilization, including [[Oryziform|writing]], but were divided into squabbling city-states. Archeological excavations of a few small tels and middens around the lower-middle Aiwa, particularly in the area of [[Buruya]], indicate that even the Ngauro were almost certainly preceded by one or more pre-civilized cultures living in small walled towns. Little is known about these people.

The Ndak originally lived along the middle [[Aiwa]]. They were briefly ruled by the Ngauro, but soon established a kingdom of their own. They fought several wars with the Ngauro and finally conquered them. Over time the Ngauro language was replaced with [[Ndak Ta]], and indeed the perceived center of the Ndak world shifted to the more populous delta. The Ndak in their turn were conquered (once by hill tribes from the north, twice by nomads from the west), but their edge in population had become secure; they eventually either revolted, or absorbed their conquerors.

After the Ndak expelled the last of the conquerors, they entered a new period of vigor, which culminated in the conquest of the entire Aiwa plain, the littoral, and much of the rugged mountains to the west, from their bases in Kasca and along the Aiwa. The [[Ndak Empire]] was the first true empire on Akana, at least in this part of the world. Much of this was the work of one dynasty of emperors; [[Tsinakan]] was the third in this line and perhaps the greatest of them all. Tsinakan is the subject of the infamous [[Tsinakan text]], the standard comparison text used among [[Edastean]] philologists. His father [[Terakan]] also found a lasting place in local legend, though historians pay less attention to him.

=== Post-Ndak period ===

The Ndak decline took time. Kasadgad hung on as a political entity for several centuries after having lost control over everything else. It was late in this period, in -1258 YP, that Kasadgad experienced a last gasp of vitality, managing to reconquer both the [[Hagíbəl|Huyfárah littoral]] and most of the Aiwa below [[Lasomo]]. Two of these latter-day kings, Sadgukiyat and his son (or maybe nephew) Meyut, were recorded in legend and song. Historians have difficulty piecing together the fragmentary accounts of other kings of this era, and nobody is entirely certain who they all were, nor about the accession dates of these two or any reliable description of their accomplishments. If it weren't for the [[Faraghin]] scribes of this era, we may not even have been sure that these two were more than mythical figures.

The final full loss of Ndak vitality is partly due to a natural disaster, although they were clearly already in serious decline. In -1202, Kasadgad was devastated by one of the rare major hurricanes to come ashore along its coast. Complete loss of many of the coastal towns, coupled with massive inland flooding, nailed shut the coffin on Ndak power. They lost control of all of the coast above Miədu and all the Aiwa river above Buruya, and with the resulting social chaos found themselves unable to maintain any overall societal structure. And to top it all off, due to poor maintenance [[Aiwa canal|their canal through the Aiwa delta]] had silted up, blocking navigation of the delta and thus choking off Kasadgad's economic lifeline. The next three to four centuries were spent in a presumed but unrecorded dark age in which many benefits of civilization were simply lost and a sizeable fraction of the people feralized.

=== Classical period ===

== Culture ==

{{Main|Culture of Kasca}}

The culture of Classical-period Kascans is somewhat dysfunctional. Their traditions of close families and colorful celebrations, and their reputations for quick wit and resilient survival are balanced by their outlook of cynicism, apathetic inertia, and slowness to accept change, with the result that most Kascans live in poverty.

== Geography ==

[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

Kasca lies on a broad, flat plain, dominated by a wide, slow river, the [[Aiwa]] (also called the ''Eigə'' in Fáralo and the ''Ya'' in Naidda). The primeval land cover was forest, except for grasses in the rich alluvial plain, and wetlands along the extensive littoral. One Earthly analogue would be the Gangetic plain of northern India. The heartland of Kasca lies around the river delta, but associated settlement has also extended along the river and the littoral since time immemorial.

=== The Land ===

The Kascan heartland can be divided into three zones: the fringes of the Aiwa delta; the swampy core of the delta; and nearby associated lands.

==== The Fringeland ====

The center of civilization in Ngauro and Ndak times was located primarily of the areas immediately adjacent to the core river delta: the land between and around the branches of the Aiwa in the area where it splits up, plus some of the larger islands connected to the delta. The ground in these areas is relatively stable and provides rich farmland. However, portions of the fringeland are still occasionally prone to floods and periodic reshaping, depending on how well behaved the river is. There are always parts drying out and becoming farmable while other parts are getting eaten away at by the river or becoming soaked until useless for farming, just at a slower rate than happens in the deep delta. Cities have generally been able to hold their own in the fringeland.

==== The Deep Delta ====

The central delta zone, meanwhile, has always required a little courage of its residents - but it's certainly not uninhabitable, just problematic. Through most of known history, no single river channel connecting to the sea has been large enough to be navigable, save for when canals have been built or formed. Instead the river branches and branches until at the coast there is mostly just continuous swamp, rather than channels and islands.

Inland from the coast, the delta is characterized by a patchwork of dry-ish islands separated from each other by river corridors. These corridors range from sizeable branches of the river down to broad muddy troughs with little flowing water; but all of them are choked with silt and thick vegetation. Hundreds of the islands are substantial enough and dry enough to be at least partially farmable, and there have always been some islands that are able to host large permanent towns, but frequent shifts of the river channels leave all of the above at risk of floods and crop ruin.

The usefully dry islands form perhaps a third of the core delta's land area, with the rest being swamp and mire. Nevertheless, a substantial population has done its best to live in such conditions for millennia, due in part to the year-round availability of food for comparatively little effort. In the millennia before advanced technology made levees and reliable bridges possible, travel between delta islands was mostly by water and there were few permanent roads.

==== Nearby areas ====

The following places have always been closely associated with the Aiwa delta. Traditionally, they and the delta are included together under the name "Kasca":

* The banks along a short stretch of the lower Aiwa before it begins branching, and the alluvial plains around them, collectively called the Vuzëi;
* The peninsula across the bay south of the delta;
* Some of the land north of the delta, extending perhaps up to the city of [[Miədu|Momïddo]] (the exact Kascan border has always been fuzzy here);
* The numerous nearby coastal islands

The agricultural value of these lands is marginally lower than that of the fringeland, although still generally very fertile. But these areas are considered part of Kasca more on a cultural and political basis than on a natural basis, as they tend not to be swampy and don't have to worry much about the behavior of the river.

=== Cities ===

==== Påwe ====
[[Image:Sc_boat-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|Men fishing in the tidal marshes near Påwe.]]

Påwe is the southernmost and largest of the cities of Classical Kasca, if not by a large margin, and one of only two true city-states in the land, in that it has a stable functioning monarchy controlling not just the city but most of the surrounding region. The monarchy claims descent from the [[Ndak Empire|Ndak emperors]], though historians have judged this unlikely. Diplomacy, modest economic success, better military strength (it's the only Kascan city with a standing army), and sheer good fortune, have all contributed to the influential position of Påwe within Kasca and its continuing independence from [[Huyfárah]]. The king styles himself King of all Kasca, though he does not rule more than a quarter of it - the rest belongs, at least nominally, to Huyfárah. His rule over his own domain is reasonably strong, however, and there is no city of Kasca whose nobility would not listen to him.

Påwe is the economic center of southern Kasca, feeding a large population both from the extensive agricultural land inland of the city and by the thousands of small fishing boats that bring their catches to the wharves of Påwe. More than half the population is directly engaged in these two activities in some way. A great number of basic goods are produced locally as well, so the city is almost self-sufficient except for the more technology-intensive products, especially tools and other metal goods. But its population and good harbor still make it one of the main Kascan ports for Fáralo ships. Though Påwe has yet to fully embrace Fáralo economics on a large scale, on the small scale street markets thrive and burgeon with food and goods.

'''Names:''' {{NT|Palwe}}; of unknown origin. {{Ndd|Påwe}}, {{Fá|Palge}}, {{Bur|Palɛ}}, {{NAis|Pólôxe}}, {{Ad|Palie}}.

==== Momuva'e ====

{{Main|Momuva'e}}

Momuva'e is Kasca's second-largest, possibly oldest, and most colorful city. It is located on a coastal island that is connected to the Ya river delta.

'''Names:''' {{NT|Mos Mumbasi}}; of unknown origin. {{Ndd|Momuva'e}}, {{Fá|Muəbaz}}, {{Bur|Mubasɛ}}, {{NAis|Môsp'euseu}}, {{Ad|Muphai}}.

==== Ñolo ====

One of the two oldest cities of Kasca, along with Momuva'e, Ñolo was first founded by the ancient Ngauro people. The name derives from [[Ndak Ta]] ''ngaurlau'' meaning "place of the Ngauro" or perhaps "ancient place". In Classical times there is not much left of the much grander Ndak city, which lies in ruins a mile from the present town, almost wholly obscured by vegetation. Most of Ñolo consists of ramshackle wooden and mud-brick dwellings, while the local noble family's villa and a few of the more important public buildings are constructed of stone blocks unearthed from the ruins.

Ñolo is self-sufficient only in agriculture, and relies on river trade for such finished goods as it can afford. The town is quite poor and not much of interest happens there. Even so, it is the largest settlement of the Vuzëi and in generations past it has been able to muster small armies when the need arose, and retains a strong local identity and pride.

'''Names:''' {{NT|Ngaurlau}} "place of the Ngauro". {{Ndd|Ñolo}}, {{Fá|Ŋourlo}}, {{Bur|Ñɔlu}}, {{NAis|Ngauloi}}, {{Ad|Iūlō, Nolo}}.

==== Luyosha ====

Luyosha is the largest town of the delta proper, and the only one of them to be able to claim much prosperity. It is the last navigable stop on the [[Aiwa|Ya river]], and situated on the largest dry island of the delta. The city arose no earlier than -100 YP; before that time, the river channels were situated differently and the dry island did not exist in its present form. Various noble families of the delta have gradually shifted their homes and business to Luyosha as the city grows. Most of the nobility are delta landholders operating as vassals of higher Fáralo lords, to whom they send a portion of the tithes they collect from their lands. The city itself is not controlled by any particular ruler or ruling body but instead by an ever-shifting set of independent arrangements between noblemen, which leads to frequent conflicts over civil matters.

Luyosha feeds itself much like the rest of the delta does, relying on agriculture supplemented by fowl and whatever wildlife people can catch on their own, but there is also a modest amount of organized river fishing. The dry island is large enough to afford Luyosha the luxury of keeping flocks of sheep for their meat. The city trades upriver and with other towns for most finished goods, but there is a strong local ceramics industry and high-quality pottery from Luyosha is sold as far upriver as [[Ngahêxôldod|Nae'oloda]] and sometimes even in [[Ussor]].

'''Names:''' {{Ndd|Luyosha}}; of unknown origin. {{Fá|Luyoš}}, {{Bur|Luyɔsa}}, [[Adāta|Ad.]]/{{NAis|Loisa}}.

==== Nïddola ====

The city of Nïddola is located on one of the larger among Kasca's numerous coastal islands, and thus relies more heavily on trade than do other towns, needing to import grain in addition to finished goods. Though still Kascan at heart, the town (along with several others in the north) is in the process of being absorbed into the empire of [[Huyfárah]]: market economics and Etúgə are increasingly the order of the day, and the local dialect of the [[Naidda]] language has is being replaced by the more prestigious [[Fáralo]] in public discourse, although Naidda remains the first language for a majority and is still widely spoken at home and on the street. Politically the transition is already complete - it is just another city of Huyfárah.

The people of Nïddola are a more diverse lot than can typically be found in other Kascan cities. In addition to the bilingual and bi-ethnic nature of the town, it represents a cross-section of the populations of Kasca and Huyfárah, including all the major minority groups present in both lands. This leads to a more cosmopolitan environment than is typical of elsewhere in Kasca, and stems firstly from its position (both physical and cultural) as a gateway between two lands and secondly from its greater reliance on sea trade.

'''Names:''' {{Ndd|Nïddola}}; of unknown origin. [[Adāta|Ad.]]/{{Fá|Nirola}}, {{Bur|Nə’ola}}.

==== Buruya ====

{{Main|Buruya}}

Buruya is a city-state and major trading center on the lower-middle [[Aiwa|Ya]]. Buruya has been politically independent of the rest of Kasca for centuries, but still identifies with it culturally. The city is the sole major connection point between two economic spheres - Huyfárah and the Ya river trade - which has fueled steady economic growth over the last century.

'''Names:''' {{Ndd|Buruya}}, from {{Me|buru}} "stronghold" + ''-ya'' (honorific). [[Fáralo|F.]]/{{Bur|Buruya}}, {{NAis|Buxói}}, {{Ad|Buruia, Buroi}}.

== See also ==

[[Category:Regions]]
[[Category:Kasca|*]]

Aysuchi Meshi/Lexicon

2019-01-10T15:30:52Z

Thedukeofnuke:

Unless otherwise noted, "morphology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beshis
|
|n
|male initiation
|''*puwsg-sits''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gise
|giseyi
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s-uj, *kI(d)z-uj''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shis
|
|n
|man
|''*sits''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Meshi

2018-10-26T10:17:29Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Spirituality and honour */

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Meshi''' is the northwestern branch of the Eigə-Isthmus language family, which is marked in red colors.'']]

The '''Meshi''' were a nomadic people in central [[Peilaš]], who in [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] times lived mostly along the middle [[Eigə]] and one of its major northern tributaries (which was named after them; cf. {{Ad|Mexi}}), in the regions west of [[Lasomo]]. They spoke [[Aysuchi Meshi|a language]] belonging to the Eigə Valley branch of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus]] family.

At the end of the second millennium [[YP|BP]], when nomadic peoples on horseback had gained a military advantage due to the invention of the stirrup and the saddle, the Meshi set out to create one of the largest empires in the history of Peilaš. They conquered almost all of the Eigə valley, ruling the [[Ndok]], the [[Buruya]]ns, and even large parts of [[Kasca]] and what was later to become the southern part of [[Huyfárah]]. Traces of Meshi culture can be found throughout this vast region, in the form of physical artifacts such as artwork and inscriptions as well as in the form of loanwords (most numerous in [[Ndok Aisô]]) and placenames (for instance, the name ''Buruya'' contains the Meshi term '''buru''' "encampment; fortification"). However, the empire was short-lived; it disintegrated around 900 BP, and the Meshi retreated back into their homeland, where they were gradually assimilated by [[Habeo languages|Habeo]] tribes in the course of the following centuries.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

The Meshi of pre-Ndak times left few material traces. They had no towns or writing, and did not practice large-scale agriculture. Despite this, the development of their language provides some clues as to their early history.

Proto-Meshi shares some common sound changes with Proto-Miwan (/*ts *dz/ > /t d/ in onsets, /*aj *aw/ > /*e *o/ and /*o/ > /u/) and there are a number of loans between the two. 
The change of /kw gw/ > /fw zw/ is however characteristically Meshi and turns out to be important in dating the Miw-Meshi split. A few early loans from [[Proto-Habeo]] and [[Gezoro]] show the change ({{PHab|Taʔuqʷuʔe}} "[[Thabīa]]" > ''*Tawkwuy'' > '''Tawfwe''', {{Gez|gwaːmɔ}} "fortress" > '''zwama''') and it is present in at least one loan into Miwan (''*za-fwinta'' > {{FMiw|zafwiːta}}). This demonstrates that the Meshi had contact with all three of these groups in the same period.

Based on this evidence we can safely say that before the Ndak expansion the Meshi occupied a stretch of the southern Eigə valley from southern Lasomo perhaps as far west as the confluence of the Mexi with the Eigə. They were probably semi-nomadic and sustained themselves by a mix of hunting, gathering, fishing, small-scale cultivation, and (increasingly) pastoralism.

=== Ancient era ===

The turn of the second millennium BP was a period of conflict. The [[Ndak]] migrated south into Lasomo ca. 2200 BP and spent the next three hundred years waging a series of wars against the [[Ngauro]], [[Talo]], [[Gezoro]], [[Faraghin]], and briefly the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]. In the west, the lowlands were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the Ndak empire, as was the [[Rathedān]] to a [[Dāiadak|lesser extent]]. 
This definitively cut off the Meshi from the Miw. In response they moved north into the Mexi valley in the low [[Eiwəl Gourun|Xoron]] and resisted any further encroachment. They still maintained contact with neighbouring peoples including the Ndak, Habeo, and Antagg; some Meshi lived within the empire's borders and served in the imperial cavalry.

The Meshi economy shifted towards pastoralism in this period, partly to adapt to the drier terrain and partly due to developments in husbandry. The majority of the people were nomadic although they had some permanent villages ('''sanu''') and strongholds ('''buru''').

Ndak descriptions of the Meshi are not extensive. As rulers of a prosperous agricultural empire, they had little interest in such a 'primitive' people. The Meshi lacked political unity, cities, writing, and nearly everything else the Ndak valued besides horses. 
However, the Ndak - not known for squeamishness - were particularly shocked by their religious rituals. As well as practicing human sacrifice, the Meshi subjected their young men (and to a lesser extent women) to elaborate initiation rites intended to inure them to pain and mark their passage to adulthood with permanent scarification.

=== Dark Ages ===

As the second millennium wore on the Antagg state collapsed, the Ndak fell into decline, and 'barbarian' nations gained ground at their expense. Similar societal disturbances across [[Akana]] suggest that this was exacerbated by climatic change.

Meshi culture gradually became more warlike in response to these social and ecological pressures. This was particularly marked from the 15th century BP with the Hitatc Empire's brief expansion into the Xoron and the subsequent rise of the Habeo nomad confederation. The Meshi disdained the idea of joining the Habeo even as equals, instead seeing them as rivals to test themselves against, and for three hundred years there was increasingly frequent conflict between the two peoples.

=== Empire ===

By the early 13th century BP the Habeo had developed (or adopted) the saddle, which allowed them to fight much more effectively from horseback. The Meshi quickly copied this advance and around 1100 BP further improved it with the invention of stirrups - which gave them a decisive edge. They beat back the Habeo over the course of a generation and forced them into a truce.

With their traditional enemies defeated, the low Xoron under their control, and their drive to prove themselves in war undimmed, the Meshi needed new objectives. They pushed east into the [[Bwimbai]] valley and quickly subjugated the [[Mohudza]] - another mostly pastoral people - cementing their position of dominance among the nomads. Then they turned their attention south to the settled nations of the Eigə.

The last centralised Ndak states had collapsed generations before, and the city-states and petty kingdoms that succeeded them were in no position to mount a defence. Lasomo had just barely pulled back from the brink of anarchy; Kasca had not. The Meshi swept down from the northwest, demanding surrender from each city they encountered and treating any resistance as a grievous insult. In a few decades they conquered most of the Bwimbai, Eigə, and Milīr valleys and the southern parts of Huyfárah. 
Meshi chieftains established themselves as replacements or superiors of local rulers throughout their empire.
Their centre of power shifted in part to Lasomo (particularly [[Ngahêxôldod]]) and Buruya, which they established as a trading post and stronghold.

=== Collapse and later history ===

While the Meshi readily accepted the submission of other peoples, their society did not adapt well to ruling a much larger agricultural population. To maintain control, they were obliged to either settle in one place or to rely on local client rulers, neither of which suited them. At the same time the traditions of initiation and testing in battle that reinforced their identity became harder to maintain and distanced them from their subjects. 
The empire therefore lacked stability, and friction grew not just between Meshi rulers and subjects but also between 'purist' ('''Meshi beyu''') and 'civilised' ('''Meshi zwama'''). The latter were regularly accused of decadence ('''badachi''').

The invasion of Kasca in the late tenth century BP exposed these weaknesses in the empire and indirectly brought about its downfall. 
A large number of Meshi from the purist faction joined the campaign under the banner of chief Kayri. At first they made good progress, securing the northwestern fringe and the Vuzëi before circling round to the south to capture [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]]. However they ran into difficulties after this point. Securing enough boats to enter the delta proper exhausted the resources of the locals and the patience of the Meshi, leading to ongoing outbreaks of violence. Kayri and a force of Meshi warriors made the crossing to [[Momuva'e]] and captured it but found it disappointingly poor compared to the cities of Lasomo. Further advances gave steadily diminishing returns: the Meshi's cherished horses were of little use in the swampland, and the delta dwellers were impoverished, at best sullenly accepted conquest and at worst hardly understood what it meant. 
In short, the riches and glory the Meshi had expected did not materialise.

After years of fruitless campaigning the horde turned back to Lasomo. Kayri, hungry for a real fight, claimed that the city of [[Akôdaig]] had broken its terms of surrender and needed punishment. To his disgust he was met by a combined army of Ndok and 'civilised' Meshi. Kayri was eventually killed following a series of raids and battles, but the unity of the Meshi had been irreparably broken. Internecine conflict, subject revolts, and counter-invasions by the Habeo, Faraghin, and Hitatc tore the empire apart even more quickly than it had risen. 
By 900 BP the Meshi had lost too much prestige to dominate their neighbours, and no longer had a monopoly on the military advantage of the stirrup. They retreated to the Mexi valley, where they remained as a distinct ethnicity subject by turns to the Mohudza, [[Damak]], and Habeo before being incorporated into the [[Empire of Athalē]].

== Culture ==

=== Tribal structure ===

Like many of the Eigə-Isthmus peoples the Meshi had a decentralised, tribal society.

The basic unit of organisation was the clan or patrilineage ('''kaws'''), which claimed descent from a usually legendary ancestor ('''mifwan'''). These followed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_kinship Omaha] system of kinship. Some noteworthy features were:
* Terms were most descriptive for people in someone's own patrilineage.
* A man called his children '''min''' (son) and '''zak''' (daughter), which also applied to a brother's children.
* A woman called her children '''anar''' (child of a clan woman), which also applied to a sister's children or a father's sister's children.

Chieftains were titled '''jil''' and each held sway over a tribe or group of clans ('''kikaw'''). Socially, they were always men, but in exceptional circumstances a woman could take on the role by undergoing the male initiation rite, taking a wife, and assuming paternity of her wife's children; this was the only circumstance in which extramarital sex was permitted to a woman.

All tribes together made up the Meshi nation ('''aswun Meshi'''). Even in the empire, there was never a single unquestioned leader, a factor that certainly contributed to its instability. Instead the chieftains formed an oligarchy from which campaign leaders or generals ('''jil kana''') emerged or were chosen.

=== Spirituality and honour ===

Meshi religion was polytheistic with elements of animism. They believed in gods ('''nak''') and lesser spirits ('''kayr''') that controlled the powers of nature, the fortunes of humanity, and the afterlife.

Initiation rites ('''beshis''' for men, '''beset''' for women) were a core part of Meshi faith and identity. The details varied by tribe and era but they were always tests of endurance and pain tolerance, more exacting for men than for women, and left distinctive scars. Completing the rite was considered a sign of divine favour and worth ('''zasachi chi Meshi'''), and no Meshi man was permitted to marry or become a warrior until he had been initiated. A very few people undertook the initiation twice - which was considered a truly heroic feat.

Personal honour ('''zus''') was also crucial in Meshi society. Courage in battle ('''nyazachi zwip gwun'''), justice ('''zanachi zasa'''), hospitality ('''fwulachi tan''') and skilful riding ('''zazar zwip ashe''') could all increase honour; weakness ('''munachi'''), cowardice, infidelity (of a woman) and especially failure to respond to an insult would lose honour. 
The worst insult possible was '''swu''', "worthless". If anyone - man or woman - was accused of this and did not retaliate it would be considered true.

The Meshi conducted warfare ('''kana''') mainly to pursue disputes over honour, resources, territory, or other matters. Conflict between Meshi individuals or tribes was partly ritualised, with small numbers of combatants and often prearranged terms of victory. Even against other peoples they did not aim to slaughter as many opponents as possible but to kill, maim, or humiliate particular targets - usually leaders or personal enemies. 
They took a fairly consistent approach during their wars of conquest. They would first call on the enemy leaders to surrender. If the offer was rejected, they would kill anyone involved in the negotiations before giving battle, with the two main aims of killing enemy commanders and breaking the morale of the line troops. Their greatly superior speed and mobility meant that they could engage the enemy piecemeal, often defeating much larger armies in this manner. A city or region that did surrender would become the possession of a Meshi chief and required to pay tribute ('''nape'''), while those that refused were pillaged without mercy ('''bwur zwip wesaw''').

=== Oral and written tradition ===

Stories, legends and myths were transmitted by bards ('''kene''') in the form of narrative poems or songs ('''tum'''), which were distinguished from improvised or celebratory songs ('''li'''). However, the Meshi made no distinction between legend and history and saw significant lives and events as potential new legends. To have one's deeds immortalised in story cemented this and was believed to strengthen the spirit ('''zhin''') in life and death.

The Meshi adopted the inscriptional form of the [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary|Ndak logosyllabary]] to write their language and maintained a tradition of scribes or memorialists ('''kenwa'''). Their use of writing was narrower than the Ndak's - they were concerned almost entirely with commemorating notable deeds and events. The great majority of surviving Meshi texts are from stone monuments ('''awkwai''', a Ndak loan) dedicated to battles, conquests, foundations, and especially to dead heroes. Shorter inscriptions appear on movable goods such as weapons, horse tack, and jewellery.

== See also ==

* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
* [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Aysuchi Meshi/Lexicon

2018-10-26T10:03:40Z

Thedukeofnuke:

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beshis
|
|n
|male initiation
|''*puwsg-sits''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gise
|giseyi
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s-uj, *kI(d)z-uj''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shis
|
|n
|man
|''*sits''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Kataputi

2018-10-12T15:15:02Z

Thedukeofnuke: The North Wind and the Sun - complete

{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Kataputi
| phonetic = [ˌka.tɐˈpu.tʲɪ]
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = Hazāka
| speakers = c. 120,000
| script = unknown
| family = [[Dumic languages]]   Kataputi
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional/agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Kataputi''' was spoken at the beginning of the first millennium in the '''Hazāka''', the coastal plains south of the [[Great Bay]] of eastern [[Tuysáfa]]. The name is derived from a compound meaning "town language" and refers prototypically to the language spoken in the small city-states that clustered around the southern end of the Bay; more broadly it refers to the closely related group of dialects spoken in the wider [[Hazāka|Hazāka region]] and the nearby foothills. The speakers of Kataputi referred to themselves as the '''[[Katapaki]]'''.

The Great Bay region was one of the most advanced regions of mainland Tuysáfa at the time. The area had been [[Hazāka Neolithic|agricultural]] for millennia, and had developed intensive rice cultivation and animal husbandry along with the beginnings of urban culture. The time of this sketch coincides with the start of the [[Iron Age#Iron in Tuysáfa|Tuysáfan Iron Age]]; the [[Proto-Anatolionesian|Anatolionesian]] peoples of [[Kyosshin]] and [[Ōshin]] had been exploiting iron since the middle of the first millennium BP, and by -200 YP the technology had begun to spread on the continent.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Coronal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Stop
| p · {{gray|b}}
| t · d
| k · ɡ
|
|-
! Fricative
|
| s · z
|
| h
|-
! Tap
|
| ɾ
|
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
|
|
|
|-
|}

/ɾ/ is transcribed '''r''' (and often written '''/r/''' in phonemic analysis). All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

[b] does not contrast with /p/ in native words (it only appears in the cluster /zb/), but is distinguished in transcription.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! high
|align="center" | i · iː
|align="center" | u · uː
|-
! mid
|align="center" | eː
|align="center" | oː
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a · aː
|-
|}

Long vowels are transcribed with a macron.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is C(C)V.
Allowable onset clusters are /ps ts ks dz gz pr tr kr dr gr pw tw kw dw gw sp st sk zb zd zg sw zw/. The onset clusters /sr zr/ may also occur underlyingly, but surface as /sw zw/.

== Prosody ==

Kataputi has a predictable dynamic stress based on morae. Syllables with short vowels are monomoraic, while those with long vowels are bimoraic; a strong dynamic stress falls on the penultimate mora, with the effect that the final syllable is stressed if it contains a long vowel, and the penultimate syllable is stressed otherwise. Secondary stress is applied to alternating morae before the primary stress, so long vowels always carry either primary or secondary stress. (If a long vowel is stressed, it is pronounced the same whether the stress is underlyingly on the first or second mora.)

Inflectional affixes usually change the location of stress, although there are some exceptions, which are noted in the grammar. Function words and particles are usually unstressed.

== Dialects and phonetic detail ==

The Kataputi dialect continuum consists of four main groups: Core (Kataputi proper), Western, Inland, and Eastern. All of these are quite similar and mutually intelligible. Nonetheless there are some significant variations in phonetic detail between dialects; the Eastern dialects in particular are somewhat divergent.

=== Changes common to most dialects ===
* Mid vowels become short when adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable. However, this generally does not affect secondary stress distribution.
* Mid vowels also tend to become lax [ɛ(ː) ɔ(ː)] before consonant clusters.
* Short /a i u/, when carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, become lax [ɐ ɪ ʊ].

=== Core dialects ===
* Coronals are slightly palatalised before front vowels: /n t d s z ɾ/ become [nʲ tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ ɾʲ]. Some speakers palatalise all obstruents in this environment.
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as a trilled [r] initially.

=== Western dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /s z/ are commonly in free variation with [θ ð]. This pronunciation is particularly prevalent adjacent to front vowels.
* /w/ is pronounced as a purely bilabial [β̞].
* Many speakers shorten all long vowels adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable, thus making vowel tenseness phonemic.
* Short vowels often become nasalised before a nasal consonant. Some speakers also nasalise long vowels in this environment.

=== Inland dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /h/ is a breathy-voiced [ɦ].
* /w/ is pronounced as a fricative [β]; some speakers also pronounce it as [b] initially. It also tends to undergo voicing assimilation in clusters.
* The pronunciation of short /u/ is relatively unstable; it is often lowered or centralised, and some speakers pronounce it as [o], especially when unstressed.

=== Eastern dialects ===
* Underlying /sr zr/ are realised as such, rather than surfacing as /sw zw/.
* /b d g/ are pronounced as fricatives [v ð ʝ~ɣ].
* /w/ is pronounced as [v].
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ] in clusters, and sometimes in other environments.
* Vowels become nasalised before a nasal consonant.
* The mid vowels /eː oː/ do not undergo laxing or shortening, but are pronounced as diphthongs [eɪ oʊ].
* Some speakers elide final short vowels after a single consonant.

== Example words ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Word
! Gloss
! Core
! Western
! Inland
! Eastern
|-
! '''rū'''
| 'omen' (abs. sg.)
| [ruː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
|-
! '''tragi'''
| 'quiet' (ipfv. ind.)
| [ˈtɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈtɹa.ʝɪ]
|-
! '''hira'''
| 'bird' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈɦi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
|-
! '''hirāmuga'''
| 'birds' (erg. pl.)
| [hɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [ɦɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãːˈmu.ɣɐ]
|-
! '''tukōzu'''
| 'kiln' (abs. sg.)
| [ˌtuˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪uˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˈkoː.zo]
| [ˌtuˈkoʊ.zʊ]
|-
! '''tukōzūni'''
| 'kiln' (obl. sg.)
| [ˌtuˌko.ˈzuː.nʲɪ]
| [ˌt̪uˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌtuˌkoʊ.ˈzũː.nɪ]
|-
! '''kwinu'''
| 'snail' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈkwi.nʊ]
| [ˈkβ̞ĩ.n̪ʊ]
| [ˈkɸi.n̪o]
| [ˈkvĩ.nʊ]
|-
! '''susinari'''
| 'cows' (abs. pa.)
| [ˌsu.sʲɪˈna.ɾʲɪ]
| [ˌsu.θɪ̃ˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsʊ.sɪˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsu.sɪ̃ˈna.ɾɪ]
|-
! '''kūgā'''
| 'eighty'
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɣaː]
|-
|}

= Morphology =

Kataputi morphology is fusional and mostly suffixing. A common feature is stem gradation – different forms of a root word used with different inflections.

== Morphophonology ==

Three morphophonological processes are important in Kataputi: ''stem gradation'', ''assimilation'', and ''mutation''. Stem gradation of nouns and verbs is a common process linked to declension and conjugation, and is dealt with in the appropriate sections; assimilation and mutation occur less frequently, and are both due to a number of unrelated causes.

=== Assimilation ===

Kataputi permits only a limited number of consonant cluster forms, and only in syllable onsets, but clusters can occur due to elision in morphological processes such as in noun declension.

Clusters in Kataputi can all be grouped into the following types:
* A stop followed by a sibilant.
* A stop followed by /r/ or /w/.
* A sibilant followed by a stop.
* A sibilant followed by /w/ or ''underlying'' /r/.

The following assimilation rules are then applied:
* If the cluster comprises two obstruents, the second assimilates in voicing to the first.
* /r/ following a sibilant surfaces as /w/ (except in Eastern dialects).

=== Mutation ===

Prefixes and compounding can trigger one of three types of consonant mutation. This is a process that involves the lenition (for Mutation I) or fortition (Mutations II and III) of the initial consonant of a word.

The changes that occur are listed in the following table. If a consonant is unchanged by a given mutation, the space is left blank. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of the final vowel of the prefix or ''preceding'' root.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Mutation I
! Mutation II
! Mutation III
|-
! '''m'''
|
| '''ːm'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
! '''n'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːn'''
|-
! '''t'''
| '''d'''
|
|
|-
! '''k'''
| '''g'''
|
|
|-
! '''s'''
| '''z'''
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''z'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''t'''
|-
! '''h'''
|
| '''k'''
| '''k'''
|-
! '''r'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''w'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
|}
Mutation I affects consonants even if they are the first element of a cluster; the second element then assimilates in voicing if it is a stop or sibilant. However, neither Mutation II nor III affects consonants in an initial cluster.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Declension ===

Nouns are inflected for three cases (absolutive, ergative, and oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, and plural).

Many commonly used nouns have two distinct stem “grades”, and a few have three (known as strong, intermediate, and weak grades). These are indicated in the tables below by the letters ''S'', ''I'', and ''W''. A noun with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a noun with only one grade uses this for all forms.

There are three declension classes, conventionally numbered I, II, and III (sometimes R, T, and P are used instead, based on the form of the paucal suffix). Declension I is the most common, accounting for about two thirds of nouns. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Declension I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ga'''
| W'''-ni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ri'''
| I'''-riga'''
| I'''-rini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-muga'''
| I'''-muni'''
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Declension I.

'''''Declension II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ti'''
| I'''-tiga'''
| I'''-tini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

'''''Declension III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-pi'''
| I'''-piga'''
| I'''-pini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

==== Example declensions ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''hazi''' 'finger' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''hazi'''
| '''haziga'''
| '''hazini'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''haziri'''
| '''hazwiga'''
| '''hazwini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''hazimu'''
| '''hazimuga'''
| '''hazimuni'''
|}
|
|'''zwaha''', '''zwā''', '''zūwa''' 'beetle' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''zwaha'''
| '''zūwaga'''
| '''zūwani'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''zūwari'''
| '''zwāriga'''
| '''zwārini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''zūwamu'''
| '''zwāmuga'''
| '''zwāmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''nadi''' 'flower' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''nadi'''
| '''nadika'''
| '''nadīni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''naditi'''
| '''naditiga'''
| '''naditini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''nadīmu'''
| '''nadīmuga'''
| '''nadīmuni'''
|}
|
|'''tuzu''', '''tsu''' 'mosquito' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tuzu'''
| '''tsuka'''
| '''tsūni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tsuti'''
| '''tuzutiga'''
| '''tuzutini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tsūmu'''
| '''tuzūmuga'''
| '''tuzūmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''tinaza''' 'spider' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tinaza'''
| '''tinazaka'''
| '''tinazāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tinazapi'''
| '''tinazapiga'''
| '''tinazapini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tinazāmu'''
| '''tinazāmuga'''
| '''tinazāmuni'''
|}
|
|'''waha''', '''wā''', '''wa''' 'net' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''waha'''
| '''waka'''
| '''wāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''wapi'''
| '''wāpiga'''
| '''wāpini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''wāmu'''
| '''wahāmuga'''
| '''wahāmuni'''
|}
|}

=== Possession ===

Possession in Kataputi is indicated by prefixes. Many nouns are inalienably possessed; these may not occur without a possessive prefix. A few nouns have more than one meaning, distinguished by whether they are inalienably possessed.

All possessive prefixes trigger [[Kataputi#Mutation|consonant mutation]]. The third person masculine singular triggers Mutation II, the third person feminine singular triggers Mutation III, and all other possessive prefixes trigger Mutation I.

The distinctions made in possessive prefixes are the same as those made in [[Kataputi#Personal pronouns|pronouns]]. The prefixes are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" |
! Mutation
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka-'''
| II
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kāmu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu-'''
| III
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūmu-'''
| I
|-
|}

== Pronouns ==

=== Personal pronouns ===

Kataputi has personal pronouns for the first, second, and third person, and also distinguishes inclusivity in the first person and gender in the third. All of these have a full set of pronouns distinguishing the three cases (absolutive, ergative, oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, plural - except for the 1st person inclusive, which has a dual rather than a singular).

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!
! '''Absolutive'''
! '''Ergative'''
! '''Oblique'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti'''
| '''tiga'''
| '''tini'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tiri'''
| '''triga'''
| '''trini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu'''
| '''timuga'''
| '''timuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda'''
| '''kudaga'''
| '''kudani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kuri'''
| '''kriga'''
| '''krini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu'''
| '''kumuga'''
| '''kumuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma'''
| '''maga'''
| '''mani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari'''
| '''mariga'''
| '''marini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu'''
| '''mamuga'''
| '''mamuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka'''
| '''kaka'''
| '''kāni'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati'''
| '''katiga'''
| '''katini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kānu'''
| '''kānuga'''
| '''kānuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu'''
| '''tuka'''
| '''tūmi'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi'''
| '''tupiga'''
| '''tupini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūnu'''
| '''tūnuga'''
| '''tūnuni'''
|-
|}

=== Correlatives ===

Kataputi has a small number of correlatives; most of these are not actually pronouns, but they are included here for completeness.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Morphology
! Gloss
|-
| '''ra'''
| III
| 'what?' (pronoun or attributive)
|-
| '''wi'''
| II
| 'who?' (pronoun)
|-
| '''rāmi'''
|
| 'how?' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''rāzigi'''
|
| 'which? what kind of?' (attributive)
|-
| '''kizigi'''
|
| 'no, none (of)' (attributive)
|-
| '''si'''
|
| 'this, this one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mu'''
|
| 'that, that one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mumi'''
|
| 'thus, like that' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''muzigi'''
|
| 'such, like that, that kind of' (attributive)
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Conjugation ===

Verbs are inflected for five moods (indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative, and conditional) and distinguish imperfective from perfective aspect. There is also an attributive: a subordinated form used as an adjective.

Like some nouns, many common verbs have two or three stem grades, indicated as ''S'', ''I'', ''W'' in the tables below. A verb with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a verb with only one grade uses this for all forms.

The citation form for a verb is the imperfective indicative (which is always the same as the strong stem).

There are three conjugations, numbered I, II, and III; most verbs belong to Conjugation I, and only these can have an intermediate stem grade. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Conjugation I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-wa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-za'''
| I'''-waza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-zi'''
| I'''-wazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-gi'''
| I'''-wagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-wamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-gi'''
|
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Conjugation I.

'''''Conjugation II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-ta'''
| S'''-ːnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

'''''Conjugation III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-pa'''
| S'''-ːmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

==== Other verbal forms ====

Kataputi has three inflectional affixes that can be attached to any verb form.

One is a prefix:
* The reflexive prefix '''ha-'''. This prefix triggers Mutation III.

The other two are suffixes. (The allomorphs after the slashes are used after the imperative, or after the imperfective indicative of a Declension II or III verb. These affixes do not affect the stress position.)
* The antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata'''
* The relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki'''

Both of the antipassive and relativising suffixes may occur on the same verb, but the relativiser, where present, must always be the last affix.

==== Example conjugations ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''katu''' 'to be black' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''katu'''
| '''katuwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''katuza'''
| '''katwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''katuzi'''
| '''katwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''katugi'''
| '''katwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''katumu'''
| '''katwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''katugi'''
|
|}
|
|'''hihi''', '''hī''', '''hi''' 'to boil' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hihi'''
| '''hiwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hiza'''
| '''hīwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hizi'''
| '''hīwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''higi'''
| '''hīwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''himu'''
| '''hīwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''higi'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''hiku''' 'to jump' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hiku'''
| '''hikūna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hikuta'''
| '''hikūnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hikuti'''
| '''hikūnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''hikuki'''
| '''hikūnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''hikūmu'''
| '''hikūnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''hikuki'''
|
|}
|
|'''suzi''', '''si''' 'to give' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''suzi'''
| '''sīna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''sita'''
| '''suzīnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''siti'''
| '''suzīnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''siki'''
| '''suzīnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''sīmu'''
| '''suzīnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''siki'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''muzō''' 'to be sacred' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''muzō'''
| '''muzōma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''muzōpa'''
| '''muzōmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''muzōti'''
| '''muzōmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''muzōki'''
| '''muzōmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''muzōmu'''
| '''muzōmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''muzōki'''
|
|}
|
|'''taha''', '''ta''' 'to walk' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''taha'''
| '''tāma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''tapa'''
| '''tahāmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''tati'''
| '''tahāmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''taki'''
| '''tahāmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''tāmu'''
| '''tahāmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''taki'''
|
|}
|}

== Numbers ==

Kataputi has a base-10 number system:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! '''1'''
| '''kaza'''
! '''11'''
| '''kākaza'''
|
|
|-
! '''2'''
| '''migi'''
! '''12'''
| '''kāmigi'''
! '''20'''
| '''mīgā'''
|-
! '''3'''
| '''hira'''
! '''13'''
| '''kānira'''
! '''30'''
| '''hiragā'''
|-
! '''4'''
| '''zada'''
! '''14'''
| '''kātada'''
! '''40'''
| '''zadagā'''
|-
! '''5'''
| '''hī'''
! '''15'''
| '''kānī'''
! '''50'''
| '''hīgā'''
|-
! '''6'''
| '''sima'''
! '''16'''
| '''kātima'''
! '''60'''
| '''simagā'''
|-
! '''7'''
| '''tadu'''
! '''17'''
| '''kātadu'''
! '''70'''
| '''tadugā'''
|-
! '''8'''
| '''kuhu'''
! '''18'''
| '''kākuhu'''
! '''80'''
| '''kūgā'''
|-
! '''9'''
| '''nuti'''
! '''19'''
| '''kānuti'''
! '''90'''
| '''nutigā'''
|-
! '''10'''
| '''kā'''
|
|
! '''100'''
| '''tigi'''
|-
|
|
|
|
! '''1000'''
| '''tigiwu'''
|-
|}

Larger numbers are formed analytically:

{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|23}}

{{gl|simagā|simagā|60}}
{{gl|zada|zada|4}}
{{glend|64}}

{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|kākuhu|kākuhu|18}}
{{glend|118}}

{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|523}}

The word '''ru''' 'on' comes between digits in the hundreds and higher:

{{gl|tigiwu|tigiwu|1000}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tadu|tadu|7}}
{{glend|1337}}

Numerals are indeclinable, but ordinals can be formed by adding the genitive postposition '''zi'''.

== Derivational morphology ==

=== Derivational affixes ===

A range of suffixes are used to derive new words in Kataputi. These are sensitive to the stem alternations of noun and verb roots, with each affix taking a particular grade; however, newly derived nouns themselves tend not to undergo alternations as this would be likely to create ambiguity.

In the following tables, each suffix is listed with its allomorphs for different declensions/conjugations and the stem grade that it takes, its own declension/conjugation class, and its meaning. As with inflectional suffixes, any final short vowel in the strong or intermediate grade of an Declension I noun or Conjugation I verb is deleted when a derivational suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster.

==== Noun to noun ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" align="center" | '''Affix forms'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Declension'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Gloss'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Example'''
|-
! align="center" | I
! align="center" | II
! align="center" | III
|-
| W'''-gi'''
| W'''-ki'''
| W'''-ki'''
| II
| general diminutive
| '''mī''' "sea" > '''mīgi''' "lagoon, bay"
|-
| W'''-da'''
| W'''-ta'''
| W'''-ta'''
| III
| diminutive, with connotations of youth or daintiness
| '''tū''' "dog" > '''tūda''' "puppy"
|-
| I'''-dagu'''
| S'''-tagu'''
| S'''-tagu'''
| I
| augmentative
| '''hu''' "spirit" > '''hutagu''' "god"
|-
| I'''-niri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| I
| a distinguishing feature or quality of X
| '''titu''' "citizen" > '''tituniri''' "rank, social class"
|-
|}

= Syntax =

== Basic word order ==

The default word order in Kataputi is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.

{{gl|Tuzutiga|tuzu-tiga|mosquito-ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ru|ru-Ø|man-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Some mosquitoes have bitten the man.}}

Indirect objects usually come immediately before the direct object.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|timudūni|ti-mudu-ːni|1EX.SG-son-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|wigimu|wigi-mu|apple-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|siti.|si-ti|give-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I hope she gives apples to my son.}}

Adverbs and adverbial phrases, however, immediately precede the verb.

{{gl|Miwa|miwa-Ø|boat-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kamini|kami-ni|axe-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|nagadawa.|nagada-wa|damage-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The boat was damaged (by someone) with an axe.}}

== Nouns and noun phrases ==

Noun phrases comprise a head noun and any number of modifiers; all modifiers precede the head noun. Verbs used as adjectives take the attributive suffix.

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tsari|tsa-ri|cloud-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some white clouds}}

Quantifiers tend to precede other modifiers with the exception of genitive constructions.

{{gl|kā|kā|10}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|zimigi|zimi-gi|young-ATTR}}
{{gl|rūmu|ru-ːmu|man-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|ten healthy young men}}

=== Case usage ===

The absolutive case is the most unmarked, and is used for the subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive one.

The ergative case is used for the subject of a transitive sentence.

The oblique case is used for the indirect object of a sentence, governs postpositions, and forms appositives.

=== Genitives and possession ===

Possession can be expressed in two ways: using the possessive prefixes, or the genitive postposition '''zi'''. A genitive construction precedes all other modifiers in a noun phrase.

{{gl|kudawāmu|kuda-wāmu-Ø|1IN.DU-house-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our house (belonging to the two of us)}}

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's trousers}}

However, for inalienably possessed nouns, the prefix must be used even where there is also a genitive.

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's legs}}

When the possessor is a pronoun, a genitive expression can be used (with a possessive prefix where required) to emphasise it:

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own trousers}}

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own legs}}

=== Appositives ===

Appositive expressions use the oblique case, and precede their head noun:

{{gl|kumuhigadani|kumu-higada-ni|1IN.PL-city-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Skōkana|Skōkana-Ø|Skōkana-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our city, Skōkana}}

== Verbs ==

=== Aspect and mood ===

These are the two main categories of inflection for Kataputi verbs.

''Aspect'' marks whether an action is ongoing (imperfective) or completed (perfective), but says nothing about tense:

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizi.|hizi-Ø|build-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you all will be building a grand hall.}}

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīziwa.|hīzi-wa|build-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you will have built a grand hall.}}

The use of the ''moods'' is less straightforward. There are five main moods plus the attributive; this section gives an overview of how they work.

The indicative is the least marked form, and is used in main clauses where the action is well-established to have occurred.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I have a cloak.}}

The subjunctive is also common, but does not occur in main clauses; it occurs in nominalised verb phrases and a number of other environments.

{{gl|Maga|Maga|2.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuza|hīmu-za|own-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa.|huka-wa|find-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|You've found out that I have a cloak.}}

The optative expresses a wish or desire.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuzi.|hīmu-zi|own-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I wish I had a cloak.}}

The imperative is used to give orders or, more generally, to say to the listener that they should bring about the action. As such, the subject is always in the second person and can be safely omitted where the number distinction is not important. The imperative is polite enough that it can be safely used with social peers, though not superiors. 
To some degree the choice of aspect used with the imperative depends on the verb: general states are mostly used with the imperfective, whereas specific actions are more usually used with the perfective.

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmugi.|hīmu-gi|own-IPFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi.|niri-wagi|get-PFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should get a cloak.}}

The conditional is used to express possibility; unsusprisingly, though, it is mainly used for the consequent of conditional expressions, which are discussed in the [[#Transformations|Transformations]] section.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|I could have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|tēputani|tēputa-ni|noble-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|ziza,|zi-za|be-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|If I were noble, I would have a cloak.}}

=== Negation ===

There are two negatives in Kataputi: the ordinary negative '''ta''' and the emphatic negative '''kimi'''. These are particles that can be used with any form of verb, and which immediately precede it:

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I don't have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|It's impossible that I could have a cloak.}}

Though it does not strictly negate a sentence, the determiner or attributive '''kizigi''' 'none (of)' is used to indicate the negation or absence of a nominal (which is always declined in the singular):

{{gl|Kizigi|kizigi|none}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Gōki.|Gōki-Ø|Jouki-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|[[Jouki]] is not governed by the law.}}

Similarly, '''kūma''' means both 'neither' and 'nor':

{{gl|Kūma|kūma|neither}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kūma|kūma|nor}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Tētu.|Tētu-Ø|Tɛnto-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|The [[Potɑnsʉti|Tɛnto]] are governed by neither law nor lord.}}

=== Derived verb forms ===

The antipassive, in '''-zda'''/'''-tata''', promotes the single absolutive argument of a verb to become an ergative "subject", and also serves in coordinating sentences; the relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' is used solely for relative clauses. Both are discussed in the Transformations section.

=== Postpositional phrases ===

Kataputi postpositions govern the oblique case. The postposition comes last, immediately preceded by the noun, itself preceded by any modifiers.

{{gl|sadukīni|saduki-ːni|cloak-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{glend|using a cloak}}

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tīwumuni|tīwu-muni|star-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hama|hama|towards}}
{{glend|towards the white stars}}

There are no postpositions that apply specifically to time, and spatial equivalents are used instead. The guiding metaphor is that events move ''forward'' through time, ''through'' their circumstances; the most common examples are given below:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2" align="center" | Postp.
! colspan="2" align="center" | Gloss
|-
! Space
! Time
|-
| '''tama'''
| to
| before
|-
| '''mima'''
| into
| at the start of, just before
|-
| '''hi'''
| with
| in, during
|-
| '''mirima'''
| through
| for, throughout, during
|-
| '''zu'''
| beside
| while, at the same time as
|-
| '''miri'''
| out of
| at the end of, just after
|-
| '''tari'''
| from
| after
|-
|}

== Transformations ==

In this section, following the style of Zompist, transformations are described in a simplified notation with examples.

{{Green|A}} → {{Green|B}} means "whenever A is a legal structure, so is B".

Symbols used: 
{{Green|S}} = subject 
{{Green|V}} = verb 
{{Green|O}} = direct object 
{{Green|I}} = indirect object 
{{Green|N}} = noun 
{{Green|Vi}} = intransitive verb 
{{Green|Vt}} = transitive verb 
{{Green|VP}} = verb phrase 
{{Green|NP}} = noun phrase 
{{Green|Pr}} = pronoun 
{{Green|PP}} = postpositional phrase 
{{Green|Adv}} = adverbial information 
{{Green|Adj}} = adjectival information 
{{Green|SEN}} = sentence 
{{Green|-}} = morpheme boundary 

=== Passive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|O Vt}}

The passive in Kataputi works somewhat differently to that of accusative languages. A transitive sentence can be turned into a passive simply by deleting the subject:

{{gl|Rīmuka|rīmu-ka|lion-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A lion is eating a horse.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eaten.}}

=== Antipassive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|S-ABS Vt-AP}}

Deleting the object of a verb while retaining the role of the agent is slightly more complicated - the subject is retained in the ''absolutive'' case, and the verb takes the antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata''' (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix). This transformation is important for coordinating sentences, which is discussed below.

{{gl|Tihaka|tiha-ka|horse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wigi|wigi-Ø|apple-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eating an apple.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnatata.|nūna-Ø-tata|eat-IPFV.IND-AP}}
{{glend|A horse is eating.}}

=== The conditional ===

{{Green|SEN1}}, {{Blue|SEN2}} → '''hi''' {{Green|SEN1-SJV}} '''hi''' {{Blue|SEN2-COND}}

The {{Green|condition}} of a conditional expression is put in the subjunctive mood, and the {{Blue|consequent}} in the conditional mood; either of these can be negated with either '''ta''' or '''kimi'''. The conjunction '''hi''' precedes each of these (it essentially does the work of both English "if" and "then").

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza,|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|triga|triga|1EX.PA.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kūwamu.|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If you come back, we'll kill you.}}

=== Relative clauses ===

Relative clauses follow SOV word order in the same way as main clauses, although one argument of the verb is always deleted. A relative clause immediately precedes its head noun, which is itself declined as appropriate for its syntactic role:

{{gl|Suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|ruguga|rugu-ga|hook-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|himaru|himaru-Ø|turtle-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|niriwa.|niri-wa|catch-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The hook that caught a fish also caught a turtle.}}

==== Absolutive as referent ====

{{Green|(S1 O V1)}} {{Blue|S2 O V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 V1-REL}} O {{Blue|V2}}

Relative clauses where the absolutive is the referent are formed by deleting the absolutive argument and adding the relativising suffix '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix).

{{gl|kīmikumīmuga|kīmikumi-ːmuga|peasant-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|hizwazigi|hizi-wazi-gi|build-PFV.OPT-REL}}
{{gl|zwūmamu|zwūma-mu|road-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|the roads that the peasants should have built}}

{{Green|(S Vi)}} {{Blue|S O V2}} → {{Green|Vi-ATTR}} S {{Blue|O V2}}

If the relative clause is intransitive, the attributive may be used instead of a full relativised form. In many cases, attributives are better translated into English as adjectives, but not always:

{{gl|naraki|nara-ki|burn-ATTR}}
{{gl|kati|ka-ti|tree-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some burning trees}}

==== Ergative as referent ====

{{Green|(S O1 V1)}} {{Blue|S O2 V2}} → {{Green|O1 V1-REL}} S {{Blue|O2 V2}}

Relative clauses where the ergative subject is the referent are equally simple - they are formed by deleting the subject and adding '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb.

{{gl|suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|rugu|rugu-Ø|hook-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|the hook that caught a fish}}

=== Nominal subordination ===

{{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} → {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} 
{{Blue|S2}} {{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|V2}}

Nominal subordination makes use of the subjunctive mood. A full sentence can be made to behave as a noun phrase, including as subject or object of another verb.

{{gl|Manāgiru|ma-nāgiru-Ø|2.SG-lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmaza|tu-ːmaza|dead-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hata.|hata-Ø|true-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|It's true that your lord has died.}}

{{gl|Kriga|kriga|1IN.ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rīniza|rīni-za|laugh-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmawa.|nāma-wa|hear-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|We've all heard him laughing.}}

=== Quotation ===

While indirect quotations use the subjunctive, directly quoted speech uses a special quotative particle '''simi'''. In this type of construction the quotation generally comes first in the sentence, and is always followed directly by '''simi'''; it is considered an intransitive sentence and so the speaker takes the absolutive case.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|staza|sta-za|happy-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|She said to me that she was happy.}}

{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sita”|sita-Ø|happy-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“I'm happy,” she said to me.}}

=== Questions ===

==== Yes/no questions ====

The simplest way of asking a question in Katapaki is with the particle '''ga''', which is placed after the verb. Formations with '''ga''' generally presuppose a positive answer.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|mariwāmu|mari-wāmu-Ø|2.PA-house-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kataguwa|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Didn't I save your house?}}

To form a question that presupposes a negative, the same construction is used but with the negating particle '''ta''' preceding the verb. (The emphatic negative '''kimi''' can be used instead to express a mere trace of doubt, or to ask for support.)

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|tudu|tudu-Ø|ill-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|He's not ill, is he?}}

{{gl|Pinuka|Pinuka-Ø|Pinuka-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Gōkini|Gōki-ni|Jouki-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|zgawa|zga-wa|lose-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Surely [[Katapaki#City-states|Pinuka]] wasn't defeated by Jouki?}}

It is possible to ask a yes/no question without a presumed answer. This works in the same way as the first construction but with the addition of the phrase '''wō ta''' ('or not') immediately after the verb.

{{gl|Hā|hā-Ø|sky-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kupi|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Is the sky blue or not?}}

To answer a yes/no question in the affirmative, it is usual to reply with the main verb from the question, or '''tugū''' '(it) is correct'; to answer in the negative, the negative '''ta''' may be used, analogously to English 'no' (but '''kimi''' may be used instead for emphasis, especially when the question expects an affirmative). Where the answer is uncertain, it is possible to reply using the subjunctive mood of the verb from the question.

{{gl|Kupi.|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Ta.|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|Kimi.|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|Kupimu.|kupi-mu|blue-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|Yes, it's blue. No, it isn't. Of course it isn't. It could be blue.}}

==== Question forming with pronouns ====

Kataputi has two key interrogative [[#Correlatives|pronouns]], '''ra''' 'what' (declension III) and '''wi''' 'who' (declension II), along with the pro-adverb '''rāmi''' 'how' and the attributive '''rāzigi''' 'which, what kind'. These do not move around in the sentence; they simply take the place of the referent, declining as appropriate.

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|A shark bit my face.}}

{{gl|Raka|ra-ka|what-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What bit my face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wi|wi-Ø|who-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whom did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''who''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wīni|wi-ːni|who-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|katē|ka-tē-Ø|3M.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whose face did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''whose'' face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tira|ti-ra-Ø|1.SG-what-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What thing of mine did the shark bite? - The shark bit my ''what''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|LOC}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Where did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''where''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāmi|rāmi|how}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|How did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''how''?}}

{{gl|Rāzigi|rāzigi|what_kind}}
{{gl|sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What sort of shark bit my face?}}

(These examples also serve to illustrate two points on the use of [[#Genitives and possession|possession]] in Kataputi. Firstly, possessive prefixes can attach to the interrogative pronouns. Secondly, the third person masculine singular prefix is the default for an inalienably possessed noun where the possessor is uncertain or indefinite - the exceptions are female body parts, where the feminine equivalent is used.)

= Sample texts =

== [[The chief and the mouse]] ==

'''''Nāgiru wu tihi''''' 
'''Waziki tamuni hi, timirigi nāgiru kānatsiramuga wazani wu tizumīmani kīmi wāmugīni mi zdaguwa, ka hizwaza ra.''' 
'''Ka kihāni ru hiwāmi mōza hi, kaka zēgi tihi wāmugīni mirima kakita sīni. Kaka kataga miniwa, wu stiwa “Ti kimi hizwagi, hi tiga tihi nūnazi!” simi. Ha hiriza tari, kaka kataga kīmuwa, wu stiwa “Tiga tihi rāni ra kūwamu? Ti zidagi suruni hi mūma hizwamu” simi.''' 
'''Tika nāgiru tēkuwa, kāni satwaza “Nēgi nāgiru! Maga ti kuraza kataguwa, wu tiga ma kuraza mūma katagwazi” simi ki.''' 
'''Tihi kihāni mi mīmani mima kakīna, wu sururini tari, ka mīgā wō hiragā tihīmuni hi kiprīna. Mumuga magāmu hi mugugīmu zūma.''' 
'''Mumuga ka mumi hī kigamuni mirima nūnadaga, hi sima zi kigani ta, nagrūni zdagziramuga wāmugi razīma. Kānuga kuragi zgugi ka hukaza kānu tēku.''' 
'''“Siga nagruka ksagi midi kitami mini!” simi, kānuga stiwa. “Ka ta nūnagi ta ziki kuraza hukawa!”''' 
'''Mumi kānuga ka minūmiwa, wu ka kānazini rinumi rādirīnaza siwa.'''

''A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.'' 
''As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut. He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!” But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”'' 
''To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”'' 
''The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.'' 
''For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.'' 
''“This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”'' 
''So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.''

=== Gloss ===

{{gl|Waziki|wazi-ki|old-ATTR}}
{{gl|tamuni|tamu-ni|past-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|timirigi|timiri-gi|famous-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānatsiramuga|ka-natsira-muga|3M.SG-enemy-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wazani|waza-ni|door-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tizumīmani|tizu-mīma-ni|roof-hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|kīmi|kīmi|without}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|inside}}
{{gl|zdaguwa,|zdagu-wa|imprison-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizwaza|hizi-waza|starve-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ra.|ra|DAT}}
{{glend|In the old days, a famous lord had been imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without door and roof-opening, so he would starve.}}

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hiwāmi|hiwa-ːmi|gloomy-ADV}}
{{gl|mōza|mō-za|sit-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|zēgi|zē-gi|little-ATTR}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|kakita|kaki-ta|run-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|sīni.|sīni-Ø|see-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|While sitting gloomily on the ground, he saw a little mouse running through the hut.}}

{{gl|Kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|miniwa,|mini-wa|hold-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hizwagi,|hizi-wagi|starve-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|ha|ha|however}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnazi!”|nūna-zi|eat-IPFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|He took hold of his knife, and said “I certainly don’t want to starve – I will eat this mouse instead!”}}

{{gl|Ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|hiriza|hiri-za|think-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kīmuwa,|kīmu-wa|keep-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|kūwamu?|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|zidagi|zida-gi|late-ATTR}}
{{gl|suruni|suru-ni|time-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|hizwamu”|hizi-wamu|starve-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|But after thinking he put away his knife, and said “Why would I kill the mouse? I would starve later anyway.”}}

{{gl|Tika|ti-ka|mouse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tēkuwa,|tēku-wa|surprise-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|satwaza|sati-waza|say-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|“Nēgi|nē-gi|radiant-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru!|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Maga|maga|2.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kataguwa,|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|katagwazi”|katagu-wazi|save-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|ki.|ki|INS}}
{{glend|The mouse surprised the chief by saying to him: “Radiant Chief! You have saved my life, and I will also spare yours.”}}

{{gl|Tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|mīmani|mīma-ni|hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|kakīna,|kaki-ːna|run-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tihīmuni|tihi-ːmuni|mouse-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|kiprīna.|kipri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The mouse ran into a hole in the ground, and returned after a short while with twenty or thirty other mice.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|magāmu|maga-ːmu|grain-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mugugīmu|mugu-gi-ːmu|fruit-DIM-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|zūma.|zūma-Ø|carry-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|They were carrying grains and small fruits.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|kigamuni|kiga-muni|day-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|nūnadaga,|nūnadaga-Ø|feed-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sima|sima|6}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kigani|kiga-ni|day-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta,|ta|at}}
{{gl|nagrūni|nagru-ːni|lord-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zdagziramuga|zdagu-zira-muga|imprison-AG-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wāmugi|wāmu-gi-Ø|house-DIM-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|razīma.|razi-ːma|open-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the chief’s captors opened the hut.}}

{{gl|Kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|kuragi|kura-gi|live-ATTR}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hukaza|huka-za|find-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kānu|kānu|3M.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|tēku.|tēku-Ø|shock-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Finding him alive and healthy shocked them.}}

{{gl|“Siga|si-ga|this-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|midi|midi-Ø|favour-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kitami|kita-mi|sure-ADV}}
{{gl|mini!”|mini-Ø|have-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“This chief surely holds much favour!” they said.}}

{{gl|“Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|nūnagi|nūna-gi|eat-ATTR}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ziki|zi-ki|drink-ATTR}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa!”|huka-wa|discover-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“We see he lives without eating or drinking!”}}

{{gl|Mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwa,|minūmi-wa|release-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānazini|ka-nazi-ni|3M.SG-land-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|rinumi|rinu-mi|free-ADV}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|siwa.|si-wa|give-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|So they released him and let him return freely to his country.}}

== [[The north wind and the sun]] ==

'''''Hatini Miwu wu Mira''''' 
'''Hatini Miwu wu Mira kāmūmi, rāzigi kati kapimi hatita ta. Sini hi, nawizuki sadukīni ki hugzuzigi tuhi katini ha taha. Katiga hakitatiwa, tiga kataduki minūmiwaza mizānagi mu kapimi hatīnaza ta.''' 
'''Hatini Miwu hatīmi huzuwa, ha ka huzuwaza zu, tiga kataduki kāni ha katami miniwa, wu Hatini Miwu raganiwaza sururini taru mizāna.''' 
'''Mira sini taru mimagīma. Kaka tatami nēwa, wu tiga kataduki minūmiwa wu rīni ta hāniwāna. Mumi Hatini Miwu kaka Mira kapimi hatīnaza satiwaza mizāna.'''

''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take off his cloak should be considered stronger than the other.'' 
''The North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew, the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind had to give up.'' 
''Then, the Sun tried his luck. It shone out warmly, and the traveler took off his cloak to bathe in the river. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.''

=== Gloss ===

{{gl|Hatini|hati-ni|north-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Miwu|miwu-Ø|wind-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|Mira|mira-Ø|sun-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāmūmi,|kāmūmi-Ø|argue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|rāzigi|rāzigi|which}}
{{gl|kati|kati|3M.ABS.PA}}
{{gl|kapimi|kapimi|more}}
{{gl|hatita|hati-ta|strong-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ta.|ta|at}}
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were arguing over which of them was stronger.}}

{{gl|Sini|si-ni|this_one-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|nawizuki|nawizu-ki|heavy-ATTR}}
{{gl|sadukīni|saduki-ːni|cloak-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|hugzuzigi|hugzuzi-Ø-gi|dress-IPFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|tuhi|tuhi-Ø|person-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|katini|katini|3M.OBL.PA}}
{{gl|ha|ha|near}}
{{gl|taha.|taha-Ø|walk-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|While this was happening, a person wearing a heavy cloak walked by.}}

{{gl|Katiga|katiga|3M.ERG.PA}}
{{gl|hakitatiwa,|ha-hitati-wa|REFL-agree_with-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|tiga|ti-ga|person-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataduki|ka-saduki-Ø|3M.SG-cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwaza|minūmi-waza|release-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mizānagi|miza-ːna-gi|compel-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|mu|mu-Ø|that_one-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kapimi|kapimi|more}}
{{gl|hatīnaza|hati-ːnaza|strong-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ta.|ta|at}}
{{glend|They agreed that the one who made the person remove his cloak would be the stronger.}}

{{gl|Hatini|hati-ni|north-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Miwu|miwu-Ø|wind-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hatīmi|hati-ːmi|strong-ADV}}
{{gl|huzuwa,|huzu-wa|blow-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|huzuwaza|huzu-waza|blow-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|zu,|zu|beside}}
{{gl|tiga|ti-ga|person-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataduki|ka-saduki-Ø|3M.SG-cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ha|ha|near}}
{{gl|katami|kata-mi|firm-ADV}}
{{gl|miniwa,|mini-wa|hold-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|Hatini|hati-ni|north-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Miwu|miwu-Ø|wind-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|raganiwaza|ragani-waza|finish-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|taru|taru|from}}
{{gl|mizāna.|miza-ːna|compel-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The North Wind blew strongly, but when he blew, the person firmly held his cloak close to himself, and the North Wind was compelled after a while to stop.}}

{{gl|Mira|mira-Ø|sun-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sini|si-ni|this_one-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|taru|taru|from}}
{{gl|mimagīma.|mimagi-ːma|join-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Then the Sun had a go.}}

{{gl|Kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tatami|tata-mi|warm-ADV}}
{{gl|nēwa,|nē-wa|bright-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tiga|ti-ga|person-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataduki|ka-saduki-Ø|3M.SG-cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwa|minūmi-wa|release-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|rīni|rī-ni|river-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|at}}
{{gl|hāniwāna.|ha-niwa-ːna|REFL-wash-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|He shone warmly, and the traveller let go of his cloak and bathed in the river.}}

{{gl|Mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|Hatini|hati-ni|north-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Miwu|miwu-Ø|wind-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|Mira|mira-Ø|sun-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kapimi|kapimi|more}}
{{gl|hatīnaza|hati-ːnaza|strong-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|satiwaza|sati-waza|say-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mizāna.|miza-ːna|compel-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|After that, the North Wind had to say that the Sun was stronger.}}

== The legend of Lake Hazaza ==

'''''Mīgini Hazazani zi Hizānu''''' 
'''Kudi mazimi nēza zu, miruki rapa Mīgīni Hazazani zu kuhāmuni mira kīma. Tu mīgīni tama tāma wu hāniwa. Tipsagi rapamuni ksagi mita tūmi hi radāna mīgīni mima.''' 
'''Tūnu satini, ha tūnu wizwini mi humuza nāmamu. Sururini tari, tūnu mīgīni miri kīma wu kuhāmuni mima rādirīna, hi tūnu saduki nakagi mazigi hugimuga.''' 
'''Hi ruka tūnu sīniwaza hi ka mīgīni mima tiriwamu, wu ka wizwini ki hawāmaza miri katiha himiwamu wu ka sāriniwamu.'''

''When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza. She walks to the lake and bathes herself. A large number of servant women enter the lake with her.'' 
''Then they disappear, but they can still be heard playing in the water. After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, covered by long white veils.'' 
''If a man sees them he will be pulled into the lake, and as soon as he touches the water his strength will fail and he will be killed.''

=== Gloss ===

{{gl|Kudi|kudi-Ø|moon-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mazimi|mazi-mi|white-ADV}}
{{gl|nēza|nē-za|radiant-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|zu,|zu|beside}}
{{gl|miruki|miru-ki|beautiful-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapa|rapa-Ø|woman-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Hazazani|Hazaza-ni|Hazaza-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zu|zu|beside}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma.|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza.}}

{{gl|Tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|tama|tama|to}}
{{gl|tāma|ta-ːma|walk-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|hāniwa.|ha-niwa-Ø|REFL-wash-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|She walks to the lake and washes herself.}}

{{gl|Tipsagi|tipsa-gi|serve-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapamuni|rapa-muni|woman-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|mita|mita-Ø|group-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmi|tūmi|3F.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|radāna|rada-ːna|go-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima.|mima|into}}
{{glend|A large group of servant women enter the lake with her.}}

{{gl|Tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|satini,|satini-Ø|hide-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|humuza|humu-za|play-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmamu.|nāma-mu|hear-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|They hide, but they can still be heard playing in the waters.}}

{{gl|Sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|rādirīna,|rādiri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|saduki|sadu-Ø-ki|cover-IPFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|nakagi|naka-gi|long-ATTR}}
{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|hugimuga.|hugi-muga|cloth-ERG.PL}}
{{glend|After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, with long white veils that cover them.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ruka|ru-ka|man-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|sīniwaza|sīni-waza|see-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|tiriwamu,|tiri-wamu|pull-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|hawāmaza|hawa-ːmaza|wet-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|katiha|ka-riha-Ø|3M.SG-strength-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|himiwamu|himi-wamu|fail-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sāriniwamu.|sārini-wamu|perish-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If a man sees them then he will be pulled into the lake, and right after he is wet by the waters his strength will fail and he will be killed.}}

:<hr>''Adapted from the legend of [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/hertha.html Hertha Lake].

= Lexicon =

[[Kataputi/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Dumic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-12T14:43:22Z

Thedukeofnuke:

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|hugzugi
|
|
|v.
|to be dressed (garment takes '''ki''')
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāmūmi
|
|
|v.
|to argue (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kapimi
|
|
|adv.
|more, most
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksami
|
|
|adv.
|greatly, very
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|II
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order, to compel
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be bright
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|river, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgami
|
|
|adv.
|less, least
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-12T14:28:56Z

Thedukeofnuke:

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|hugzugi
|
|
|v.
|to be dressed (garment takes '''ki''')
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāmūmi
|
|
|v.
|to argue (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kapimi
|
|
|adv.
|more, most
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksami
|
|
|adv.
|greatly, very
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|II
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order, to compel
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be bright
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|estuary, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgami
|
|
|adv.
|less, least
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Zeluzh

2018-10-12T09:26:31Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* War and unification */

{{Article}}
{{Nation
| nation = Zeluzh
| native = Zeluzh
| map =
| capital = Sumateguhi & Rerãnahi
| cities = Mearenami & Rubiseashim Gukelihi & Pumekor
| language = [[Zele]]
| demonym = Zele
| gov-type = council with elected monarch
| rise = -224 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| fall = ''unknown''
| succ = ''unknown''
| author = brandrinn, [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Zeluzh''' is a nation on the northwest coast of [[Zeluzhia]]. By the beginning of the first millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], it was one of the dominant powers of the northern part of the continent.

==Geography and Climate==

Zeluzh consists of three main zones: a very narrow coastal strip (about 15 km wide at maximum), a broader arid strip up to 200 km wide, and a high volcanic mountain range - the '''Seahagazhi'''. Originally the name Zeluzh (literally meaning "dust sea") referred only to the arid zone, but later came to refer to the entire Zele-speaking area, which stretched for over 1500 km along the coast.

The northern part of Zeluzhia is on the edge of the tropics, and as such is subject to hot and generally dry weather. However, the large area of Zeluzhia generates a monsoon effect, with the southern part of the continent developing a powerful anticyclonic system in the southern hemisphere summer; this draws moist air in from the surrounding seas. As a result Zeluzh itself is subject to a cooler winter with a moderate amount of rain, followed by an intensely hot and dry summer. Close to the coast, this is tempered by sea breezes and dew.

==History==

===The arrival of the Isles people===

The region was settled in the middle of the second millennium BP by [[Isles languages|Isles]] peoples fleeing the invasions of the [[Wendoth]]. Archaeological finds dating to before this time are scant, but indicate that the indegenous peoples were not very populous, subsisting mainly on coastal fishing and some herding.

The Isles peoples brought with them a strong agricultural base and a good understanding of animal husbandry. This allowed them to quickly establish their dominance, as they could support a relatively high population even in the marginal climate.

In the centuries after their arrival in Zeluzhia, the immigrants, referred to by historians as the ''Proto-Zelic'' peoples, diverged into two main groups - the [[Zele]], living on the northern side of the Seahagazhi, and the [[User:Radius/Kiizwaye|Kiizwaye]] south of the range.

===Early transhumance===
[[Image:Sc_river-4_.png|thumb|right|300px|A river canyon of the northern Seahagazhi range in early summer.]]

The Isles immigrants mainly settled in small villages in the narrow coastal strip and on the lower slopes of the mountains, the areas most suitable for agriculture. Around -1000 YP, permanent towns started to appear in both these areas, but with a peculiar twist - the mountain towns and coastal towns were associated in pairs ('''kelebashazh''') with one town in each zone. The two factors causing this development appear to have been the climate (the mountains were more productive in spring and summer, the coast in autumn and winter) and the domestication of the camel ('''zesushim'''), which greatly eased travel across the desert zone. By -500 YP it was not unheard of for more than half of the population in a ''kelebashazh'' to migrate from one town to the other each season.

By the coast, fishing continued to be a major source of food, but cereal crops were the staple; these were supplemented by drought-tolerant fruits such as dates and olives. In the mountains, summer fruits such as apples and pears were grown. The practice of transhumance also encouraged herding, since herds could be brought along with the seasonal migration where crops could not. The favoured animals were goats ('''shãyam''') and sheep ('''mimazhi''').

The most favourable areas for this system were those where the mountains reached down to the sea. This meant that seasonal migrations were shorter, and produce could be easily transported between mountain and coastal towns. A handful of the best-placed towns came to dominate the region: Mearenami and Rubiseashim, Sumateguhi and Rerãnahi, Gukelihi and Pumekor. (In all of these ''kelebashazh'', the mountain town is named first.) The more stable cultivation, with less need for seasonal migration, encouraged these towns to grow to a considerable size, with populations exceeding 15,000 for the largest ''kelebashazh''.

===The development of cities===

As the towns grew, there was an increasing need for organisation. During the early first millennium BP, governing councils developed; they were called '''tsonãsosh''' and generally comprised the leaders of the most important clans ('''meazuhi'''). These councils served a number of purposes - arbitrating disputes, allocating farmland, overseeing civic building work, and coordinating defence.

This last was a concern because of growing rivalry between ''kelebashazh'', and also because of the threat of raids from jealous nomadic Zele. Weapons at this time were simple, consisting mainly of spears ('''nemazh''') tipped with obsidian ('''seayulihi'''). However, conflicts could be bitter; the nomads had capable fighters and considerable mobility, while the towns had strong defences, including stone walls ('''shonoafabam''') and a ready supply of obsidian, and in emergencies could mobilise forces into the thousands of men.

One contributing cause for the towns' rivalry was the increasing importance of trade. Camels were well-established as the mainstay of overland travel, and allowed the larger towns to send trade forays across the mountains to the savannah inhabited by the Kiizwaye. Boats developed quickly, too; the Zele had not forgotten their homeland of [[Tuysáfa]] - which they called '''Tsashigimi''', "the great North" - and kept building seagoing vessels ('''mer''') in which they could make summer voyages across the sea and trade for the produce of the temperate zone. (In winter the prevailing winds are in the wrong direction.)

===War and unification===

In -227 YP all-out war broke out between Mearenami-Rubiseashim and Gukelihi-Pumekor over the control of a stretch of coast between the two that was rich in pearls ('''tedãmãhi''', an important trade good). Gukelihi-Pumekor won a crushing victory on the field of battle - but, not content with this, attacked Rubiseashim itself by sea and occupied the city. Mearenami fell a few months later. This fledgling empire, flush with this success, prepared for a campaign against the other major ''kelebashazh'', Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi. However, the fear of invasion pushed the smaller towns into forming an alliance; Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi also joined and soon came to lead it (albeit in a rather informal sense). Gradually, the smaller towns of the alliance pressured Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi to grant them representation on an overall council, the '''Mati Tsonãsosh''' or "wide council", which convened in Sumateguhi or Rerãnahi depending on the season; this was agreed to, in exchange for a formal pledge of military support.

In the spring of -224 the alliance raised an army and laid siege to Gukelihi, eventually starving out the defenders. The army moved on to Pumekor and captured it by force (although fewer people were there anyway because of the season). Mearenami and Rubiseashim surrendered soon after this; many of the townspeople were grateful to be free from the Gukeli occupation. Sumateguhi-Rerãnahi were wary of rebellion, and decided to ease the hardship of conquest by granting the defeated cities councillors in the Mati Tsonãsosh, which soon came to take on the functions of government.

Although the individual ''kelebashazh'' retained their autonomy in most matters, with decisions made by their own councils, the Mati Tsonãsosh took control of the armies; most of the soldiers went back to their ordinary jobs - there were almost no professionals - but a small force was maintained for suppressing banditry and keeping watch on the nomads. It also worked to improve communications between towns (including building proper roads), to coordinate trade expeditions to the south and to Tuysáfa, and to mediate disputes between ''kelebashazh'' much as ordinary councils did for their citizens. The actual amount of power exercised by the Mati Tsonãsosh was limited, mainly because of the lack of serious external threats; in spite of its relatively small size Zeluzh was one of the larger and more advanced states on the continent. Nevertheless, it was too indecisive as a body to deal with any immediate issues that could arise, and chose a leader or '''zhealenam''' for this purpose. Over many years this position came to dominate the Mati Tsonãsosh, and although in principle they could be removed by their fellow councillors, it became customary for a new ''zhealenam'' to be chosen only upon the death of the previous. Most historians therefore consider the ''zhealenam'' of the mature Zele state to be an elected monarch, rather than just a council leader.

It is notable that unlike in contemporary states in [[Peilaš]], there was no particular barrier to a woman becoming ''zhealenam'', although there were more male rulers ('''zhealekãmabi''') than female rulers ('''zhealekispibi'''). At most levels, Zele society seems to have been relatively egalitarian; war, and times of war, were the only circumstances in which men were unquestionably preeminent (and even then, a significant minority of fighters were women).

==Technology==

By 100 YP Zeluzh was still in the strict sense a chalcolithic society; it had no writing, little metallurgy, and few cities of any size. However, while it was not as technologically advanced as the contemporary civilisations of northern Peilaš, it was not as primitive as such a simple assessment might suggest.

===Stone and metal===

One of the most important factors in the development of Zele technology was the scarcity of wood and coal in the region coupled with the ready availability of obsidian. With little fuel available, the process of smelting metals ('''tabisosh''') was difficult and expensive; obsidian, though it has some drawbacks compared to bronze or iron, is common in the Seahagazhi and as such was favoured for making tools and weapons. It was also a significant export of Zeluzh.

The only metals worked in any significant quantity were silver, copper, and gold, all of which occur in the region as pure metals. Other metals (such as bronze) were known from trade with Tuysáfa and were used as ornaments and weapons by the élite, but these were expensive to import and do not seem to have been considered particularly more useful than obsidian.

Other, more common, kinds of stone ('''sumazhi''') were used extensively by the Zele for a wide range of purposes. Most buildings were constructed from stone, although mud bricks were also used in river deltas. Stone tools, such as pestles, mauls, and hammers ('''tsedabi''') were very common, as were the characteristic granite millstones ('''renastizh''' - often so large that they could only be turned by a donkey). In cities, the streets were paved with stone slabs, and roads between towns were marked at regular intervals by stone cairns.

===Agriculture===

The Isles tribes that travelled to Zeluzhia following the invasions of the Wendoth were already settled agriculturalists, cultivating wheat ('''matatazh'''), barley ('''mashor'''), bitter vetch ('''tsoyaban''') and chickpeas ('''tsozhim''') along with a variety of vegetables. They had also domesticated the sheep, goat, and donkey ('''rorazhi''').

In Zeluzh, these crops and animals continued to be staples of agriculture, but developments continued to be made. The camel was domesticated around -1000 YP, and superseded the donkey as the most important pack animal. The other significant invention was irrigation; the use of simple canals for watering fields greatly increased the area that could be used for crops, and allowed further increases in population.

[[Category:Zeluzhia]]
[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Culture]]

Huyfárah

2018-10-11T15:07:08Z

Thedukeofnuke: link

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally [[Affalinnei]] had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Kørjah ([[Ṭømjuñar|Tøm.]] "league; alliance"). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was one coastal Doroh city-state, [[Ẓaṛmott]], on Bafyr Island. Its dialect, [[Ṭømjuñar]], gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Kørjah.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Kørjah states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

==End of the Empire==
The Republic got into a scuffle with the [[Sošunami]] in the 750s, resulting in the latter taking back the southern half of Ikím island. A political reorganization following this defeat resulted in the overseas colonies being partitioned between the different “home cities,” with Miədu and Azbǽbu taking the lion’s share. But Mæmedéi administered over Oltumosou, and a few enclaves on the northern coast, east of Lotoka.

Where Miədu had once been first among equals, its power was increasingly checked by the senates of the other two cities. The sense of a unified standard language began to fray as each local government insisted upon the norms of its own city.

In 786 one Doroh band under the umbrella of the Kørjah, enforcing order in the rump imperial state under the increasingly abstract political fiction of “defending against piracy,” overwhelmed the city garrison and murdered the emperor. The new, post-imperial age was one of political repression, coupled with cross-cultural ferment. Various religions from the east made headway in the Fáralo heartland. One of these, [[Pa'en]], the religion of the Takuña, had a largely-forgotten ancient kinship to Etúgə. It was known in Fáralo as '''Ku Mašonošin''', "[Religion of the] Immortal Spirit."

Initial concerns within Lewsfárah about “anarchy” reached a fever pitch, resulting in a reinforcement of city defenses -- then were dismissed as counterrevolutionary or un-republican. The Republic agreed to recognize the Kørjah as the successors to the Fáralo state. Various loyalist social circles who had fled the collapsing empire now found themselves inside Lewsfárah, many clustered in Miədu around the residence of the pretender to the throne, a young playboy.

This imperial pretender, Sertačil (Nam. ''Settsił''), gained influence in the city government, finally ascending to the powerful position of Deputy Mayor. In 795 the senate of Azbǽbu sent a resolution condemning this development as indicative of “un-republican sentiment.” Over the next three years the conflict escalated, nearly resulting in civil war, but the delegate from Mæmedéi brokered a peace deal resulting in Miədu's voluntary exit from the Republic. Miədu surrendered control of the Dagæm Islands, retaining the Southern Isles and the South Coast.

In 812 Mæmedéi and Azbǽbu parted ways, dissolving the Republic of Lewsfárah. All three cities remained within the Etúgə League, with the form of local government developing separately in each: In Mæmedéi the senate seats became tied to hereditary wealth, resulting in oligarchy; in Miədu the power of the Senate became eclipsed by popular allegiance to clerics and their enforcers, resulting in de facto theocracy; but Azbǽbu retained the original model of an elected legislature powered by a pious, industrious bourgeoisie.

==Dark Ages==
With the implosion of both Fáralo states the following generations are considered a dark age, with the corresponding shrinkage in population and local concentration of power. This was less a cataclysm and more a grinding stagnation, with a lack of intellectual development, and an unprecedented level of vagabondage and piracy.

The most powerful state in this period was Miədu, where the theocracy became explicit in 825 as the chief cleric was appointed Supreme Defender of the Faith, with power of veto over the Senate. Increasingly all strata of society were preoccupied with the irredentist goal of taking back the Dagæm Islands from Azbǽbu. This was mingled with the ancient pretext of "defense against piracy," awkwardly complicated by the fact that in many cases the "pirate" factions were intertwined with the navies of both cities. The Supreme Defender declared a kind of crusade, with mass conscription among the commoners. The resulting war with Azbǽbu (839-841) was destructive but short, resulting in Miəduan victory.

Oltumosou kicked free of Mæmedéi in 840, setting up a quasi-republican state headed by a “High Lord.”

A loyalist uprising in the Oltu Valley resulted in a massacre of the Doroh leaders and the establishment of the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]] in 843, centered in Ussor. The new state took [[Barnágo]] in 869. At this point no state in either the republican (or post-republican) South nor the monarchical north lay claim to the mantle of "Huyfárah" as such.

Both the Sumarušuxi and Kojroh Leagues had collapsed by 900 amid infighting, with the Fáralo states mopping up most of the gains. The Čisse-Affalinnei alliance held steady, while Mæmedéi’s old possessions in Siixtaguna came under the control of Oltumosou.

Another uprising against the Doroh in 890 resulted in a second Fáralo kingdom in the Poráš valley, modeled after Woldulaš, prosaically known in the local dialect as ''Bōskəlaš'', “The Governorate.”

Čisse and Oltumosou tentatively formed a union in 909. In both cities the sense that the Fáralo were an Etúgə people had dissipated, and the dominant religion was now a form of the cult of the Affanonic sky god, [[Tejenry]], syncretized with [[Pa’en]].

Woldulaš flourished throughout the tenth century, but lacked in naval power. Officials there began strengthening bonds with their southern neighbor, the minor naval power of Mæmedéi, whose sailors were renowned as technically skilled, prudent, and level-headed.

West of the Fáralo sphere, the irredentist spirit reared its head in [[Lasomo]], where the rulers dreamed of retaking the ancient capital, [[Akelodo]] — now the largest city in the Athalēran Empire, and probably on the continent. Much of the populace there, both urban and rural, had scorned the state religion of [[Anaitism]] in favor of the Etúgə faith of their northern neighbors. Where previously religious tolerance had flourished, the Anaitist rulers subjected the Etúgə to increasing persecutions — a counterproductive activity, as each wave of bloodshed led to a new generation of fanatics and martyrdom cults.

Sensing weakness in the ancient empire, as it struggled to put down rebellions across the land, the Lašomorans sponsored an Etúgə insurgency in Akelodo, who took the city in 971. When the Empire lay siege, Lašomo came to the rescue of the city. The resulting war between the two nations lasted five years, ending with the Republic (bolstered by the rest of the Etúge League) absorbing Akelodo and the remainder of Lašomo. The capital, for a time, remained at Oigop'oibauxeu (F. '''Boíəba''', Ad. '''Ziphē'''), and the chief language a form of Ndok Aisô.

Also as a consequence of the war, Miədu established a puppet state within former Athaleran borders, on the lower Milīr, south of Lasomo.

The crippled Empire lived on for a generation, sloughing off outlying provinces here and there, until the bitter end came in 1003, with the partitioning of the core Dāiadak lands into a handful of different states, the most powerful of which was Thāras.

In Lašomo, the magnetic pull of the great metropolis of Akelodo lead to the capital relocating there in 1007, and the language of state shifting to the local dialect of Adāta, called [[Æðadĕ]].

Tension between Miədu and the ascendant Lasomo lead to the dissolution of the nearly 500 year old Etúgə league in 1026. Lasomo expanded eastward into the [[Tal]] of western Huyfarah. Buruya developed as a regional military power, expanding downriver to capture the ancient town of [[Ñolo]]. Its major rivals in the delta were the towns of [[Luyoša]] and [[Mospiñor]].

Woldulaš absorbed Mæmedéi in 1019, leading to the rise of the kingdom as a sea power.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← {{NT|Sau Ibli}}
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← {{Far|Soifaragh}} "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← {{Ndd|Puivara}}
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}} (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← {{Ad|Hazīli}}
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← {{Ad|Hazīli}}
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← {{Ad|Hazīli}}
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← {{Ad|Hazīli}}
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}}
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah, Hagíbəl}}
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}}
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← {{Fá|Huyfárah}}
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← {{Far|Faragh}} "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Kataputi

2018-10-09T12:39:24Z

Thedukeofnuke: The North Wind and the Sun, first paragraph

{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Kataputi
| phonetic = [ˌka.tɐˈpu.tʲɪ]
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = Hazāka
| speakers = c. 120,000
| script = unknown
| family = [[Dumic languages]]   Kataputi
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional/agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Kataputi''' was spoken at the beginning of the first millennium in the '''Hazāka''', the coastal plains south of the [[Great Bay]] of eastern [[Tuysáfa]]. The name is derived from a compound meaning "town language" and refers prototypically to the language spoken in the small city-states that clustered around the southern end of the Bay; more broadly it refers to the closely related group of dialects spoken in the wider [[Hazāka|Hazāka region]] and the nearby foothills. The speakers of Kataputi referred to themselves as the '''[[Katapaki]]'''.

The Great Bay region was one of the most advanced regions of mainland Tuysáfa at the time. The area had been [[Hazāka Neolithic|agricultural]] for millennia, and had developed intensive rice cultivation and animal husbandry along with the beginnings of urban culture. The time of this sketch coincides with the start of the [[Iron Age#Iron in Tuysáfa|Tuysáfan Iron Age]]; the [[Proto-Anatolionesian|Anatolionesian]] peoples of [[Kyosshin]] and [[Ōshin]] had been exploiting iron since the middle of the first millennium BP, and by -200 YP the technology had begun to spread on the continent.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Coronal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Stop
| p · {{gray|b}}
| t · d
| k · ɡ
|
|-
! Fricative
|
| s · z
|
| h
|-
! Tap
|
| ɾ
|
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
|
|
|
|-
|}

/ɾ/ is transcribed '''r''' (and often written '''/r/''' in phonemic analysis). All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

[b] does not contrast with /p/ in native words (it only appears in the cluster /zb/), but is distinguished in transcription.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! high
|align="center" | i · iː
|align="center" | u · uː
|-
! mid
|align="center" | eː
|align="center" | oː
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a · aː
|-
|}

Long vowels are transcribed with a macron.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is C(C)V.
Allowable onset clusters are /ps ts ks dz gz pr tr kr dr gr pw tw kw dw gw sp st sk zb zd zg sw zw/. The onset clusters /sr zr/ may also occur underlyingly, but surface as /sw zw/.

== Prosody ==

Kataputi has a predictable dynamic stress based on morae. Syllables with short vowels are monomoraic, while those with long vowels are bimoraic; a strong dynamic stress falls on the penultimate mora, with the effect that the final syllable is stressed if it contains a long vowel, and the penultimate syllable is stressed otherwise. Secondary stress is applied to alternating morae before the primary stress, so long vowels always carry either primary or secondary stress. (If a long vowel is stressed, it is pronounced the same whether the stress is underlyingly on the first or second mora.)

Inflectional affixes usually change the location of stress, although there are some exceptions, which are noted in the grammar. Function words and particles are usually unstressed.

== Dialects and phonetic detail ==

The Kataputi dialect continuum consists of four main groups: Core (Kataputi proper), Western, Inland, and Eastern. All of these are quite similar and mutually intelligible. Nonetheless there are some significant variations in phonetic detail between dialects; the Eastern dialects in particular are somewhat divergent.

=== Changes common to most dialects ===
* Mid vowels become short when adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable. However, this generally does not affect secondary stress distribution.
* Mid vowels also tend to become lax [ɛ(ː) ɔ(ː)] before consonant clusters.
* Short /a i u/, when carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, become lax [ɐ ɪ ʊ].

=== Core dialects ===
* Coronals are slightly palatalised before front vowels: /n t d s z ɾ/ become [nʲ tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ ɾʲ]. Some speakers palatalise all obstruents in this environment.
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as a trilled [r] initially.

=== Western dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /s z/ are commonly in free variation with [θ ð]. This pronunciation is particularly prevalent adjacent to front vowels.
* /w/ is pronounced as a purely bilabial [β̞].
* Many speakers shorten all long vowels adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable, thus making vowel tenseness phonemic.
* Short vowels often become nasalised before a nasal consonant. Some speakers also nasalise long vowels in this environment.

=== Inland dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /h/ is a breathy-voiced [ɦ].
* /w/ is pronounced as a fricative [β]; some speakers also pronounce it as [b] initially. It also tends to undergo voicing assimilation in clusters.
* The pronunciation of short /u/ is relatively unstable; it is often lowered or centralised, and some speakers pronounce it as [o], especially when unstressed.

=== Eastern dialects ===
* Underlying /sr zr/ are realised as such, rather than surfacing as /sw zw/.
* /b d g/ are pronounced as fricatives [v ð ʝ~ɣ].
* /w/ is pronounced as [v].
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ] in clusters, and sometimes in other environments.
* Vowels become nasalised before a nasal consonant.
* The mid vowels /eː oː/ do not undergo laxing or shortening, but are pronounced as diphthongs [eɪ oʊ].
* Some speakers elide final short vowels after a single consonant.

== Example words ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Word
! Gloss
! Core
! Western
! Inland
! Eastern
|-
! '''rū'''
| 'omen' (abs. sg.)
| [ruː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
|-
! '''tragi'''
| 'quiet' (ipfv. ind.)
| [ˈtɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈtɹa.ʝɪ]
|-
! '''hira'''
| 'bird' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈɦi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
|-
! '''hirāmuga'''
| 'birds' (erg. pl.)
| [hɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [ɦɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãːˈmu.ɣɐ]
|-
! '''tukōzu'''
| 'kiln' (abs. sg.)
| [ˌtuˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪uˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˈkoː.zo]
| [ˌtuˈkoʊ.zʊ]
|-
! '''tukōzūni'''
| 'kiln' (obl. sg.)
| [ˌtuˌko.ˈzuː.nʲɪ]
| [ˌt̪uˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌtuˌkoʊ.ˈzũː.nɪ]
|-
! '''kwinu'''
| 'snail' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈkwi.nʊ]
| [ˈkβ̞ĩ.n̪ʊ]
| [ˈkɸi.n̪o]
| [ˈkvĩ.nʊ]
|-
! '''susinari'''
| 'cows' (abs. pa.)
| [ˌsu.sʲɪˈna.ɾʲɪ]
| [ˌsu.θɪ̃ˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsʊ.sɪˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsu.sɪ̃ˈna.ɾɪ]
|-
! '''kūgā'''
| 'eighty'
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɣaː]
|-
|}

= Morphology =

Kataputi morphology is fusional and mostly suffixing. A common feature is stem gradation – different forms of a root word used with different inflections.

== Morphophonology ==

Three morphophonological processes are important in Kataputi: ''stem gradation'', ''assimilation'', and ''mutation''. Stem gradation of nouns and verbs is a common process linked to declension and conjugation, and is dealt with in the appropriate sections; assimilation and mutation occur less frequently, and are both due to a number of unrelated causes.

=== Assimilation ===

Kataputi permits only a limited number of consonant cluster forms, and only in syllable onsets, but clusters can occur due to elision in morphological processes such as in noun declension.

Clusters in Kataputi can all be grouped into the following types:
* A stop followed by a sibilant.
* A stop followed by /r/ or /w/.
* A sibilant followed by a stop.
* A sibilant followed by /w/ or ''underlying'' /r/.

The following assimilation rules are then applied:
* If the cluster comprises two obstruents, the second assimilates in voicing to the first.
* /r/ following a sibilant surfaces as /w/ (except in Eastern dialects).

=== Mutation ===

Prefixes and compounding can trigger one of three types of consonant mutation. This is a process that involves the lenition (for Mutation I) or fortition (Mutations II and III) of the initial consonant of a word.

The changes that occur are listed in the following table. If a consonant is unchanged by a given mutation, the space is left blank. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of the final vowel of the prefix or ''preceding'' root.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Mutation I
! Mutation II
! Mutation III
|-
! '''m'''
|
| '''ːm'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
! '''n'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːn'''
|-
! '''t'''
| '''d'''
|
|
|-
! '''k'''
| '''g'''
|
|
|-
! '''s'''
| '''z'''
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''z'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''t'''
|-
! '''h'''
|
| '''k'''
| '''k'''
|-
! '''r'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''w'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
|}
Mutation I affects consonants even if they are the first element of a cluster; the second element then assimilates in voicing if it is a stop or sibilant. However, neither Mutation II nor III affects consonants in an initial cluster.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Declension ===

Nouns are inflected for three cases (absolutive, ergative, and oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, and plural).

Many commonly used nouns have two distinct stem “grades”, and a few have three (known as strong, intermediate, and weak grades). These are indicated in the tables below by the letters ''S'', ''I'', and ''W''. A noun with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a noun with only one grade uses this for all forms.

There are three declension classes, conventionally numbered I, II, and III (sometimes R, T, and P are used instead, based on the form of the paucal suffix). Declension I is the most common, accounting for about two thirds of nouns. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Declension I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ga'''
| W'''-ni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ri'''
| I'''-riga'''
| I'''-rini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-muga'''
| I'''-muni'''
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Declension I.

'''''Declension II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ti'''
| I'''-tiga'''
| I'''-tini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

'''''Declension III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-pi'''
| I'''-piga'''
| I'''-pini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

==== Example declensions ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''hazi''' 'finger' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''hazi'''
| '''haziga'''
| '''hazini'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''haziri'''
| '''hazwiga'''
| '''hazwini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''hazimu'''
| '''hazimuga'''
| '''hazimuni'''
|}
|
|'''zwaha''', '''zwā''', '''zūwa''' 'beetle' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''zwaha'''
| '''zūwaga'''
| '''zūwani'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''zūwari'''
| '''zwāriga'''
| '''zwārini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''zūwamu'''
| '''zwāmuga'''
| '''zwāmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''nadi''' 'flower' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''nadi'''
| '''nadika'''
| '''nadīni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''naditi'''
| '''naditiga'''
| '''naditini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''nadīmu'''
| '''nadīmuga'''
| '''nadīmuni'''
|}
|
|'''tuzu''', '''tsu''' 'mosquito' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tuzu'''
| '''tsuka'''
| '''tsūni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tsuti'''
| '''tuzutiga'''
| '''tuzutini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tsūmu'''
| '''tuzūmuga'''
| '''tuzūmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''tinaza''' 'spider' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tinaza'''
| '''tinazaka'''
| '''tinazāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tinazapi'''
| '''tinazapiga'''
| '''tinazapini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tinazāmu'''
| '''tinazāmuga'''
| '''tinazāmuni'''
|}
|
|'''waha''', '''wā''', '''wa''' 'net' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''waha'''
| '''waka'''
| '''wāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''wapi'''
| '''wāpiga'''
| '''wāpini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''wāmu'''
| '''wahāmuga'''
| '''wahāmuni'''
|}
|}

=== Possession ===

Possession in Kataputi is indicated by prefixes. Many nouns are inalienably possessed; these may not occur without a possessive prefix. A few nouns have more than one meaning, distinguished by whether they are inalienably possessed.

All possessive prefixes trigger [[Kataputi#Mutation|consonant mutation]]. The third person masculine singular triggers Mutation II, the third person feminine singular triggers Mutation III, and all other possessive prefixes trigger Mutation I.

The distinctions made in possessive prefixes are the same as those made in [[Kataputi#Personal pronouns|pronouns]]. The prefixes are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" |
! Mutation
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka-'''
| II
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kāmu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu-'''
| III
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūmu-'''
| I
|-
|}

== Pronouns ==

=== Personal pronouns ===

Kataputi has personal pronouns for the first, second, and third person, and also distinguishes inclusivity in the first person and gender in the third. All of these have a full set of pronouns distinguishing the three cases (absolutive, ergative, oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, plural - except for the 1st person inclusive, which has a dual rather than a singular).

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!
! '''Absolutive'''
! '''Ergative'''
! '''Oblique'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti'''
| '''tiga'''
| '''tini'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tiri'''
| '''triga'''
| '''trini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu'''
| '''timuga'''
| '''timuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda'''
| '''kudaga'''
| '''kudani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kuri'''
| '''kriga'''
| '''krini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu'''
| '''kumuga'''
| '''kumuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma'''
| '''maga'''
| '''mani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari'''
| '''mariga'''
| '''marini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu'''
| '''mamuga'''
| '''mamuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka'''
| '''kaka'''
| '''kāni'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati'''
| '''katiga'''
| '''katini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kānu'''
| '''kānuga'''
| '''kānuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu'''
| '''tuka'''
| '''tūmi'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi'''
| '''tupiga'''
| '''tupini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūnu'''
| '''tūnuga'''
| '''tūnuni'''
|-
|}

=== Correlatives ===

Kataputi has a small number of correlatives; most of these are not actually pronouns, but they are included here for completeness.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Morphology
! Gloss
|-
| '''ra'''
| III
| 'what?' (pronoun or attributive)
|-
| '''wi'''
| II
| 'who?' (pronoun)
|-
| '''rāmi'''
|
| 'how?' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''rāzigi'''
|
| 'which? what kind of?' (attributive)
|-
| '''kizigi'''
|
| 'no, none (of)' (attributive)
|-
| '''si'''
|
| 'this, this one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mu'''
|
| 'that, that one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mumi'''
|
| 'thus, like that' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''muzigi'''
|
| 'such, like that, that kind of' (attributive)
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Conjugation ===

Verbs are inflected for five moods (indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative, and conditional) and distinguish imperfective from perfective aspect. There is also an attributive: a subordinated form used as an adjective.

Like some nouns, many common verbs have two or three stem grades, indicated as ''S'', ''I'', ''W'' in the tables below. A verb with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a verb with only one grade uses this for all forms.

The citation form for a verb is the imperfective indicative (which is always the same as the strong stem).

There are three conjugations, numbered I, II, and III; most verbs belong to Conjugation I, and only these can have an intermediate stem grade. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Conjugation I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-wa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-za'''
| I'''-waza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-zi'''
| I'''-wazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-gi'''
| I'''-wagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-wamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-gi'''
|
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Conjugation I.

'''''Conjugation II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-ta'''
| S'''-ːnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

'''''Conjugation III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-pa'''
| S'''-ːmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

==== Other verbal forms ====

Kataputi has three inflectional affixes that can be attached to any verb form.

One is a prefix:
* The reflexive prefix '''ha-'''. This prefix triggers Mutation III.

The other two are suffixes. (The allomorphs after the slashes are used after the imperative, or after the imperfective indicative of a Declension II or III verb. These affixes do not affect the stress position.)
* The antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata'''
* The relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki'''

Both of the antipassive and relativising suffixes may occur on the same verb, but the relativiser, where present, must always be the last affix.

==== Example conjugations ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''katu''' 'to be black' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''katu'''
| '''katuwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''katuza'''
| '''katwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''katuzi'''
| '''katwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''katugi'''
| '''katwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''katumu'''
| '''katwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''katugi'''
|
|}
|
|'''hihi''', '''hī''', '''hi''' 'to boil' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hihi'''
| '''hiwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hiza'''
| '''hīwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hizi'''
| '''hīwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''higi'''
| '''hīwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''himu'''
| '''hīwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''higi'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''hiku''' 'to jump' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hiku'''
| '''hikūna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hikuta'''
| '''hikūnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hikuti'''
| '''hikūnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''hikuki'''
| '''hikūnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''hikūmu'''
| '''hikūnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''hikuki'''
|
|}
|
|'''suzi''', '''si''' 'to give' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''suzi'''
| '''sīna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''sita'''
| '''suzīnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''siti'''
| '''suzīnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''siki'''
| '''suzīnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''sīmu'''
| '''suzīnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''siki'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''muzō''' 'to be sacred' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''muzō'''
| '''muzōma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''muzōpa'''
| '''muzōmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''muzōti'''
| '''muzōmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''muzōki'''
| '''muzōmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''muzōmu'''
| '''muzōmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''muzōki'''
|
|}
|
|'''taha''', '''ta''' 'to walk' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''taha'''
| '''tāma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''tapa'''
| '''tahāmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''tati'''
| '''tahāmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''taki'''
| '''tahāmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''tāmu'''
| '''tahāmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''taki'''
|
|}
|}

== Numbers ==

Kataputi has a base-10 number system:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! '''1'''
| '''kaza'''
! '''11'''
| '''kākaza'''
|
|
|-
! '''2'''
| '''migi'''
! '''12'''
| '''kāmigi'''
! '''20'''
| '''mīgā'''
|-
! '''3'''
| '''hira'''
! '''13'''
| '''kānira'''
! '''30'''
| '''hiragā'''
|-
! '''4'''
| '''zada'''
! '''14'''
| '''kātada'''
! '''40'''
| '''zadagā'''
|-
! '''5'''
| '''hī'''
! '''15'''
| '''kānī'''
! '''50'''
| '''hīgā'''
|-
! '''6'''
| '''sima'''
! '''16'''
| '''kātima'''
! '''60'''
| '''simagā'''
|-
! '''7'''
| '''tadu'''
! '''17'''
| '''kātadu'''
! '''70'''
| '''tadugā'''
|-
! '''8'''
| '''kuhu'''
! '''18'''
| '''kākuhu'''
! '''80'''
| '''kūgā'''
|-
! '''9'''
| '''nuti'''
! '''19'''
| '''kānuti'''
! '''90'''
| '''nutigā'''
|-
! '''10'''
| '''kā'''
|
|
! '''100'''
| '''tigi'''
|-
|
|
|
|
! '''1000'''
| '''tigiwu'''
|-
|}

Larger numbers are formed analytically:

{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|23}}

{{gl|simagā|simagā|60}}
{{gl|zada|zada|4}}
{{glend|64}}

{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|kākuhu|kākuhu|18}}
{{glend|118}}

{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|523}}

The word '''ru''' 'on' comes between digits in the hundreds and higher:

{{gl|tigiwu|tigiwu|1000}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tadu|tadu|7}}
{{glend|1337}}

Numerals are indeclinable, but ordinals can be formed by adding the genitive postposition '''zi'''.

== Derivational morphology ==

=== Derivational affixes ===

A range of suffixes are used to derive new words in Kataputi. These are sensitive to the stem alternations of noun and verb roots, with each affix taking a particular grade; however, newly derived nouns themselves tend not to undergo alternations as this would be likely to create ambiguity.

In the following tables, each suffix is listed with its allomorphs for different declensions/conjugations and the stem grade that it takes, its own declension/conjugation class, and its meaning. As with inflectional suffixes, any final short vowel in the strong or intermediate grade of an Declension I noun or Conjugation I verb is deleted when a derivational suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster.

==== Noun to noun ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" align="center" | '''Affix forms'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Declension'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Gloss'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Example'''
|-
! align="center" | I
! align="center" | II
! align="center" | III
|-
| W'''-gi'''
| W'''-ki'''
| W'''-ki'''
| II
| general diminutive
| '''mī''' "sea" > '''mīgi''' "lagoon, bay"
|-
| W'''-da'''
| W'''-ta'''
| W'''-ta'''
| III
| diminutive, with connotations of youth or daintiness
| '''tū''' "dog" > '''tūda''' "puppy"
|-
| I'''-dagu'''
| S'''-tagu'''
| S'''-tagu'''
| I
| augmentative
| '''hu''' "spirit" > '''hutagu''' "god"
|-
| I'''-niri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| I
| a distinguishing feature or quality of X
| '''titu''' "citizen" > '''tituniri''' "rank, social class"
|-
|}

= Syntax =

== Basic word order ==

The default word order in Kataputi is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.

{{gl|Tuzutiga|tuzu-tiga|mosquito-ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ru|ru-Ø|man-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Some mosquitoes have bitten the man.}}

Indirect objects usually come immediately before the direct object.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|timudūni|ti-mudu-ːni|1EX.SG-son-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|wigimu|wigi-mu|apple-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|siti.|si-ti|give-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I hope she gives apples to my son.}}

Adverbs and adverbial phrases, however, immediately precede the verb.

{{gl|Miwa|miwa-Ø|boat-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kamini|kami-ni|axe-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|nagadawa.|nagada-wa|damage-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The boat was damaged (by someone) with an axe.}}

== Nouns and noun phrases ==

Noun phrases comprise a head noun and any number of modifiers; all modifiers precede the head noun. Verbs used as adjectives take the attributive suffix.

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tsari|tsa-ri|cloud-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some white clouds}}

Quantifiers tend to precede other modifiers with the exception of genitive constructions.

{{gl|kā|kā|10}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|zimigi|zimi-gi|young-ATTR}}
{{gl|rūmu|ru-ːmu|man-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|ten healthy young men}}

=== Case usage ===

The absolutive case is the most unmarked, and is used for the subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive one.

The ergative case is used for the subject of a transitive sentence.

The oblique case is used for the indirect object of a sentence, governs postpositions, and forms appositives.

=== Genitives and possession ===

Possession can be expressed in two ways: using the possessive prefixes, or the genitive postposition '''zi'''. A genitive construction precedes all other modifiers in a noun phrase.

{{gl|kudawāmu|kuda-wāmu-Ø|1IN.DU-house-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our house (belonging to the two of us)}}

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's trousers}}

However, for inalienably possessed nouns, the prefix must be used even where there is also a genitive.

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's legs}}

When the possessor is a pronoun, a genitive expression can be used (with a possessive prefix where required) to emphasise it:

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own trousers}}

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own legs}}

=== Appositives ===

Appositive expressions use the oblique case, and precede their head noun:

{{gl|kumuhigadani|kumu-higada-ni|1IN.PL-city-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Skōkana|Skōkana-Ø|Skōkana-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our city, Skōkana}}

== Verbs ==

=== Aspect and mood ===

These are the two main categories of inflection for Kataputi verbs.

''Aspect'' marks whether an action is ongoing (imperfective) or completed (perfective), but says nothing about tense:

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizi.|hizi-Ø|build-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you all will be building a grand hall.}}

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīziwa.|hīzi-wa|build-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you will have built a grand hall.}}

The use of the ''moods'' is less straightforward. There are five main moods plus the attributive; this section gives an overview of how they work.

The indicative is the least marked form, and is used in main clauses where the action is well-established to have occurred.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I have a cloak.}}

The subjunctive is also common, but does not occur in main clauses; it occurs in nominalised verb phrases and a number of other environments.

{{gl|Maga|Maga|2.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuza|hīmu-za|own-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa.|huka-wa|find-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|You've found out that I have a cloak.}}

The optative expresses a wish or desire.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuzi.|hīmu-zi|own-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I wish I had a cloak.}}

The imperative is used to give orders or, more generally, to say to the listener that they should bring about the action. As such, the subject is always in the second person and can be safely omitted where the number distinction is not important. The imperative is polite enough that it can be safely used with social peers, though not superiors. 
To some degree the choice of aspect used with the imperative depends on the verb: general states are mostly used with the imperfective, whereas specific actions are more usually used with the perfective.

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmugi.|hīmu-gi|own-IPFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi.|niri-wagi|get-PFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should get a cloak.}}

The conditional is used to express possibility; unsusprisingly, though, it is mainly used for the consequent of conditional expressions, which are discussed in the [[#Transformations|Transformations]] section.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|I could have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|tēputani|tēputa-ni|noble-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|ziza,|zi-za|be-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|If I were noble, I would have a cloak.}}

=== Negation ===

There are two negatives in Kataputi: the ordinary negative '''ta''' and the emphatic negative '''kimi'''. These are particles that can be used with any form of verb, and which immediately precede it:

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I don't have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|It's impossible that I could have a cloak.}}

Though it does not strictly negate a sentence, the determiner or attributive '''kizigi''' 'none (of)' is used to indicate the negation or absence of a nominal (which is always declined in the singular):

{{gl|Kizigi|kizigi|none}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Gōki.|Gōki-Ø|Jouki-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|[[Jouki]] is not governed by the law.}}

Similarly, '''kūma''' means both 'neither' and 'nor':

{{gl|Kūma|kūma|neither}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kūma|kūma|nor}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Tētu.|Tētu-Ø|Tɛnto-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|The [[Potɑnsʉti|Tɛnto]] are governed by neither law nor lord.}}

=== Derived verb forms ===

The antipassive, in '''-zda'''/'''-tata''', promotes the single absolutive argument of a verb to become an ergative "subject", and also serves in coordinating sentences; the relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' is used solely for relative clauses. Both are discussed in the Transformations section.

=== Postpositional phrases ===

Kataputi postpositions govern the oblique case. The postposition comes last, immediately preceded by the noun, itself preceded by any modifiers.

{{gl|sadukīni|saduki-ːni|cloak-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{glend|using a cloak}}

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tīwumuni|tīwu-muni|star-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hama|hama|towards}}
{{glend|towards the white stars}}

There are no postpositions that apply specifically to time, and spatial equivalents are used instead. The guiding metaphor is that events move ''forward'' through time, ''through'' their circumstances; the most common examples are given below:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2" align="center" | Postp.
! colspan="2" align="center" | Gloss
|-
! Space
! Time
|-
| '''tama'''
| to
| before
|-
| '''mima'''
| into
| at the start of, just before
|-
| '''hi'''
| with
| in, during
|-
| '''mirima'''
| through
| for, throughout, during
|-
| '''zu'''
| beside
| while, at the same time as
|-
| '''miri'''
| out of
| at the end of, just after
|-
| '''tari'''
| from
| after
|-
|}

== Transformations ==

In this section, following the style of Zompist, transformations are described in a simplified notation with examples.

{{Green|A}} → {{Green|B}} means "whenever A is a legal structure, so is B".

Symbols used: 
{{Green|S}} = subject 
{{Green|V}} = verb 
{{Green|O}} = direct object 
{{Green|I}} = indirect object 
{{Green|N}} = noun 
{{Green|Vi}} = intransitive verb 
{{Green|Vt}} = transitive verb 
{{Green|VP}} = verb phrase 
{{Green|NP}} = noun phrase 
{{Green|Pr}} = pronoun 
{{Green|PP}} = postpositional phrase 
{{Green|Adv}} = adverbial information 
{{Green|Adj}} = adjectival information 
{{Green|SEN}} = sentence 
{{Green|-}} = morpheme boundary 

=== Passive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|O Vt}}

The passive in Kataputi works somewhat differently to that of accusative languages. A transitive sentence can be turned into a passive simply by deleting the subject:

{{gl|Rīmuka|rīmu-ka|lion-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A lion is eating a horse.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eaten.}}

=== Antipassive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|S-ABS Vt-AP}}

Deleting the object of a verb while retaining the role of the agent is slightly more complicated - the subject is retained in the ''absolutive'' case, and the verb takes the antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata''' (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix). This transformation is important for coordinating sentences, which is discussed below.

{{gl|Tihaka|tiha-ka|horse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wigi|wigi-Ø|apple-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eating an apple.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnatata.|nūna-Ø-tata|eat-IPFV.IND-AP}}
{{glend|A horse is eating.}}

=== The conditional ===

{{Green|SEN1}}, {{Blue|SEN2}} → '''hi''' {{Green|SEN1-SJV}} '''hi''' {{Blue|SEN2-COND}}

The {{Green|condition}} of a conditional expression is put in the subjunctive mood, and the {{Blue|consequent}} in the conditional mood; either of these can be negated with either '''ta''' or '''kimi'''. The conjunction '''hi''' precedes each of these (it essentially does the work of both English "if" and "then").

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza,|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|triga|triga|1EX.PA.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kūwamu.|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If you come back, we'll kill you.}}

=== Relative clauses ===

Relative clauses follow SOV word order in the same way as main clauses, although one argument of the verb is always deleted. A relative clause immediately precedes its head noun, which is itself declined as appropriate for its syntactic role:

{{gl|Suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|ruguga|rugu-ga|hook-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|himaru|himaru-Ø|turtle-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|niriwa.|niri-wa|catch-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The hook that caught a fish also caught a turtle.}}

==== Absolutive as referent ====

{{Green|(S1 O V1)}} {{Blue|S2 O V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 V1-REL}} O {{Blue|V2}}

Relative clauses where the absolutive is the referent are formed by deleting the absolutive argument and adding the relativising suffix '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix).

{{gl|kīmikumīmuga|kīmikumi-ːmuga|peasant-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|hizwazigi|hizi-wazi-gi|build-PFV.OPT-REL}}
{{gl|zwūmamu|zwūma-mu|road-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|the roads that the peasants should have built}}

{{Green|(S Vi)}} {{Blue|S O V2}} → {{Green|Vi-ATTR}} S {{Blue|O V2}}

If the relative clause is intransitive, the attributive may be used instead of a full relativised form. In many cases, attributives are better translated into English as adjectives, but not always:

{{gl|naraki|nara-ki|burn-ATTR}}
{{gl|kati|ka-ti|tree-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some burning trees}}

==== Ergative as referent ====

{{Green|(S O1 V1)}} {{Blue|S O2 V2}} → {{Green|O1 V1-REL}} S {{Blue|O2 V2}}

Relative clauses where the ergative subject is the referent are equally simple - they are formed by deleting the subject and adding '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb.

{{gl|suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|rugu|rugu-Ø|hook-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|the hook that caught a fish}}

=== Nominal subordination ===

{{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} → {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} 
{{Blue|S2}} {{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|V2}}

Nominal subordination makes use of the subjunctive mood. A full sentence can be made to behave as a noun phrase, including as subject or object of another verb.

{{gl|Manāgiru|ma-nāgiru-Ø|2.SG-lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmaza|tu-ːmaza|dead-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hata.|hata-Ø|true-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|It's true that your lord has died.}}

{{gl|Kriga|kriga|1IN.ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rīniza|rīni-za|laugh-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmawa.|nāma-wa|hear-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|We've all heard him laughing.}}

=== Quotation ===

While indirect quotations use the subjunctive, directly quoted speech uses a special quotative particle '''simi'''. In this type of construction the quotation generally comes first in the sentence, and is always followed directly by '''simi'''; it is considered an intransitive sentence and so the speaker takes the absolutive case.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|staza|sta-za|happy-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|She said to me that she was happy.}}

{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sita”|sita-Ø|happy-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“I'm happy,” she said to me.}}

=== Questions ===

==== Yes/no questions ====

The simplest way of asking a question in Katapaki is with the particle '''ga''', which is placed after the verb. Formations with '''ga''' generally presuppose a positive answer.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|mariwāmu|mari-wāmu-Ø|2.PA-house-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kataguwa|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Didn't I save your house?}}

To form a question that presupposes a negative, the same construction is used but with the negating particle '''ta''' preceding the verb. (The emphatic negative '''kimi''' can be used instead to express a mere trace of doubt, or to ask for support.)

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|tudu|tudu-Ø|ill-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|He's not ill, is he?}}

{{gl|Pinuka|Pinuka-Ø|Pinuka-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Gōkini|Gōki-ni|Jouki-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|zgawa|zga-wa|lose-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Surely [[Katapaki#City-states|Pinuka]] wasn't defeated by Jouki?}}

It is possible to ask a yes/no question without a presumed answer. This works in the same way as the first construction but with the addition of the phrase '''wō ta''' ('or not') immediately after the verb.

{{gl|Hā|hā-Ø|sky-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kupi|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Is the sky blue or not?}}

To answer a yes/no question in the affirmative, it is usual to reply with the main verb from the question, or '''tugū''' '(it) is correct'; to answer in the negative, the negative '''ta''' may be used, analogously to English 'no' (but '''kimi''' may be used instead for emphasis, especially when the question expects an affirmative). Where the answer is uncertain, it is possible to reply using the subjunctive mood of the verb from the question.

{{gl|Kupi.|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Ta.|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|Kimi.|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|Kupimu.|kupi-mu|blue-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|Yes, it's blue. No, it isn't. Of course it isn't. It could be blue.}}

==== Question forming with pronouns ====

Kataputi has two key interrogative [[#Correlatives|pronouns]], '''ra''' 'what' (declension III) and '''wi''' 'who' (declension II), along with the pro-adverb '''rāmi''' 'how' and the attributive '''rāzigi''' 'which, what kind'. These do not move around in the sentence; they simply take the place of the referent, declining as appropriate.

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|A shark bit my face.}}

{{gl|Raka|ra-ka|what-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What bit my face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wi|wi-Ø|who-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whom did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''who''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wīni|wi-ːni|who-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|katē|ka-tē-Ø|3M.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whose face did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''whose'' face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tira|ti-ra-Ø|1.SG-what-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What thing of mine did the shark bite? - The shark bit my ''what''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|LOC}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Where did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''where''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāmi|rāmi|how}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|How did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''how''?}}

{{gl|Rāzigi|rāzigi|what_kind}}
{{gl|sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What sort of shark bit my face?}}

(These examples also serve to illustrate two points on the use of [[#Genitives and possession|possession]] in Kataputi. Firstly, possessive prefixes can attach to the interrogative pronouns. Secondly, the third person masculine singular prefix is the default for an inalienably possessed noun where the possessor is uncertain or indefinite - the exceptions are female body parts, where the feminine equivalent is used.)

= Sample texts =

== [[The chief and the mouse]] ==

'''''Nāgiru wu tihi''''' 
'''Waziki tamuni hi, timirigi nāgiru kānatsiramuga wazani wu tizumīmani kīmi wāmugīni mi zdaguwa, ka hizwaza ra.''' 
'''Ka kihāni ru hiwāmi mōza hi, kaka zēgi tihi wāmugīni mirima kakita sīni. Kaka kataga miniwa, wu stiwa “Ti kimi hizwagi, hi tiga tihi nūnazi!” simi. Ha hiriza tari, kaka kataga kīmuwa, wu stiwa “Tiga tihi rāni ra kūwamu? Ti zidagi suruni hi mūma hizwamu” simi.''' 
'''Tika nāgiru tēkuwa, kāni satwaza “Nēgi nāgiru! Maga ti kuraza kataguwa, wu tiga ma kuraza mūma katagwazi” simi ki.''' 
'''Tihi kihāni mi mīmani mima kakīna, wu sururini tari, ka mīgā wō hiragā tihīmuni hi kiprīna. Mumuga magāmu hi mugugīmu zūma.''' 
'''Mumuga ka mumi hī kigamuni mirima nūnadaga, hi sima zi kigani ta, nagrūni zdagziramuga wāmugi razīma. Kānuga kuragi zgugi ka hukaza kānu tēku.''' 
'''“Siga nagruka ksagi midi kitami mini!” simi, kānu stiwa. “Ka ta nūnagi ta ziki kuraza hukawa!”''' 
'''Mumi kānuga ka minūmiwa, wu ka kānazini rinumi rādirīnaza siwa.'''

''A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.'' 
''As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut. He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!” But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”'' 
''To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”'' 
''The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.'' 
''For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.'' 
''“This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”'' 
''So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.''

=== Gloss ===

{{gl|Waziki|wazi-ki|old-ATTR}}
{{gl|tamuni|tamu-ni|past-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|timirigi|timiri-gi|famous-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānatsiramuga|ka-natsira-muga|3M.SG-enemy-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wazani|waza-ni|door-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tizumīmani|tizu-mīma-ni|roof-hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|kīmi|kīmi|without}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|inside}}
{{gl|zdaguwa,|zdagu-wa|imprison-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizwaza|hizi-waza|starve-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ra.|ra|DAT}}
{{glend|In the old days, a famous lord had been imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without door and roof-opening, so he would starve.}}

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hiwāmi|hiwa-ːmi|gloomy-ADV}}
{{gl|mōza|mō-za|sit-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|zēgi|zē-gi|little-ATTR}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|kakita|kaki-ta|run-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|sīni.|sīni-Ø|see-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|While sitting gloomily on the ground, he saw a little mouse running through the hut.}}

{{gl|Kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|miniwa,|mini-wa|hold-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hizwagi,|hizi-wagi|starve-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|ha|ha|however}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnazi!”|nūna-zi|eat-IPFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|He took hold of his knife, and said “I certainly don’t want to starve – I will eat this mouse instead!”}}

{{gl|Ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|hiriza|hiri-za|think-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kīmuwa,|kīmu-wa|keep-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|kūwamu?|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|zidagi|zida-gi|late-ATTR}}
{{gl|suruni|suru-ni|time-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|hizwamu”|hizi-wamu|starve-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|But after thinking he put away his knife, and said “Why would I kill the mouse? I would starve later anyway.”}}

{{gl|Tika|ti-ka|mouse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tēkuwa,|tēku-wa|surprise-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|satwaza|sati-waza|say-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|“Nēgi|nē-gi|radiant-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru!|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Maga|maga|2.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kataguwa,|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|katagwazi”|katagu-wazi|save-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|ki.|ki|INS}}
{{glend|The mouse surprised the chief by saying to him: “Radiant Chief! You have saved my life, and I will also spare yours.”}}

{{gl|Tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|mīmani|mīma-ni|hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|kakīna,|kaki-ːna|run-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tihīmuni|tihi-ːmuni|mouse-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|kiprīna.|kipri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The mouse ran into a hole in the ground, and returned after a short while with twenty or thirty other mice.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|magāmu|maga-ːmu|grain-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mugugīmu|mugu-gi-ːmu|fruit-DIM-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|zūma.|zūma-Ø|carry-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|They were carrying grains and small fruits.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|kigamuni|kiga-muni|day-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|nūnadaga,|nūnadaga-Ø|feed-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sima|sima|6}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kigani|kiga-ni|day-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta,|ta|at}}
{{gl|nagrūni|nagru-ːni|lord-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zdagziramuga|zdagu-zira-muga|imprison-AG-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wāmugi|wāmu-gi-Ø|house-DIM-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|razīma.|razi-ːma|open-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the chief’s captors opened the hut.}}

{{gl|Kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|kuragi|kura-gi|live-ATTR}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hukaza|huka-za|find-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kānu|kānu|3M.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|tēku.|tēku-Ø|shock-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Finding him alive and healthy shocked them.}}

{{gl|“Siga|si-ga|this-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|midi|midi-Ø|favour-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kitami|kita-mi|sure-ADV}}
{{gl|mini!”|mini-Ø|have-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|kānu|kānu|3M.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“This chief surely holds much favour!” they said.}}

{{gl|“Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|nūnagi|nūna-gi|eat-ATTR}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ziki|zi-ki|drink-ATTR}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa!”|huka-wa|discover-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“We see he lives without eating or drinking!”}}

{{gl|Mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwa,|minūmi-wa|release-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānazini|ka-nazi-ni|3M.SG-land-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|rinumi|rinu-mi|free-ADV}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|siwa.|si-wa|give-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|So they released him and let him return freely to his country.}}

== [[The north wind and the sun]] ==

'''''Hatini Miwu wu Mira''''' 
'''Hatini Miwu wu Mira kāmūmi, rāzigi kati kapimi hatita ta. Nawizuki sadukīni ki hugzuzigi tuhi katini ha taha. Kati hakitatiwa, tiga saduki minūmiwaza mizānagi mu kapimi hatīnaza ta.

''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take off his cloak should be considered stronger than the other.''

{{gl|Hatini|hati-ni|north-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Miwu|miwu-Ø|wind-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|Mira|mira-Ø|sun-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāmūmi,|kāmūmi-Ø|argue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|rāzigi|rāzigi|which}}
{{gl|kati|kati|3M.ABS.PA}}
{{gl|kapimi|kapimi|more}}
{{gl|hatita|hati-ta|strong-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ta.|ta|at}}
{{glend|The North Wind and the Sun were arguing over which of them was stronger.}}

{{gl|Nawizuki|nawizu-ki|heavy-ATTR}}
{{gl|sadukīni|saduki-ːni|cloak-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|hugzuzigi|hugzuzi-Ø-gi|dress-IPFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|tuhi|tuhi-Ø|person-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|katini|katini|3M.OBL.PA}}
{{gl|ha|ha|near}}
{{gl|taha.|taha-Ø|walk-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A person wearing a heavy cloak walked by.}}

{{gl|Kati|kati|3M.ABS.PA}}
{{gl|hakitatiwa,|ha-hitati-wa|REFL-agree_with-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|tiga|ti-ga|person-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwaza|minūmi-waza|release-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mizānagi|miza-ːna-gi|compel-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|mu|mu-Ø|that-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kapimi|kapimi|more}}
{{gl|hatīnaza|hati-ːnaza|strong-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ta.|ta|at}}
{{glend|They agreed that the one who made the person remove their cloak would be the stronger.}}

== The legend of Lake Hazaza ==

'''''Mīgini Hazazani zi Hizānu''''' 
'''Kudi mazimi nēza zu, miruki rapa Mīgīni Hazazani zu kuhāmuni mira kīma. Tu mīgīni tama tāma wu hāniwa. Tipsagi rapamuni ksagi mita tūmi hi radāna mīgīni mima.''' 
'''Tūnu satini, ha tūnu wizwini mi humuza nāmamu. Sururini tari, tūnu mīgīni miri kīma wu kuhāmuni mima rādirīna, hi tūnu saduki nakagi mazigi hugimuga.''' 
'''Hi ruka tūnu sīniwaza hi ka mīgīni mima tiriwamu, wu ka wizwini ki hawāmaza miri katiha himiwamu wu ka sāriniwamu.'''

''When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza. She walks to the lake and bathes herself. A large number of servant women enter the lake with her.'' 
''Then they disappear, but they can still be heard playing in the water. After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, covered by long white veils.'' 
''If a man sees them he will be pulled into the lake, and as soon as he touches the water his strength will fail and he will be killed.''

{{gl|Kudi|kudi-Ø|moon-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mazimi|mazi-mi|white-ADV}}
{{gl|nēza|nē-za|radiant-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|zu,|zu|beside}}
{{gl|miruki|miru-ki|beautiful-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapa|rapa-Ø|woman-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Hazazani|Hazaza-ni|Hazaza-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zu|zu|beside}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma.|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza.}}

{{gl|Tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|tama|tama|to}}
{{gl|tāma|ta-ːma|walk-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|hāniwa.|ha-niwa-Ø|REFL-wash-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|She walks to the lake and washes herself.}}

{{gl|Tipsagi|tipsa-gi|serve-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapamuni|rapa-muni|woman-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|mita|mita-Ø|group-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmi|tūmi|3F.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|radāna|rada-ːna|go-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima.|mima|into}}
{{glend|A large group of servant women enter the lake with her.}}

{{gl|Tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|satini,|satini-Ø|hide-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|humuza|humu-za|play-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmamu.|nāma-mu|hear-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|They hide, but they can still be heard playing in the waters.}}

{{gl|Sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|rādirīna,|rādiri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|saduki|sadu-Ø-ki|cover-IPFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|nakagi|naka-gi|long-ATTR}}
{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|hugimuga.|hugi-muga|cloth-ERG.PL}}
{{glend|After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, with long white veils that cover them.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ruka|ru-ka|man-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|sīniwaza|sīni-waza|see-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|tiriwamu,|tiri-wamu|pull-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|hawāmaza|hawa-ːmaza|wet-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|katiha|ka-riha-Ø|3M.SG-strength-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|himiwamu|himi-wamu|fail-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sāriniwamu.|sārini-wamu|perish-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If a man sees them then he will be pulled into the lake, and right after he is wet by the waters his strength will fail and he will be killed.}}

:<hr>''Adapted from the legend of [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/hertha.html Hertha Lake].

= Lexicon =

[[Kataputi/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Dumic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-09T11:55:03Z

Thedukeofnuke:

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|hugzugi
|
|
|v.
|to be dressed (garment takes '''ki''')
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāmūmi
|
|
|v.
|to argue (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kapimi
|
|
|adv.
|more, most
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksami
|
|
|adv.
|greatly, very
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|II
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order, to compel
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be radiant
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|estuary, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgami
|
|
|adv.
|less, least
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Kataputi

2018-10-09T11:10:50Z

Thedukeofnuke: this and that

{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Kataputi
| phonetic = [ˌka.tɐˈpu.tʲɪ]
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = Hazāka
| speakers = c. 120,000
| script = unknown
| family = [[Dumic languages]]   Kataputi
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional/agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Kataputi''' was spoken at the beginning of the first millennium in the '''Hazāka''', the coastal plains south of the [[Great Bay]] of eastern [[Tuysáfa]]. The name is derived from a compound meaning "town language" and refers prototypically to the language spoken in the small city-states that clustered around the southern end of the Bay; more broadly it refers to the closely related group of dialects spoken in the wider [[Hazāka|Hazāka region]] and the nearby foothills. The speakers of Kataputi referred to themselves as the '''[[Katapaki]]'''.

The Great Bay region was one of the most advanced regions of mainland Tuysáfa at the time. The area had been [[Hazāka Neolithic|agricultural]] for millennia, and had developed intensive rice cultivation and animal husbandry along with the beginnings of urban culture. The time of this sketch coincides with the start of the [[Iron Age#Iron in Tuysáfa|Tuysáfan Iron Age]]; the [[Proto-Anatolionesian|Anatolionesian]] peoples of [[Kyosshin]] and [[Ōshin]] had been exploiting iron since the middle of the first millennium BP, and by -200 YP the technology had begun to spread on the continent.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Coronal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Stop
| p · {{gray|b}}
| t · d
| k · ɡ
|
|-
! Fricative
|
| s · z
|
| h
|-
! Tap
|
| ɾ
|
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
|
|
|
|-
|}

/ɾ/ is transcribed '''r''' (and often written '''/r/''' in phonemic analysis). All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

[b] does not contrast with /p/ in native words (it only appears in the cluster /zb/), but is distinguished in transcription.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! high
|align="center" | i · iː
|align="center" | u · uː
|-
! mid
|align="center" | eː
|align="center" | oː
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a · aː
|-
|}

Long vowels are transcribed with a macron.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is C(C)V.
Allowable onset clusters are /ps ts ks dz gz pr tr kr dr gr pw tw kw dw gw sp st sk zb zd zg sw zw/. The onset clusters /sr zr/ may also occur underlyingly, but surface as /sw zw/.

== Prosody ==

Kataputi has a predictable dynamic stress based on morae. Syllables with short vowels are monomoraic, while those with long vowels are bimoraic; a strong dynamic stress falls on the penultimate mora, with the effect that the final syllable is stressed if it contains a long vowel, and the penultimate syllable is stressed otherwise. Secondary stress is applied to alternating morae before the primary stress, so long vowels always carry either primary or secondary stress. (If a long vowel is stressed, it is pronounced the same whether the stress is underlyingly on the first or second mora.)

Inflectional affixes usually change the location of stress, although there are some exceptions, which are noted in the grammar. Function words and particles are usually unstressed.

== Dialects and phonetic detail ==

The Kataputi dialect continuum consists of four main groups: Core (Kataputi proper), Western, Inland, and Eastern. All of these are quite similar and mutually intelligible. Nonetheless there are some significant variations in phonetic detail between dialects; the Eastern dialects in particular are somewhat divergent.

=== Changes common to most dialects ===
* Mid vowels become short when adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable. However, this generally does not affect secondary stress distribution.
* Mid vowels also tend to become lax [ɛ(ː) ɔ(ː)] before consonant clusters.
* Short /a i u/, when carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, become lax [ɐ ɪ ʊ].

=== Core dialects ===
* Coronals are slightly palatalised before front vowels: /n t d s z ɾ/ become [nʲ tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ ɾʲ]. Some speakers palatalise all obstruents in this environment.
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as a trilled [r] initially.

=== Western dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /s z/ are commonly in free variation with [θ ð]. This pronunciation is particularly prevalent adjacent to front vowels.
* /w/ is pronounced as a purely bilabial [β̞].
* Many speakers shorten all long vowels adjacent to a (primary) stressed syllable, thus making vowel tenseness phonemic.
* Short vowels often become nasalised before a nasal consonant. Some speakers also nasalise long vowels in this environment.

=== Inland dialects ===
* /n t d/ are dental [n̪ t̪ d̪].
* /h/ is a breathy-voiced [ɦ].
* /w/ is pronounced as a fricative [β]; some speakers also pronounce it as [b] initially. It also tends to undergo voicing assimilation in clusters.
* The pronunciation of short /u/ is relatively unstable; it is often lowered or centralised, and some speakers pronounce it as [o], especially when unstressed.

=== Eastern dialects ===
* Underlying /sr zr/ are realised as such, rather than surfacing as /sw zw/.
* /b d g/ are pronounced as fricatives [v ð ʝ~ɣ].
* /w/ is pronounced as [v].
* /ɾ/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ] in clusters, and sometimes in other environments.
* Vowels become nasalised before a nasal consonant.
* The mid vowels /eː oː/ do not undergo laxing or shortening, but are pronounced as diphthongs [eɪ oʊ].
* Some speakers elide final short vowels after a single consonant.

== Example words ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Word
! Gloss
! Core
! Western
! Inland
! Eastern
|-
! '''rū'''
| 'omen' (abs. sg.)
| [ruː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
| [ɾuː]
|-
! '''tragi'''
| 'quiet' (ipfv. ind.)
| [ˈtɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈt̪ɾa.ɡɪ]
| [ˈtɹa.ʝɪ]
|-
! '''hira'''
| 'bird' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈɦi.ɾɐ]
| [ˈhi.ɾɐ]
|-
! '''hirāmuga'''
| 'birds' (erg. pl.)
| [hɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [ɦɪˌɾaːˈmu.ɡɐ]
| [hɪˌɾãːˈmu.ɣɐ]
|-
! '''tukōzu'''
| 'kiln' (abs. sg.)
| [ˌtuˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪uˈkoː.zʊ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˈkoː.zo]
| [ˌtuˈkoʊ.zʊ]
|-
! '''tukōzūni'''
| 'kiln' (obl. sg.)
| [ˌtuˌko.ˈzuː.nʲɪ]
| [ˌt̪uˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌt̪ʊˌko.ˈzuː.n̪ɪ]
| [ˌtuˌkoʊ.ˈzũː.nɪ]
|-
! '''kwinu'''
| 'snail' (abs. sg.)
| [ˈkwi.nʊ]
| [ˈkβ̞ĩ.n̪ʊ]
| [ˈkɸi.n̪o]
| [ˈkvĩ.nʊ]
|-
! '''susinari'''
| 'cows' (abs. pa.)
| [ˌsu.sʲɪˈna.ɾʲɪ]
| [ˌsu.θɪ̃ˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsʊ.sɪˈn̪a.ɾɪ]
| [ˌsu.sɪ̃ˈna.ɾɪ]
|-
! '''kūgā'''
| 'eighty'
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɡaː]
| [ˌkuːˈɣaː]
|-
|}

= Morphology =

Kataputi morphology is fusional and mostly suffixing. A common feature is stem gradation – different forms of a root word used with different inflections.

== Morphophonology ==

Three morphophonological processes are important in Kataputi: ''stem gradation'', ''assimilation'', and ''mutation''. Stem gradation of nouns and verbs is a common process linked to declension and conjugation, and is dealt with in the appropriate sections; assimilation and mutation occur less frequently, and are both due to a number of unrelated causes.

=== Assimilation ===

Kataputi permits only a limited number of consonant cluster forms, and only in syllable onsets, but clusters can occur due to elision in morphological processes such as in noun declension.

Clusters in Kataputi can all be grouped into the following types:
* A stop followed by a sibilant.
* A stop followed by /r/ or /w/.
* A sibilant followed by a stop.
* A sibilant followed by /w/ or ''underlying'' /r/.

The following assimilation rules are then applied:
* If the cluster comprises two obstruents, the second assimilates in voicing to the first.
* /r/ following a sibilant surfaces as /w/ (except in Eastern dialects).

=== Mutation ===

Prefixes and compounding can trigger one of three types of consonant mutation. This is a process that involves the lenition (for Mutation I) or fortition (Mutations II and III) of the initial consonant of a word.

The changes that occur are listed in the following table. If a consonant is unchanged by a given mutation, the space is left blank. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of the final vowel of the prefix or ''preceding'' root.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Mutation I
! Mutation II
! Mutation III
|-
! '''m'''
|
| '''ːm'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
! '''n'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːn'''
|-
! '''t'''
| '''d'''
|
|
|-
! '''k'''
| '''g'''
|
|
|-
! '''s'''
| '''z'''
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''z'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''t'''
|-
! '''h'''
|
| '''k'''
| '''k'''
|-
! '''r'''
|
| '''t'''
| '''p'''
|-
! '''w'''
|
| '''ːn'''
| '''ːm'''
|-
|}
Mutation I affects consonants even if they are the first element of a cluster; the second element then assimilates in voicing if it is a stop or sibilant. However, neither Mutation II nor III affects consonants in an initial cluster.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Declension ===

Nouns are inflected for three cases (absolutive, ergative, and oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, and plural).

Many commonly used nouns have two distinct stem “grades”, and a few have three (known as strong, intermediate, and weak grades). These are indicated in the tables below by the letters ''S'', ''I'', and ''W''. A noun with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a noun with only one grade uses this for all forms.

There are three declension classes, conventionally numbered I, II, and III (sometimes R, T, and P are used instead, based on the form of the paucal suffix). Declension I is the most common, accounting for about two thirds of nouns. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Declension I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ga'''
| W'''-ni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ri'''
| I'''-riga'''
| I'''-rini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-muga'''
| I'''-muni'''
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Declension I.

'''''Declension II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-ti'''
| I'''-tiga'''
| I'''-tini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

'''''Declension III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ka'''
| W'''-ːni'''
|-
! Paucal
| W'''-pi'''
| I'''-piga'''
| I'''-pini'''
|-
! Plural
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmuga'''
| S'''-ːmuni'''
|}

==== Example declensions ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''hazi''' 'finger' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''hazi'''
| '''haziga'''
| '''hazini'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''haziri'''
| '''hazwiga'''
| '''hazwini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''hazimu'''
| '''hazimuga'''
| '''hazimuni'''
|}
|
|'''zwaha''', '''zwā''', '''zūwa''' 'beetle' (Declension I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''zwaha'''
| '''zūwaga'''
| '''zūwani'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''zūwari'''
| '''zwāriga'''
| '''zwārini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''zūwamu'''
| '''zwāmuga'''
| '''zwāmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''nadi''' 'flower' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''nadi'''
| '''nadika'''
| '''nadīni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''naditi'''
| '''naditiga'''
| '''naditini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''nadīmu'''
| '''nadīmuga'''
| '''nadīmuni'''
|}
|
|'''tuzu''', '''tsu''' 'mosquito' (Declension II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tuzu'''
| '''tsuka'''
| '''tsūni'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tsuti'''
| '''tuzutiga'''
| '''tuzutini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tsūmu'''
| '''tuzūmuga'''
| '''tuzūmuni'''
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''tinaza''' 'spider' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''tinaza'''
| '''tinazaka'''
| '''tinazāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''tinazapi'''
| '''tinazapiga'''
| '''tinazapini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''tinazāmu'''
| '''tinazāmuga'''
| '''tinazāmuni'''
|}
|
|'''waha''', '''wā''', '''wa''' 'net' (Declension III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Absolutive
! Ergative
! Oblique
|-
! Singular
| '''waha'''
| '''waka'''
| '''wāmi'''
|-
! Paucal
| '''wapi'''
| '''wāpiga'''
| '''wāpini'''
|-
! Plural
| '''wāmu'''
| '''wahāmuga'''
| '''wahāmuni'''
|}
|}

=== Possession ===

Possession in Kataputi is indicated by prefixes. Many nouns are inalienably possessed; these may not occur without a possessive prefix. A few nouns have more than one meaning, distinguished by whether they are inalienably possessed.

All possessive prefixes trigger [[Kataputi#Mutation|consonant mutation]]. The third person masculine singular triggers Mutation II, the third person feminine singular triggers Mutation III, and all other possessive prefixes trigger Mutation I.

The distinctions made in possessive prefixes are the same as those made in [[Kataputi#Personal pronouns|pronouns]]. The prefixes are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" |
! Mutation
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kri-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma-'''
| I
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka-'''
| II
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kāmu-'''
| I
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu-'''
| III
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi-'''
| I
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūmu-'''
| I
|-
|}

== Pronouns ==

=== Personal pronouns ===

Kataputi has personal pronouns for the first, second, and third person, and also distinguishes inclusivity in the first person and gender in the third. All of these have a full set of pronouns distinguishing the three cases (absolutive, ergative, oblique) and three numbers (singular, paucal, plural - except for the 1st person inclusive, which has a dual rather than a singular).

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!
! '''Absolutive'''
! '''Ergative'''
! '''Oblique'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person exclusive'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ti'''
| '''tiga'''
| '''tini'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tiri'''
| '''triga'''
| '''trini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''timu'''
| '''timuga'''
| '''timuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''1st person inclusive'''
! '''Dual'''
| '''kuda'''
| '''kudaga'''
| '''kudani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kuri'''
| '''kriga'''
| '''krini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kumu'''
| '''kumuga'''
| '''kumuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''2nd person'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ma'''
| '''maga'''
| '''mani'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''mari'''
| '''mariga'''
| '''marini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''mamu'''
| '''mamuga'''
| '''mamuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person masculine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''ka'''
| '''kaka'''
| '''kāni'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''kati'''
| '''katiga'''
| '''katini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''kānu'''
| '''kānuga'''
| '''kānuni'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | '''3rd person feminine'''
! '''Singular'''
| '''tu'''
| '''tuka'''
| '''tūmi'''
|-
! '''Paucal'''
| '''tupi'''
| '''tupiga'''
| '''tupini'''
|-
! '''Plural'''
| '''tūnu'''
| '''tūnuga'''
| '''tūnuni'''
|-
|}

=== Correlatives ===

Kataputi has a small number of correlatives; most of these are not actually pronouns, but they are included here for completeness.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Morphology
! Gloss
|-
| '''ra'''
| III
| 'what?' (pronoun or attributive)
|-
| '''wi'''
| II
| 'who?' (pronoun)
|-
| '''rāmi'''
|
| 'how?' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''rāzigi'''
|
| 'which? what kind of?' (attributive)
|-
| '''kizigi'''
|
| 'no, none (of)' (attributive)
|-
| '''si'''
|
| 'this, this one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mu'''
|
| 'that, that one' (pronoun)
|-
| '''mumi'''
|
| 'thus, like that' (pro-adverb)
|-
| '''muzigi'''
|
| 'such, like that, that kind of' (attributive)
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Conjugation ===

Verbs are inflected for five moods (indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative, and conditional) and distinguish imperfective from perfective aspect. There is also an attributive: a subordinated form used as an adjective.

Like some nouns, many common verbs have two or three stem grades, indicated as ''S'', ''I'', ''W'' in the tables below. A verb with no intermediate grade uses the strong grade instead, and a verb with only one grade uses this for all forms.

The citation form for a verb is the imperfective indicative (which is always the same as the strong stem).

There are three conjugations, numbered I, II, and III; most verbs belong to Conjugation I, and only these can have an intermediate stem grade. The triangular colon '''ː''' signifies the lengthening of a final vowel when a suffix is added.

'''''Conjugation I'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-wa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-za'''
| I'''-waza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-zi'''
| I'''-wazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-gi'''
| I'''-wagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-mu'''
| I'''-wamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-gi'''
|
|}

* Any final short vowel in a strong or intermediate grade is deleted when a suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster. This only applies to Conjugation I.

'''''Conjugation II'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-ta'''
| S'''-ːnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

'''''Conjugation III'''''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| S'''-Ø'''
| W'''-ːma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| W'''-pa'''
| S'''-ːmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| W'''-ti'''
| S'''-ːmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| W'''-ki'''
| S'''-ːmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| W'''-ːmu'''
| S'''-ːmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| W'''-ki'''
|
|}

==== Other verbal forms ====

Kataputi has three inflectional affixes that can be attached to any verb form.

One is a prefix:
* The reflexive prefix '''ha-'''. This prefix triggers Mutation III.

The other two are suffixes. (The allomorphs after the slashes are used after the imperative, or after the imperfective indicative of a Declension II or III verb. These affixes do not affect the stress position.)
* The antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata'''
* The relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki'''

Both of the antipassive and relativising suffixes may occur on the same verb, but the relativiser, where present, must always be the last affix.

==== Example conjugations ====

{| cellpadding="3"
|'''katu''' 'to be black' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''katu'''
| '''katuwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''katuza'''
| '''katwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''katuzi'''
| '''katwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''katugi'''
| '''katwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''katumu'''
| '''katwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''katugi'''
|
|}
|
|'''hihi''', '''hī''', '''hi''' 'to boil' (Conjugation I)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hihi'''
| '''hiwa'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hiza'''
| '''hīwaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hizi'''
| '''hīwazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''higi'''
| '''hīwagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''himu'''
| '''hīwamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''higi'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''hiku''' 'to jump' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''hiku'''
| '''hikūna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''hikuta'''
| '''hikūnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''hikuti'''
| '''hikūnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''hikuki'''
| '''hikūnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''hikūmu'''
| '''hikūnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''hikuki'''
|
|}
|
|'''suzi''', '''si''' 'to give' (Conjugation II)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''suzi'''
| '''sīna'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''sita'''
| '''suzīnaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''siti'''
| '''suzīnazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''siki'''
| '''suzīnagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''sīmu'''
| '''suzīnamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''siki'''
|
|}
|-
|
|
|
|-
|'''muzō''' 'to be sacred' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''muzō'''
| '''muzōma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''muzōpa'''
| '''muzōmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''muzōti'''
| '''muzōmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''muzōki'''
| '''muzōmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''muzōmu'''
| '''muzōmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''muzōki'''
|
|}
|
|'''taha''', '''ta''' 'to walk' (Conjugation III)

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Imperfective
! Perfective
|-
! Indicative
| '''taha'''
| '''tāma'''
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''tapa'''
| '''tahāmaza'''
|-
! Optative
| '''tati'''
| '''tahāmazi'''
|-
! Imperative
| '''taki'''
| '''tahāmagi'''
|-
! Conditional
| '''tāmu'''
| '''tahāmamu'''
|-
! Attributive
| '''taki'''
|
|}
|}

== Numbers ==

Kataputi has a base-10 number system:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! '''1'''
| '''kaza'''
! '''11'''
| '''kākaza'''
|
|
|-
! '''2'''
| '''migi'''
! '''12'''
| '''kāmigi'''
! '''20'''
| '''mīgā'''
|-
! '''3'''
| '''hira'''
! '''13'''
| '''kānira'''
! '''30'''
| '''hiragā'''
|-
! '''4'''
| '''zada'''
! '''14'''
| '''kātada'''
! '''40'''
| '''zadagā'''
|-
! '''5'''
| '''hī'''
! '''15'''
| '''kānī'''
! '''50'''
| '''hīgā'''
|-
! '''6'''
| '''sima'''
! '''16'''
| '''kātima'''
! '''60'''
| '''simagā'''
|-
! '''7'''
| '''tadu'''
! '''17'''
| '''kātadu'''
! '''70'''
| '''tadugā'''
|-
! '''8'''
| '''kuhu'''
! '''18'''
| '''kākuhu'''
! '''80'''
| '''kūgā'''
|-
! '''9'''
| '''nuti'''
! '''19'''
| '''kānuti'''
! '''90'''
| '''nutigā'''
|-
! '''10'''
| '''kā'''
|
|
! '''100'''
| '''tigi'''
|-
|
|
|
|
! '''1000'''
| '''tigiwu'''
|-
|}

Larger numbers are formed analytically:

{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|23}}

{{gl|simagā|simagā|60}}
{{gl|zada|zada|4}}
{{glend|64}}

{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|kākuhu|kākuhu|18}}
{{glend|118}}

{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{glend|523}}

The word '''ru''' 'on' comes between digits in the hundreds and higher:

{{gl|tigiwu|tigiwu|1000}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hira|hira|3}}
{{gl|tigi|tigi|100}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tadu|tadu|7}}
{{glend|1337}}

Numerals are indeclinable, but ordinals can be formed by adding the genitive postposition '''zi'''.

== Derivational morphology ==

=== Derivational affixes ===

A range of suffixes are used to derive new words in Kataputi. These are sensitive to the stem alternations of noun and verb roots, with each affix taking a particular grade; however, newly derived nouns themselves tend not to undergo alternations as this would be likely to create ambiguity.

In the following tables, each suffix is listed with its allomorphs for different declensions/conjugations and the stem grade that it takes, its own declension/conjugation class, and its meaning. As with inflectional suffixes, any final short vowel in the strong or intermediate grade of an Declension I noun or Conjugation I verb is deleted when a derivational suffix is added, unless this would create an illegal cluster.

==== Noun to noun ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" align="center" | '''Affix forms'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Declension'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Gloss'''
! rowspan="2" align="center" | '''Example'''
|-
! align="center" | I
! align="center" | II
! align="center" | III
|-
| W'''-gi'''
| W'''-ki'''
| W'''-ki'''
| II
| general diminutive
| '''mī''' "sea" > '''mīgi''' "lagoon, bay"
|-
| W'''-da'''
| W'''-ta'''
| W'''-ta'''
| III
| diminutive, with connotations of youth or daintiness
| '''tū''' "dog" > '''tūda''' "puppy"
|-
| I'''-dagu'''
| I'''-tagu'''
| I'''-tagu'''
| I
| augmentative
| '''hu''' "spirit" > '''hutagu''' "god"
|-
| I'''-niri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| S'''-ːniri'''
| I
| a distinguishing feature or quality of X
| '''titu''' "citizen" > '''tituniri''' "rank, social class"
|-
|}

= Syntax =

== Basic word order ==

The default word order in Kataputi is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.

{{gl|Tuzutiga|tuzu-tiga|mosquito-ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ru|ru-Ø|man-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Some mosquitoes have bitten the man.}}

Indirect objects usually come immediately before the direct object.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|timudūni|ti-mudu-ːni|1EX.SG-son-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|wigimu|wigi-mu|apple-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|siti.|si-ti|give-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I hope she gives apples to my son.}}

Adverbs and adverbial phrases, however, immediately precede the verb.

{{gl|Miwa|miwa-Ø|boat-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kamini|kami-ni|axe-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|nagadawa.|nagada-wa|damage-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The boat was damaged (by someone) with an axe.}}

== Nouns and noun phrases ==

Noun phrases comprise a head noun and any number of modifiers; all modifiers precede the head noun. Verbs used as adjectives take the attributive suffix.

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tsari|tsa-ri|cloud-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some white clouds}}

Quantifiers tend to precede other modifiers with the exception of genitive constructions.

{{gl|kā|kā|10}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|zimigi|zimi-gi|young-ATTR}}
{{gl|rūmu|ru-ːmu|man-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|ten healthy young men}}

=== Case usage ===

The absolutive case is the most unmarked, and is used for the subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive one.

The ergative case is used for the subject of a transitive sentence.

The oblique case is used for the indirect object of a sentence, governs postpositions, and forms appositives.

=== Genitives and possession ===

Possession can be expressed in two ways: using the possessive prefixes, or the genitive postposition '''zi'''. A genitive construction precedes all other modifiers in a noun phrase.

{{gl|kudawāmu|kuda-wāmu-Ø|1IN.DU-house-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our house (belonging to the two of us)}}

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's trousers}}

However, for inalienably possessed nouns, the prefix must be used even where there is also a genitive.

{{gl|rūmi|ru-ːmi|man-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|a man's legs}}

When the possessor is a pronoun, a genitive expression can be used (with a possessive prefix where required) to emphasise it:

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kāzugi|kāzugi-Ø|trousers-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own trousers}}

{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kaksida|ka-ksida-Ø|3M.SG-legs-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|his own legs}}

=== Appositives ===

Appositive expressions use the oblique case, and precede their head noun:

{{gl|kumuhigadani|kumu-higada-ni|1IN.PL-city-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|Skōkana|Skōkana-Ø|Skōkana-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|our city, Skōkana}}

== Verbs ==

=== Aspect and mood ===

These are the two main categories of inflection for Kataputi verbs.

''Aspect'' marks whether an action is ongoing (imperfective) or completed (perfective), but says nothing about tense:

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizi.|hizi-Ø|build-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you all will be building a grand hall.}}

{{gl|Kiki|ki-ki|come-ATTR}}
{{gl|riwini|riwi-ni|year-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|mamuga|mamuga|2.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|katatagu|kata-tagu-Ø|hall-AUG-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīziwa.|hīzi-wa|build-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Next year you will have built a grand hall.}}

The use of the ''moods'' is less straightforward. There are five main moods plus the attributive; this section gives an overview of how they work.

The indicative is the least marked form, and is used in main clauses where the action is well-established to have occurred.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I have a cloak.}}

The subjunctive is also common, but does not occur in main clauses; it occurs in nominalised verb phrases and a number of other environments.

{{gl|Maga|Maga|2.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuza|hīmu-za|own-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa.|huka-wa|find-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|You've found out that I have a cloak.}}

The optative expresses a wish or desire.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmuzi.|hīmu-zi|own-IPFV.OPT}}
{{glend|I wish I had a cloak.}}

The imperative is used to give orders or, more generally, to say to the listener that they should bring about the action. As such, the subject is always in the second person and can be safely omitted where the number distinction is not important. The imperative is polite enough that it can be safely used with social peers, though not superiors. 
To some degree the choice of aspect used with the imperative depends on the verb: general states are mostly used with the imperfective, whereas specific actions are more usually used with the perfective.

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmugi.|hīmu-gi|own-IPFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi.|niri-wagi|get-PFV.IMP}}
{{glend|You should get a cloak.}}

The conditional is used to express possibility; unsusprisingly, though, it is mainly used for the consequent of conditional expressions, which are discussed in the [[#Transformations|Transformations]] section.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|I could have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|tēputani|tēputa-ni|noble-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|ziza,|zi-za|be-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|If I were noble, I would have a cloak.}}

=== Negation ===

There are two negatives in Kataputi: the ordinary negative '''ta''' and the emphatic negative '''kimi'''. These are particles that can be used with any form of verb, and which immediately precede it:

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|hīmu.|hīmu-Ø|own-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|I don't have a cloak.}}

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|saduki|saduki-Ø|cloak-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hīmumu.|hīmu-mu|own-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|It's impossible that I could have a cloak.}}

Though it does not strictly negate a sentence, the determiner or attributive '''kizigi''' 'none (of)' is used to indicate the negation or absence of a nominal (which is always declined in the singular):

{{gl|Kizigi|kizigi|none}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Gōki.|Gōki-Ø|Jouki-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|[[Jouki]] is not governed by the law.}}

Similarly, '''kūma''' means both 'neither' and 'nor':

{{gl|Kūma|kūma|neither}}
{{gl|nāgika|nāgi-ka|law-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kūma|kūma|nor}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tipanaha|tipanaha-Ø|govern-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Tētu.|Tētu-Ø|Tɛnto-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|The [[Potɑnsʉti|Tɛnto]] are governed by neither law nor lord.}}

=== Derived verb forms ===

The antipassive, in '''-zda'''/'''-tata''', promotes the single absolutive argument of a verb to become an ergative "subject", and also serves in coordinating sentences; the relativiser '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' is used solely for relative clauses. Both are discussed in the Transformations section.

=== Postpositional phrases ===

Kataputi postpositions govern the oblique case. The postposition comes last, immediately preceded by the noun, itself preceded by any modifiers.

{{gl|sadukīni|saduki-ːni|cloak-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{glend|using a cloak}}

{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|tīwumuni|tīwu-muni|star-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hama|hama|towards}}
{{glend|towards the white stars}}

There are no postpositions that apply specifically to time, and spatial equivalents are used instead. The guiding metaphor is that events move ''forward'' through time, ''through'' their circumstances; the most common examples are given below:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2" align="center" | Postp.
! colspan="2" align="center" | Gloss
|-
! Space
! Time
|-
| '''tama'''
| to
| before
|-
| '''mima'''
| into
| at the start of, just before
|-
| '''hi'''
| with
| in, during
|-
| '''mirima'''
| through
| for, throughout, during
|-
| '''zu'''
| beside
| while, at the same time as
|-
| '''miri'''
| out of
| at the end of, just after
|-
| '''tari'''
| from
| after
|-
|}

== Transformations ==

In this section, following the style of Zompist, transformations are described in a simplified notation with examples.

{{Green|A}} → {{Green|B}} means "whenever A is a legal structure, so is B".

Symbols used: 
{{Green|S}} = subject 
{{Green|V}} = verb 
{{Green|O}} = direct object 
{{Green|I}} = indirect object 
{{Green|N}} = noun 
{{Green|Vi}} = intransitive verb 
{{Green|Vt}} = transitive verb 
{{Green|VP}} = verb phrase 
{{Green|NP}} = noun phrase 
{{Green|Pr}} = pronoun 
{{Green|PP}} = postpositional phrase 
{{Green|Adv}} = adverbial information 
{{Green|Adj}} = adjectival information 
{{Green|SEN}} = sentence 
{{Green|-}} = morpheme boundary 

=== Passive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|O Vt}}

The passive in Kataputi works somewhat differently to that of accusative languages. A transitive sentence can be turned into a passive simply by deleting the subject:

{{gl|Rīmuka|rīmu-ka|lion-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A lion is eating a horse.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eaten.}}

=== Antipassive sentences ===

{{Green|S O Vt}} → {{Green|S-ABS Vt-AP}}

Deleting the object of a verb while retaining the role of the agent is slightly more complicated - the subject is retained in the ''absolutive'' case, and the verb takes the antipassive suffix '''-zda'''/'''-tata''' (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix). This transformation is important for coordinating sentences, which is discussed below.

{{gl|Tihaka|tiha-ka|horse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wigi|wigi-Ø|apple-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūna.|nūna-Ø|eat-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|A horse is eating an apple.}}
→
{{gl|Tiha|tiha-Ø|horse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnatata.|nūna-Ø-tata|eat-IPFV.IND-AP}}
{{glend|A horse is eating.}}

=== The conditional ===

{{Green|SEN1}}, {{Blue|SEN2}} → '''hi''' {{Green|SEN1-SJV}} '''hi''' {{Blue|SEN2-COND}}

The {{Green|condition}} of a conditional expression is put in the subjunctive mood, and the {{Blue|consequent}} in the conditional mood; either of these can be negated with either '''ta''' or '''kimi'''. The conjunction '''hi''' precedes each of these (it essentially does the work of both English "if" and "then").

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza,|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|triga|triga|1EX.PA.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kūwamu.|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If you come back, we'll kill you.}}

=== Relative clauses ===

Relative clauses follow SOV word order in the same way as main clauses, although one argument of the verb is always deleted. A relative clause immediately precedes its head noun, which is itself declined as appropriate for its syntactic role:

{{gl|Suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|ruguga|rugu-ga|hook-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|himaru|himaru-Ø|turtle-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|niriwa.|niri-wa|catch-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The hook that caught a fish also caught a turtle.}}

==== Absolutive as referent ====

{{Green|(S1 O V1)}} {{Blue|S2 O V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 V1-REL}} O {{Blue|V2}}

Relative clauses where the absolutive is the referent are formed by deleting the absolutive argument and adding the relativising suffix '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb (see the [[Kataputi#Other verbal forms|verbal morphology]] section for more on this suffix).

{{gl|kīmikumīmuga|kīmikumi-ːmuga|peasant-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|hizwazigi|hizi-wazi-gi|build-PFV.OPT-REL}}
{{gl|zwūmamu|zwūma-mu|road-ABS.PL}}
{{glend|the roads that the peasants should have built}}

{{Green|(S Vi)}} {{Blue|S O V2}} → {{Green|Vi-ATTR}} S {{Blue|O V2}}

If the relative clause is intransitive, the attributive may be used instead of a full relativised form. In many cases, attributives are better translated into English as adjectives, but not always:

{{gl|naraki|nara-ki|burn-ATTR}}
{{gl|kati|ka-ti|tree-ABS.PA}}
{{glend|some burning trees}}

==== Ergative as referent ====

{{Green|(S O1 V1)}} {{Blue|S O2 V2}} → {{Green|O1 V1-REL}} S {{Blue|O2 V2}}

Relative clauses where the ergative subject is the referent are equally simple - they are formed by deleting the subject and adding '''-gi'''/'''-ki''' to the verb.

{{gl|suki|suki-Ø|fish-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|niriwagi|niri-wa-gi|catch-PFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|rugu|rugu-Ø|hook-ABS.SG}}
{{glend|the hook that caught a fish}}

=== Nominal subordination ===

{{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} → {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|O2 V2}} 
{{Blue|S2}} {{Green|(S1 O1 V1)}} {{Blue|V2}} → {{Blue|S2}} {{Green|S1 O1 V1-SJV}} {{Blue|V2}}

Nominal subordination makes use of the subjunctive mood. A full sentence can be made to behave as a noun phrase, including as subject or object of another verb.

{{gl|Manāgiru|ma-nāgiru-Ø|2.SG-lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmaza|tu-ːmaza|dead-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hata.|hata-Ø|true-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|It's true that your lord has died.}}

{{gl|Kriga|kriga|1IN.ERG.PA}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rīniza|rīni-za|laugh-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmawa.|nāma-wa|hear-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|We've all heard him laughing.}}

=== Quotation ===

While indirect quotations use the subjunctive, directly quoted speech uses a special quotative particle '''simi'''. In this type of construction the quotation generally comes first in the sentence, and is always followed directly by '''simi'''; it is considered an intransitive sentence and so the speaker takes the absolutive case.

{{gl|Tuka|tuka|3F.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|staza|sta-za|happy-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|She said to me that she was happy.}}

{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sita”|sita-Ø|happy-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tini|tini|1EX.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“I'm happy,” she said to me.}}

=== Questions ===

==== Yes/no questions ====

The simplest way of asking a question in Katapaki is with the particle '''ga''', which is placed after the verb. Formations with '''ga''' generally presuppose a positive answer.

{{gl|Tiga|tiga|1.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|mariwāmu|mari-wāmu-Ø|2.PA-house-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kataguwa|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Didn't I save your house?}}

To form a question that presupposes a negative, the same construction is used but with the negating particle '''ta''' preceding the verb. (The emphatic negative '''kimi''' can be used instead to express a mere trace of doubt, or to ask for support.)

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|tudu|tudu-Ø|ill-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|He's not ill, is he?}}

{{gl|Pinuka|Pinuka-Ø|Pinuka-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Gōkini|Gōki-ni|Jouki-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|zgawa|zga-wa|lose-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Surely [[Katapaki#City-states|Pinuka]] wasn't defeated by Jouki?}}

It is possible to ask a yes/no question without a presumed answer. This works in the same way as the first construction but with the addition of the phrase '''wō ta''' ('or not') immediately after the verb.

{{gl|Hā|hā-Ø|sky-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kupi|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ga?|ga|Q}}
{{glend|Is the sky blue or not?}}

To answer a yes/no question in the affirmative, it is usual to reply with the main verb from the question, or '''tugū''' '(it) is correct'; to answer in the negative, the negative '''ta''' may be used, analogously to English 'no' (but '''kimi''' may be used instead for emphasis, especially when the question expects an affirmative). Where the answer is uncertain, it is possible to reply using the subjunctive mood of the verb from the question.

{{gl|Kupi.|kupi-Ø|blue-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|Ta.|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|Kimi.|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|Kupimu.|kupi-mu|blue-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|Yes, it's blue. No, it isn't. Of course it isn't. It could be blue.}}

==== Question forming with pronouns ====

Kataputi has two key interrogative [[#Correlatives|pronouns]], '''ra''' 'what' (declension III) and '''wi''' 'who' (declension II), along with the pro-adverb '''rāmi''' 'how' and the attributive '''rāzigi''' 'which, what kind'. These do not move around in the sentence; they simply take the place of the referent, declining as appropriate.

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|A shark bit my face.}}

{{gl|Raka|ra-ka|what-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What bit my face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wi|wi-Ø|who-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whom did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''who''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|wīni|wi-ːni|who-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|katē|ka-tē-Ø|3M.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Whose face did the shark bite? - The shark bit ''whose'' face?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tira|ti-ra-Ø|1.SG-what-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What thing of mine did the shark bite? - The shark bit my ''what''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|LOC}}
{{gl|kāma.|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|Where did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''where''?}}

{{gl|Sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāmi|rāmi|how}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|How did the shark bite my face? - The shark bit my face ''how''?}}

{{gl|Rāzigi|rāzigi|what_kind}}
{{gl|sika|si-ka|shark-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tidē|ti-tē-Ø|1.SG-face-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kāma?|ka-ːma|bite-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|What sort of shark bit my face?}}

(These examples also serve to illustrate two points on the use of [[#Genitives and possession|possession]] in Kataputi. Firstly, possessive prefixes can attach to the interrogative pronouns. Secondly, the third person masculine singular prefix is the default for an inalienably possessed noun where the possessor is uncertain or indefinite - the exceptions are female body parts, where the feminine equivalent is used.)

= Sample texts =

== [[The chief and the mouse]] ==

'''''Nāgiru wu tihi''''' 
'''Waziki tamuni hi, timirigi nāgiru kānatsiramuga wazani wu tizumīmani kīmi wāmugīni mi zdaguwa, ka hizwaza ra.''' 
'''Ka kihāni ru hiwāmi mōza hi, kaka zēgi tihi wāmugīni mirima kakita sīni. Kaka kataga miniwa, wu stiwa “Ti kimi hizwagi, hi tiga tihi nūnazi!” simi. Ha hiriza tari, kaka kataga kīmuwa, wu stiwa “Tiga tihi rāni ra kūwamu? Ti zidagi suruni hi mūma hizwamu” simi.''' 
'''Tika nāgiru tēkuwa, kāni satwaza “Nēgi nāgiru! Maga ti kuraza kataguwa, wu tiga ma kuraza mūma katagwazi” simi ki.''' 
'''Tihi kihāni mi mīmani mima kakīna, wu sururini tari, ka mīgā wō hiragā tihīmuni hi kiprīna. Mumuga magāmu hi mugugīmu zūma.''' 
'''Mumuga ka mumi hī kigamuni mirima nūnadaga, hi sima zi kigani ta, nagrūni zdagziramuga wāmugi razīma. Kānuga kuragi zgugi ka hukaza kānu tēku.''' 
'''“Siga nagruka ksagi midi kitami mini!” simi, kānu stiwa. “Ka ta nūnagi ta ziki kuraza hukawa!”''' 
'''Mumi kānuga ka minūmiwa, wu ka kānazini rinumi rādirīnaza siwa.'''

''A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.'' 
''As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut. He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!” But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”'' 
''To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”'' 
''The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.'' 
''For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.'' 
''“This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”'' 
''So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.''

=== Gloss ===

{{gl|Waziki|wazi-ki|old-ATTR}}
{{gl|tamuni|tamu-ni|past-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|timirigi|timiri-gi|famous-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānatsiramuga|ka-natsira-muga|3M.SG-enemy-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wazani|waza-ni|door-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tizumīmani|tizu-mīma-ni|roof-hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|kīmi|kīmi|without}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|inside}}
{{gl|zdaguwa,|zdagu-wa|imprison-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hizwaza|hizi-waza|starve-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|ra.|ra|DAT}}
{{glend|In the old days, a famous lord had been imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without door and roof-opening, so he would starve.}}

{{gl|Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ru|ru|on}}
{{gl|hiwāmi|hiwa-ːmi|gloomy-ADV}}
{{gl|mōza|mō-za|sit-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi,|hi|with}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|zēgi|zē-gi|little-ATTR}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wāmugīni|wāmu-gi-ːni|house-DIM-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|kakita|kaki-ta|run-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|sīni.|sīni-Ø|see-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|While sitting gloomily on the ground, he saw a little mouse running through the hut.}}

{{gl|Kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|miniwa,|mini-wa|hold-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kimi|kimi|NEG.EMPH}}
{{gl|hizwagi,|hizi-wagi|starve-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|ha|ha|however}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|nūnazi!”|nūna-zi|eat-IPFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|He took hold of his knife, and said “I certainly don’t want to starve – I will eat this mouse instead!”}}

{{gl|Ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|hiriza|hiri-za|think-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|kaka|kaka|3M.ERG.SG}}
{{gl|kataga|ka-taga|3M.SG-knife-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kīmuwa,|kīmu-wa|keep-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|stiwa|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|“Tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|rāni|ra-ːni|what-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ra|ra|DAT}}
{{gl|kūwamu?|kū-wamu|kill-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|Ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|zidagi|zida-gi|late-ATTR}}
{{gl|suruni|suru-ni|time-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|hizwamu”|hizi-wamu|starve-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|simi.|simi|QUOT}}
{{glend|But after thinking he put away his knife, and said “Why would I kill the mouse? I would starve later anyway.”}}

{{gl|Tika|ti-ka|mouse-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nāgiru|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tēkuwa,|tēku-wa|surprise-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|kāni|kāni|3M.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|satwaza|sati-waza|say-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|“Nēgi|nē-gi|radiant-ATTR}}
{{gl|nāgiru!|nāgiru-Ø|lord-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Maga|maga|2.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ti|ti|1EX.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kataguwa,|katagu-wa|save-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|tiga|tiga|1EX.SG.ERG}}
{{gl|ma|ma|2.SG.ABS}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|mūma|mūma|also}}
{{gl|katagwazi”|katagu-wazi|save-PFV.OPT}}
{{gl|simi|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|ki.|ki|INS}}
{{glend|The mouse surprised the chief by saying to him: “Radiant Chief! You have saved my life, and I will also spare yours.”}}

{{gl|Tihi|tihi-Ø|mouse-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kihāni|kiha-ːni|earth-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|mīmani|mīma-ni|hole-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|kakīna,|kaki-ːna|run-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgā|mīgā|20}}
{{gl|wō|wō|or}}
{{gl|hiragā|hiragā|30}}
{{gl|tihīmuni|tihi-ːmuni|mouse-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|kiprīna.|kipri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|The mouse ran into a hole in the ground, and returned after a short while with twenty or thirty other mice.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|magāmu|maga-ːmu|grain-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|mugugīmu|mugu-gi-ːmu|fruit-DIM-ABS.PL}}
{{gl|zūma.|zūma-Ø|carry-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|They were carrying grains and small fruits.}}

{{gl|Mumuga|mu-muga|that-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|hī|hī|5}}
{{gl|kigamuni|kiga-muni|day-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mirima|mirima|through}}
{{gl|nūnadaga,|nūnadaga-Ø|feed-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|sima|sima|6}}
{{gl|zi|zi|GEN}}
{{gl|kigani|kiga-ni|day-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|ta,|ta|at}}
{{gl|nagrūni|nagru-ːni|lord-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zdagziramuga|zdagu-zira-muga|imprison-AG-ERG.PL}}
{{gl|wāmugi|wāmu-gi-Ø|house-DIM-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|razīma.|razi-ːma|open-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the chief’s captors opened the hut.}}

{{gl|Kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|kuragi|kura-gi|live-ATTR}}
{{gl|zgugi|zgu-gi|healthy-ATTR}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|hukaza|huka-za|find-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|kānu|kānu|3M.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|tēku.|tēku-Ø|shock-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|Finding him alive and healthy shocked them.}}

{{gl|“Siga|si-ga|this-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|nagruka|nagru-ka|lord-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|midi|midi-Ø|favour-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kitami|kita-mi|sure-ADV}}
{{gl|mini!”|mini-Ø|have-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|simi,|simi|QUOT}}
{{gl|kānu|kānu|3M.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|stiwa.|sti-wa|say-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“This chief surely holds much favour!” they said.}}

{{gl|“Ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|nūnagi|nūna-gi|eat-ATTR}}
{{gl|ta|ta|NEG}}
{{gl|ziki|zi-ki|drink-ATTR}}
{{gl|kuraza|kura-za|live-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hukawa!”|huka-wa|discover-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|“We see he lives without eating or drinking!”}}

{{gl|Mumi|mumi|thus}}
{{gl|kānuga|kānuga|3M.ERG.PL}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|minūmiwa,|minūmi-wa|release-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|kānazini|ka-nazi-ni|3M.SG-land-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|rinumi|rinu-mi|free-ADV}}
{{gl|rādirīnaza|rādiri-ːnaza|return-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|siwa.|si-wa|give-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|So they released him and let him return freely to his country.}}

== The legend of Lake Hazaza ==

'''''Hazaza Mīgi''''' 
'''Kudi mazimi nēza zu, miruki rapa Hazaza Mīgīni zu kuhāmuni mira kīma. Tu mīgīni tama tāma wu hāniwa. Tipsagi rapamuni ksagi mita tūmi hi radāna mīgīni mima.''' 
'''Tūnu satini, ha tūnu wizwini mi humuza nāmamu. Sururini tari, tūnu mīgīni miri kīma wu kuhāmuni mima rādirīna, hi tūnu saduki nakagi mazigi hugimuga.''' 
'''Hi ruka tūnu sīniwaza hi ka mīgīni mima tiriwamu, wu ka wizwini ki hawāmaza miri katiha himiwamu wu ka sāriniwamu.'''

''When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza. She walks to the lake and bathes herself. A large number of servant women enter the lake with her.'' 
''Then they disappear, but they can still be heard playing in the water. After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, covered by long white veils.'' 
''If a man sees them he will be pulled into the lake, and as soon as he touches the water his strength will fail and he will be killed.''

{{gl|Kudi|kudi-Ø|moon-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mazimi|mazi-mi|white-ADV}}
{{gl|nēza|nē-za|radiant-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|zu,|zu|beside}}
{{gl|miruki|miru-ki|beautiful-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapa|rapa-Ø|woman-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|Hazaza|Hazaza|Hazaza}}
{{gl|Mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|zu|zu|beside}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma.|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{glend|When the moon shines white, a beautiful woman comes out of the trees next to Lake Hazaza.}}

{{gl|Tu|tu|3F.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|tama|tama|to}}
{{gl|tāma|ta-ːma|walk-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|hāniwa.|ha-niwa-Ø|REFL-wash-IPFV.IND}}
{{glend|She walks to the lake and washes herself.}}

{{gl|Tipsagi|tipsa-gi|serve-ATTR}}
{{gl|rapamuni|rapa-muni|woman-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|ksagi|ksa-gi|big-ATTR}}
{{gl|mita|mita-Ø|group-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|tūmi|tūmi|3F.OBL.SG}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|radāna|rada-ːna|go-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima.|mima|into}}
{{glend|A large group of servant women enter the lake with her.}}

{{gl|Tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|satini,|satini-Ø|hide-IPFV.IND}}
{{gl|ha|ha|but}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|mi|mi|in}}
{{gl|humuza|humu-za|play-IPFV.SJV}}
{{gl|nāmamu.|nāma-mu|hear-IPFV.COND}}
{{glend|They hide, but they can still be heard playing in the waters.}}

{{gl|Sururini|suru-rini|time-OBL.PAU}}
{{gl|tari,|tari|from}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|kīma|ki-ːma|come-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|kuhāmuni|kuha-ːmuni|tree-OBL.PL}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|rādirīna,|rādiri-ːna|return-PFV.IND}}
{{gl|hi|hi|with}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|saduki|sadu-Ø-ki|cover-IPFV.IND-REL}}
{{gl|nakagi|naka-gi|long-ATTR}}
{{gl|mazigi|mazi-gi|white-ATTR}}
{{gl|hugimuga.|hugi-muga|cloth-ERG.PL}}
{{glend|After a while they come out of the lake and return to the woods, with long white veils that cover them.}}

{{gl|Hi|hi|if}}
{{gl|ruka|ru-ka|man-ERG.SG}}
{{gl|tūnu|tūnu|3F.ABS.PL}}
{{gl|sīniwaza|sīni-waza|see-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|hi|hi|then}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|mīgīni|mīgi-ːni|lagoon-OBL.SG}}
{{gl|mima|mima|into}}
{{gl|tiriwamu,|tiri-wamu|pull-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|wizwini|wizi-rini|water-OBL.PA}}
{{gl|ki|ki|INS}}
{{gl|hawāmaza|hawa-ːmaza|wet-PFV.SJV}}
{{gl|miri|miri|out_of}}
{{gl|katiha|ka-riha-Ø|3M.SG-strength-ABS.SG}}
{{gl|himiwamu|himi-wamu|fail-PFV.COND}}
{{gl|wu|wu|and}}
{{gl|ka|ka|3M.ABS.SG}}
{{gl|sāriniwamu|sārini-wamu|perish-PFV.COND}}
{{glend|If a man sees them then he will be pulled into the lake, and right after he is wet by the waters his strength will fail and he will be killed.}}

:<hr>''Adapted from the legend of [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/hertha.html Hertha Lake].

= Lexicon =

[[Kataputi/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Dumic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-09T10:00:51Z

Thedukeofnuke:

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāmūmi
|
|
|v.
|to argue
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|II
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order; to decide
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be radiant
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|estuary, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-09T09:46:05Z

Thedukeofnuke: Cardinal directions

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order; to decide
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be radiant
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|estuary, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2018-10-08T15:46:40Z

Thedukeofnuke: "all"

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order; to decide
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be radiant
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|estuary, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Melì

2018-10-08T09:51:50Z

Thedukeofnuke: Cat

{{Article}}
'''Melì''' is a language in the Valley group of the [[Western languages|Western language]] family, spoken along the coastal corridor, a thin strip of land between the sea and the Western Plateau on the west coast of [[Peilaš |Peilaš ]]. It is a direct descendant of a dialect of [[Empotle7á|Empotle7á]], which was spoken in the same region around 2000 BP.
{{Language
| color = green
| language = Melì
| phonetic = [mɛ˥li˥˩]
| date = 1200-900 BP
| place = Coastal Corridor
| speakers = unknown
| script = none attested
| family = Western  Valley   Melì
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Arzena|Arzena]]
}}

=Context=
The prestige dialect of Melì, the one described in this grammar, is spoken in and around the small town of Kesàmade around 1100 BP. Kesàmade, sometimes known as Topaḍi was founded as a trading post for vessels hailing from the Lukpanic city-states early in their explorations of the coastal corridor and the Kipceʔ further to the south. These traders brought a more advanced society along with their superior technology, and the elites of Kesàmade have built a hybrid culture that draws considerably from Lukpanic society. Melì is unwritten, as the Lukpanic languages were at this early stage.

The local name for the coastal corridor is Asodeá. It is unclear how far from the town Melì is spoken, or whether it is mutually intelligible with other Valley dialects in the region, but the elites of Kesàmade clearly see it as their own sphere of influence in their dealings with traders from the north. The ruling family is alternately known as Tamazinò or Masìm, their adopted Lukpanic name (there is no evidence for this name in any Lukpanic language, suggesting that it is a local calque).

Religion at Kesàmade is highly syncretic. The indigenous concept of kozú, or life essence, is the focus of personal hygiene and moral purity, but cannibalism has disappeared completely. Instead worshipers appeal to a series of deities to guide them in cultivating their kozú, most of whom have transparently Lukpanic origins. Buckwheat never took root in the coastal corridor, but some new crops have become an important part of local agriculture, such as figs and Lukpanic varieties of beans. Millet is by far the most important source of calories, with strained yogurt and leafy herbs rounding out most meals. The region's sole contribution to agriculture is a local herb with edible seeds tasting something like a mix of coriander and fennel.

=Sound Changes=
These are the sound changes from Empotle7á. It's not entirely clear what dialect of Empotle7á Melì derives from, and some of the later changes on this list are dialectal or incomplete.
==Loss of Glottal Stop==
ʔ → 0
==Merger of Back Vowels==
ɯ/u → 0 / N_#, ʔ_#, l_#

ɯ/u → ɨ/ʉ → i/y / _N, _j

ɯ/u → ɤ/o
==Loss of Allophonic Rounding==
ɤ → o

y → i

ø → e

ɒ → a
==Loss of Voiceless Laterals==
tɬʰ → tʰ

tɬ → t

ɬɬ → s

ɬ → l / V_, N_
==Loss of Labiovelar Approximant==
wa → o

wo → u

we, wi → y

oo → o (only within morphemes)
==Secondary vowel rounding==
im → ym / _#
==Vowel Deletion==
o, u → 0 / Vl_C
==Consonant Shift==
p → b / V[low]_

t → d / V[low]_

ts → dz → z / V[low]_

k → g / V[low]_

p → b / N_

t → d / N_

k → g / N_

pʰ → p

tʰ → t

tsʰ → ts

kʰ → k
==Hiatus Dissimilation==
(propagates from the left to the right)

o → a / _o, _u

u → o / _u
==Tonal Stress==
V...V˥...V˩ → V˥...V˥˩...V˩

V...V˩...V˥ → V˩...V˩...V˥

V...V˥...V˥ → V˥...V˥...V˥˩

V...V˩...V˩ → V˥˩...V˩...V˩

V˥...V˥ → V˩...V˥ / #(C)_

V˩...V˩ → V˧...V˩ / #(C)_
==Nasalization==
N → ŋ / _#

ŋ → ˜j / _V

j → ˜j
==Elision of High Vowels==
i[-stress], u[-stress] → 0 / #s_C(C)V
==Lenition of Stops==
b → β / V_
==Simplification of Vowel Clusters==
i[-stress], e[-stress] → ˜j / V_V

u[-stress], o[-stress], a[-stress] → β / V_V

i[-stress], y[-stress] → yβ / _y
==Lateralization==
t → tɬ / _a

=Phonology=
==Onsets==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial!! alveolar!! palatal!! velar
|- align="center"
! stops
| p b || t d || || k g
|- align="center"
! affricates
| || ts || ||
|- align="center"
! fricatives
| || s z || ||
|- align="center"
! nasals
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! approximants
| || l|| j||
|-
|}

The lateral approximant is realized as a voiceless fricative ɬ word-initially. The voiced plosives b is realized as voiced fricative β after vowels. The palatal approximant j causes nasalization on the preceding vowel within the same word. None of these alternations are reflected in writing, though when these or other alternations occur in an example there will be a phonetic transcription.

The alveolar stop t is pronounced tɬ before the vowel a. This is optional, and some speakers continue to use t. In either case the change is not written.

==Vowels==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Front!!Central!!Back
|- align="center"
! High
||i y|| ||u
|- align="center"
! Mid
||e|| ||o
|- align="center"
! Low
|| ||a||
|}
==Syllable Structure==
Melì has a simple syllable structure of (C)V(N,l), where N is a homorganic nasal. At the end of a word this nasal is pronounced ŋ and written n.

Every word belongs to one of a finite set of stress patterns. Stress patterns are not contrastive on words of one syllable, and all syllables before the last three can be predicted from the last three.
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! no pattern
| a ... a ... a
|- align="center"
! rising pattern
| a ... a ... á
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 1
| a ... a ... à
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 2
| a ... à ... a
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 3
| à ... a ... a
|-
|}
Words of the rising pattern have an acute mark on the stressed syllable, which is always final. The stressed syllable has a high tone, while all previous syllables, except sometimes the first, have a low tone. In words of more than two syllables the first syllable will have a medium tone. The penultimate syllable is often pronounced long.

The falling patterns have a stressed syllable among the last three syllables, with a grave mark. The stressed syllable has a falling tone, while all previous syllables, except sometimes the first, have a high tone. If two or more unstressed syllables precede the stressed syllable, then the first syllable has a low tone. All syllables after the stressed syllable have a low tone.

Some suffixes impact word stress. These suffixes are marked with a circumflex in this grammar, e.g. the evidential marker '''ê'''. After adding such a suffix, words with no pattern or falling patterns 2 or 3 take a rising pattern, while words with a rising pattern take falling pattern 1, and words with falling pattern 1 remain unchanged. Suffixes without a circumflex simply add unstressed vowels to the end of the word, changing rising or falling pattern 1 to falling pattern 2, falling pattern 2 to falling pattern 3, and falling pattern 3 to no pattern.

=Word Formation=

Nearly every root in Melì is one to three syllables. Besides verbs, nouns, and adjectives, there are two classes of adpositions, personal pronouns, demonstratives, numerals (collectively treated under Modifiers), adverbs, pronouns and demonstratives, and discourse particles. Verbal roots are classified by their inherent transitivity (either transitive or intransitive; thereare no ditransitive roots), but they also have other features that may be mentioned in the lexicon. For example some verbs of motion are inherently perfective or imperfective. A small closed class of nouns are inalienably possessed, and must carry a possession prefix. Adpositions come in two varieties: free and affixed. Free adpositions precede the head noun, and are uninflected. Affixed adpositions appear at the end of the noun phrase and affix to the final word in the phrase. In addition to their inherent meaning, roots can take on non-predictable meanings through derivational suffixes. Several derivational suffixes have been inherited from Empotle7á, many of which have become nearly obsolete. The chart below is not exhaustive, and only shows the most common examples.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !! !!Nominalizing
|- align="left"
||Root||Suffix||Meaning
|- align="left"
||verb||null||an instance or example of an event
|- align="left"
||verb||lo||agentive, "-er"
|- align="left"
||noun||kin||added to animal names to specify a female
|- align="left"
||verb||jen||associated location
|- align="left"
||noun||pâ||associated location
|- align="left"
||verb||lâ||result
|- align="left"
||noun||one||augmentative
|- align="left"
||noun||u||diminutive
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !! !!Verbalizing
|- align="left"
||Root||Suffix||Meaning
|- align="left"
||verb||ado||intensive, emphasis on completion or finality
|- align="left"
||verb||da||makes causative transitives from intransitives
|- align="left"
||noun||kâ||to seek or become something
|- align="left"
||noun||ê||to be something
|- align="left"
||noun||sâ||to do something
|- align="left"
||noun||lan||to be similar to something
|}

=The Verb=

Compared to Proto-Western, or even Empotle7á, Melì has a very simple, mostly agglutinative verbal morphology. The only obligatory part of a grammatical verb other than the stem itself is a prefix that agrees with the gender of the absolutive argument. The structure of the Melì verb is as follows:

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
|Agreement||(Tense)||Verb Stem||(Incorporated Stem)||(Evidentiality/Aspect)||(Antipassive)
|}

==Agreement==
Agreement prefixes agree with the absolutive argument of the verb, regardless of the number of arguments or the transitivity of the verb. They are identical to noun classifiers and have the same meaning.
'''o'''- denotes male humans and large or impressive animals.
'''ta'''- denotes female humans and small or domesticated animals
'''ko'''- ('''ka'''- before the future tense marker or a root starting with o) denotes everything else.
For some animals, like horses, the prefix matches the sex of the animal, as it would for humans. When it comes to supernatural referents, agreement is a mix of logical and lexical. The prefix used for animal spirits and clan totems may match the sex of the animal, or default to '''o'''-. Most deities are of Lukpanic origin, and use '''o'''- except for a small number of masculine deities which confusingly use '''ko'''-. Ideas and other nonphysical things generally use '''ko'''-, but a closed class of nouns, mostly having to do with traditionally feminine work, use '''ta'''-. The names of people almost always match the sex of the person, not the etymological root, but there are exceptions among mythical figures and heroes. Places that do not have a lexically transparent origin use '''ko'''-; place names that do have an obvious meaning will usually use '''ko'''-, but in some cases will use the marker appropriate to the etymological root.

'''kotaè'''

AGR-make-EVID

It is done. (literally "It is made")

'''obosisì'''

AGR-ask-EVID

They (said they) asked him/her. (absolutive could be a man, or possibly certain goddesses)

'''koní'''

AGR-reach

I have arrived. (literally "I have reached it")

==Tense==
The only tense marker is the optional future tense, marked with -'''ode'''-. The non-future is unmarked, but the absence of a tense marker does not rule out the possibility of a future interpretation. Generally marked future tense indicates uncertainty or intention, not definite facts about the future, though ironically it is often used with the evidential suffix -'''u''' to emphasize things that will surely come to pass. It is also used in interrogative sentences for polite requests.

'''taodàu'''

AGR-succeed-EVID

She will (obviously) succeed. (casual certainty about an accepted fact)

'''taodeodá'''

AGR-FUT-succeed

She will probably succeed. (intention or prediction of future facts)

'''taodeodàu'''

AGR-FUT-succeed-EVID

She will definitely succeed. (emphatic assertion of fact)

==Incorporation==
Nouns and verbs can be incorporated into a matrix verb, but this process is not productive, and some combinations are not predictable. Some patterns of incorporation could be classed more as a form of derivation than syntax. For these reasons, incorporations are dealt with primarily in the lexicon.

==Evidentiality/Aspect==
Evidential suffixes are not mandatory for all finite verbs, but most main verbs will have one in a typical discourse. Some of the suffixes also carry aspectual information.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !!Adverbs
|- align="left"
||-ê||direct experience, perfective
|- align="left"
||-mbel||direct experience, imperfective
|- align="left"
||-sî||indirect knowledge, perfective
|- align="left"
||-on||indirect knowledge, imperfective
|- align="left"
||-u||gnomic
|}

Direct experience suffixes mark direct sensory input, usually sight or sound. This implies that the speaker was present when the event occurred. They are almost never used in combination with -'''ode'''. Indirect knowledge suffixes mark reported speech or hearsay, whether dubious or certain. The gnomic suffix marks inferred or obvious information, and is often used for emphasis or to indicate a conclusion. By extension, it is also used to indicate controversial or surprising information, or sarcastically to indicate something highly dubious. Perfective suffixes mark events that have a clear ending, while imperfective suffixes mark events that are inherently atelic, or ongoing. The null suffix is also very common. It is used when the speaker does not consider any of the above information important, or when the same information would be repeated many times. The null suffix is also the most commonly used when the speaker is a participant in the event they are describing.

'''obué laná'''

[I saw that] he cooked eggs.

'''tàbuon'''

[They say that] she cooks.

'''kaodesàmau'''

It will obviously end.

==Antipassive==
The antipassive causes the agent of a normal transitive verb to become the subject of an intransitive verb, marked in the absolutive as usual. More information about transitivity and omitted arguments appears in the Arguments section.

'''kaozòu uzí'''

AGR-eat-EVID fish-ABS cat-ERG

cats eat fish

'''kaozouná uzí taé'''

AGR-eat-EVID-ANTIP fish-ABS also

Fish also eat.

=Arguments=

Melì uses an absolutive-ergative system. The subject of intransitive verbs and the patient of transitive verbs (with some exceptions below) take the unmarked absolutive case, while the agent of transitive verbs takes the ergative suffix -'''î''' (or -'''bî''' after nasals). The vowel in the ergative suffix lowers to -'''ê''' when the previous syllable has a low vowel. The absolutive is also used for genitives and objects of adpositions.

'''koìbida nèma'''

AGR-float ship

The boat floats.

'''aozó Alsenaé ùsae'''

AGR-eat Alsèna-ERG fig-ABS

Alsena ate a fig.

'''aozó ùsae Keda'''

AGR-eat FIG-ABS Keda-ABS

He ate Keda's fig.

'''olabè Alsenaé eòna najolá'''

AGR-steal-EVD Alsèna-ERG chest-ABS POS-brother-ABS

Alsena stole my brother's chest.

Intransitive verbs can take absolutive arguments, or no arguments, but never ergative ones. The absolutive argument, or subject, can have a variety of roles depending on the verb, but usually functions as an experiencer. Transitive verbs can take absolutive and ergative arguments, or none. If a transitive verb has an ergative argument, then it must also have an absolutive argument, but the absolutive argument may appear alone. In this case the verb has a passive or intransitive meaning. If the speaker wishes to supply the agent but not the patient of a transitive verb, the antipassive -'''nâ''' is used. Any omitted argument usually implies that the information is unimportant, unknown, or previously established and not worthy of repetition.

'''olaosàu Suma'''

AGR-see-EVID Suma-ABS

[He] saw Suma.

'''olaosauná Suma'''

AGR-see-EVID-ANTIP Suma-ABS

Suma saw [it].

The last lexical class is split verbs, which are transitive and take arguments that use the same markings as transitive verbs, but with opposite meanings: the "ergative" is actually an agent and the "absolutive" is actually a patient. As with any other verb, the argument marked "absolutive" can appear alone (in which case the verb has a stated agent and an implied patient), but the "ergative" cannot. These verbs are indicated in the lexicon, but the terms "ergative" and "absolutive" will be used throughout this grammar.

'''taòdeda ne kimé'''

AGR-kill me-ERG shark-ABS

I killed a shark. (normal transitive)

'''tàsay na kimeì'''

AGR-fight me-ABS shark-ERG

I fought a shark. (split transitive)

'''tàsay na'''

AGR-fight me-ABS

I fought.

Canonical word order is VOS or VSO. Absolutive arguments have a tendency to appear before ergative arguments, and new or emphasized information has a tendency to appear later among the arguments. Adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses follow a free word order, but rarely appear between the subject and object of the clause in which they appear, and never split up other phrases. Arguments can be emphasized and moved in front of the verb with no morphological change. Nouns that are not subject or object may also appear before the verb to establish new topics, but in this case the noun phrase usually takes the orientative affix -'''â'''.

'''ta kadagomé'''

ANAP-ABS AGR-important

That is what's important.

==Nested Clauses==

Entire clauses can behave like arguments. There are two ways to do this grammatically. One is with substantives, made by combining the cataphoric pronoun with a relative clause, and then treating the cataphoric pronoun as an argument. The other is to use a normal, unmodified clause. The latter is fairly restricted, mostly limited to psychic action, reported speech, or knowledge.

[example: "tell her what happened."]

[example: "forgot that..."]

==Adverbs==

Adverbs are any words that modify verbs, but not as subjects or objects. The semantic line between adverbs and nouns is thin (and a small set of roots can be both without derivation or changes in syntax, such as tso and soda), which is why they are both listed under “arguments.” Adverbs primarily provide information about time or manner. They generally appear immediately after the main verb or at the beginning or end of the clause, though they can appear almost anywhere that does not split a phrase. Nouns accompanied by an adposition can act like adverbial phrases. Entire clauses can also fill this role. Some common adverbs and a few examples of other adverbial constructions are given below. Note that some adverbs listed here function also as a type of conjunction linking clauses together. In these cases normal syntax applies; the adverb does not need to appear exactly between two clauses, since they are not true conjunctions (formally there are no clause conjunctions in Melì that cannot be explained as adverbs or particles, so they are not mentioned anywhere in this grammar).

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !!Adverbs
|- align="left"
||ja||although even though
|- align="left"
||tso||yesterday
|- align="left"
||soda||tomorrow
|- align="left"
||ne||always
|- align="left"
||saezae||sometimes, rarely
|- align="left"
||etỳ||irrealis (marks hypotheticals and conditions)
|- align="left"
||mède||yet, still
|- align="left"
||màlta||already, anymore
|- align="left"
||taé||also
|- align="left"
||sin||and then
|- align="left"
||sàmosan (sàmo+san)||to completion
|- align="left"
||tolaosá||looking forward, planning for the future
|}

'''ne aozàon luigàe sàmosan'''

always AGR-eat(transitive)-EVID meat-ABS completely

He always eats up all the meat.

'''aozàon sàmosan ne luigàe'''

AGR-eat(transitive)-EVID completely always meat-ABS

Someone keeps eating up all the meat.

==Adpositions==

Adpositions have split into two groups. The first have remained as separate words and appear before the head noun, becoming prepositions (listed as “free” in the chart below). The second have stayed at the end of the noun phrase, but suffixed to the previous word, becoming clitics (listed as “affixed” in the chart below). The first class is larger and perhaps not entirely closed, while the second class is very small and closed. The suffix kê can change the stress pattern of the word.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Affixed
|- align="left"
||-san||locative, used spatially, temporally, or metaphorically
|- align="left"
||-â||orientative
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Free
|- align="left"
||amà||with (for people)
|- align="left"
||kambé||towards, until, facing, before
|- align="left"
||kotsó||after, behind, from (for space or time)
|- align="left"
||mèlan||along (an edge), during
|- align="left"
||tay||on, at, in (used mainly for places and containers)
|- align="left"
||naokè||(rising) up to
|- align="left"
||taza||similar to
|- align="left"
||sekè||down to, as far as (for distance)
|- align="left"
||èel||in order to, following
|- align="left"
||èdo||resulting in
|}

'''sekè une làugo'''

as_far_as island near-AGR

...as far as the nearest island

'''une laugoá'''

island near-AGR-ORI

...by navigating around the near island

'''kotsó kumo'''

from magistrate

...from the magistrate

'''saisan'''

god-in

...officially, by civic authority

=Modifiers=

This section generally deals with words, phrases, and clauses that modify, or in some cases replace, nouns and noun phrases. Many of these words require agreement suffixes. These are the same as the agreement prefixes of verbs: -'''ô''', -'''ta''', and -'''go''' (-'''ko''' after a grave mark). The same ambiguity exists as among agreement prefixes. The suffix for male humans may also be used for female goddesses and some animals, while the female suffix can be used for a wide variety of humans, animals, and in some limited cases other things. Whenever a noun's agreement is not obvious, it is specified in the lexicon.

The order of modifiers after a noun is: adjective, genitive, number, relative clause. Attributive pronouns are classed as adjectives, but they may also appear after genitives or numbers to emphasize the limiting effect of the pronoun.

==Adjectives==

Adjectives are their own part of speech, separate from nouns and verbs, although semantically there are stative intransitive verbs that function like predicate adjectives. The syntax of adjectives and quantifiers is identical, so they are treated together. Both types of modifier follow the head noun, and take an agreement suffix. The only real distinction between them is that quantifiers are mutually exclusive with cardinal and ordinal numbers. Partitive constructions like “a few of the ten people” use a longer construction with the anaphoric pronoun, which takes an otherwise defunct partitive prefix '''la'''-. Numbers are treated in more detail later in this section.

'''kòtagon kená tongo kòbogyn'''

AGR-important horn-ABS long-AGR cow-ABS

The cow's long horn is important.

'''ko la oneó lanaò'''

man-ABS big-AGR many-AGR

There are many big men.

==Pronouns==

There are six pronouns in Melì: the anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns, two indefinite pronouns, and two personal pronouns. All of them can take the place of nouns or, in their attributive form, modify nouns. The anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns are the main demonstratives in the language. They are especially important in copular and relative clauses.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Anaphora!!Cataphora
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||ta||ko
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||taé||koí
|- align="center"
! Attributive
||eò/età/èko||koó/kodá/kogo
|}

Indefinite demonstratives come in two forms, '''pa''' and '''tada'''. The former is used for specific things unknown to the listener or hypothetical things, while the latter is used for comparisons or to indicate free choice. Both can be used in questions or conditional clauses using the irrealis '''etỳ'''.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Indefinite 1!!Indefinite 2
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||pa||tada
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||paé||tadaé
|- align="center"
! Attributive
||paó/padá/pago||tadaó/tadadá/tàdago
|}

The personal pronouns do not have attributive forms. For alienably possessed nouns, personal pronouns follow the modified noun in the absolutive to show possession, like a genitive noun. Inalienably possessed nouns take obligatory possessive prefixes '''na'''- and '''ta'''-. The forms in parentheses in the table below are more formal, mostly reserved for speaking to or about elders and people of high social status.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!1st Person!!2nd or 3rd person
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||na||ta (sa)
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||ne||te (se)
|}

==Relative Clauses==

Relative clauses follow the noun they modify, but need not immediately follow it if another core argument is found in the matrix clause. The verb in a relative clause has no special marking, but the argument within the relative clause that matches the modified noun in the matrix clause will always be the anaphoric demonstrative. The cataphoric demonstrative may also stand in for the modified noun, creating a substantive.

'''le kaozú soban taí'''

snake-ABS AGR-eat mouse-ABS ANAP-ERG

The snake that ate the mouse.

'''soban kaozú leì ta'''

mouse-ABS AGR-eat snake-ERG ANAP-ABS

The mouse that the snake ate.

'''kaodeozó ne ko kabu ta te'''

AGR-FUT-cook me-ERG CATP-ABS AGR-cook ANAP-ABS you-ERG

I will eat what you cook.

==Numbers==

The Melì number system is a hybrid of native Western and adopted Lukpanic numbers. Cardinal numbers up to eight precede the head noun, while cardinal numbers above eight and all ordinal numbers follow the head noun. All numbers up to eight use native roots, while numbers above eight use Lukpanic roots. There are two exceptions to this rule: the native word '''jalesé''' (sixty four), used only as a cardinal number, and the Lukpanic word '''niun''' (five), used as a cardinal or isolated number only for non-human referents. Very often '''jalesé''' is used metaphorically to mean “a large number.”

The number system hides a great deal of synchrotism and compromise. The suffixing attributives of Lukpanic languages are unknown in Valley languages, and the Lukpanic suffixes attach to agentives '''sab''' and '''tab'''. The latter is also used optionally for native ordinal numbers when used in isolation. The use of '''tab''' allows the complete absence of Lukpanic '''u''', and '''nu''' has also disappeared in recent times. The description given here is the most common system used in '''Asodeá''', but many competing standards exist up and down the coast. Some Valley speakers use native or Lukpanic numbers exclusively. Others use only native numbers for people and only Lukpanic numbers for everything else. Some have a hybrid system similar to Melì, but with one or more terms reanalyzed (one common strategy is to use '''senal''' to mean ten when counting people, replacing it with Lukpanic terms for non-humans). Phonologically, the numbers are subject to numerous irregular sound changes, specifically vowels and tones changing to match those of an immediately adjacent number. The word '''eḍá''' should by '''oḍá''' according to regular sound changes, but is presumably influenced by nearby '''mená'''.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Cardinal !! Isolated !! Ordinal
|- align="center"
! 1
| tau - || tabó / tausí / tàugo || (ta) taù
|- align="center"
! 2
| si - || siò / sisì / sìgo || (ta) sio
|- align="center"
! 3
| nasó - || nasoò / nasosì / nasògo || (ta) naso
|- align="center"
! 4
| mená - || menaò / menasì / menàgo || (ta) mènao
|- align="center"
! 5
| (edá) - niun || edaó / edasí / èdago / niun || (ta) èdao
|- align="center"
! 6
| minì - || miniò / minisì / minìgo || (ta) mìnio
|- align="center"
! 7
| jasé - || jaseò / jasesì / jasègo || (ta) jàseo
|- align="center"
! 8
| senal - || senaló / senasí / sènaso || (ta) jào
|- align="center"
! 9
| - sàdu niun || sàdu niun || tàdu niun
|- align="center"
! 10
| - mìbai || mìbai || ta mìbai
|- align="center"
! 11
| - sàsu mìbai || sàsu mìbai || tàsu mìbai
|- align="center"
! 12
| - sàmi mìbai || sàmi mìbai || tàmi mìbai
|- align="center"
! 13
| - sàbul mìbai || sàbul mìbai || tàbul mìbai
|- align="center"
! 14
| - sàdu mìbai || sàdu mìbai || tàdu mìbai
|- align="center"
! 15
| - ùlai || ùlai || tabùlai
|-
|}

'''mená kesá'''

four stones

'''kesá mènao'''

the fourth stone

'''tazeè menàgo'''

I want four.

'''oadalu na tau poalé nasó lada'''

AGR-accuse-EVID me-ABS one people-ERG three PART-ANAP

One of the three made accusations against me.

[[Category:Western languages|Melì]]

Languages of Akana/Western

2018-10-08T09:51:45Z

Thedukeofnuke: Melì

* [[Proto-Western]] {{context|(Peilaš west coast, c. -3500 YP - [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]])}}
** Coastal languages
*** [[Proto-Coastal-Western]] {{context|(Lukpanic coast, c. -1800 YP - Legion, [[User:Tzirtzi|TzirTzi]])}}
**** [[Ìletlégbàku]] {{context|(Nugbùn, c. -900 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
**** [[Doayâu]] {{context|(Pítau, c. -500 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
**** [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] {{context|(Ishe, c. -450 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]])}}
**** [[U Bol]] {{context|(Doanu, c. -200 YP - CatDoom)}}
** Steppe languages
*** [[Iŋomœ́|Iŋom{{IPA|œ́}}]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Eodrakken|eodrakken]])}}
**** [[Satnímʔa]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -1000 YP - Kohorik)}}
***** [[ʔuulhemoo]] {{context|(Peilaš northwest coast, c. 100 YP - CatDoom)}}
**** [[Hāňheliubľ]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -1000 YP - Nortaneous)}}
** Lake languages (Wañelin languages)
*** [[Çetázó]] {{context|(Wañelin, c. -2000 YP - WeepingElf)}}
**** [[Óhylvídós]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -900 YP - Ingolemo)}}
***** [[Ohilí]] {{context|(c. -300 YP - Abi)}}
***** [[Ayčasamo]] {{context|(northwestern Xōron Eiel, c. 300 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]])}}
**** [[Šetâmol]] {{context|(Wañelin, c. -500 YP - Curlyjimsam)}}
**** [[Shtåså]] {{context|(Tjakori & northern Xšalad, c. -500 YP - Arzena)}}
**** [[Hośər]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -600 YP - [[User:Caedes|caedes]])}}
** Plateau languages (Gezoro languages)
*** [[Gezoro]] {{context|(Rathedān, c. -2000 YP)}}
*** [[Tjakori]] {{context|(Tjakori valley, c. -1000 YP)}}
** Valley languages
*** [[Empotle7á]] {{context|(Coastal corridor, c. -2000 YP - Arzena)}}
**** [[Melì]] {{context|(Coastal corridor, c. -1000 YP - Arzena)}}
** Desert languages
*** [[Tmaśareʔ]] {{context|(Kipceʔ desert, c. -1800 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** Mountain languages
*** [[Mountain Western]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -1800 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

Meshi

2018-10-08T09:21:39Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Spirituality and honour */

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Meshi''' is the northwestern branch of the Eigə-Isthmus language family, which is marked in red colors.'']]

The '''Meshi''' were a nomadic people in central [[Peilaš]], who in [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] times lived mostly along the middle [[Eigə]] and one of its major northern tributaries (which was named after them; cf. {{Ad|Mexi}}), in the regions west of [[Lasomo]]. They spoke [[Aysuchi Meshi|a language]] belonging to the Eigə Valley branch of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus]] family.

At the end of the second millennium [[YP|BP]], when nomadic peoples on horseback had gained a military advantage due to the invention of the stirrup and the saddle, the Meshi set out to create one of the largest empires in the history of Peilaš. They conquered almost all of the Eigə valley, ruling the [[Ndok]], the [[Buruya]]ns, and even large parts of [[Kasca]] and what was later to become the southern part of [[Huyfárah]]. Traces of Meshi culture can be found throughout this vast region, in the form of physical artifacts such as artwork and inscriptions as well as in the form of loanwords (most numerous in [[Ndok Aisô]]) and placenames (for instance, the name ''Buruya'' contains the Meshi term '''buru''' "encampment; fortification"). However, the empire was short-lived; it disintegrated around 900 BP, and the Meshi retreated back into their homeland, where they were gradually assimilated by [[Habeo languages|Habeo]] tribes in the course of the following centuries.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

The Meshi of pre-Ndak times left few material traces. They had no towns or writing, and did not practice large-scale agriculture. Despite this, the development of their language provides some clues as to their early history.

Proto-Meshi shares some common sound changes with Proto-Miwan (/*ts *dz/ > /t d/ in onsets, /*aj *aw/ > /*e *o/ and /*o/ > /u/) and there are a number of loans between the two. 
The change of /kw gw/ > /fw zw/ is however characteristically Meshi and turns out to be important in dating the Miw-Meshi split. A few early loans from [[Proto-Habeo]] and [[Gezoro]] show the change ({{PHab|Taʔuqʷuʔe}} "[[Thabīa]]" > ''*Tawkwuy'' > '''Tawfwe''', {{Gez|gwaːmɔ}} "fortress" > '''zwama''') and it is present in at least one loan into Miwan (''*za-fwinta'' > {{FMiw|zafwiːta}}). This demonstrates that the Meshi had contact with all three of these groups in the same period.

Based on this evidence we can safely say that before the Ndak expansion the Meshi occupied a stretch of the southern Eigə valley from southern Lasomo perhaps as far west as the confluence of the Mexi with the Eigə. They were probably semi-nomadic and sustained themselves by a mix of hunting, gathering, fishing, small-scale cultivation, and (increasingly) pastoralism.

=== Ancient era ===

The turn of the second millennium BP was a period of conflict. The [[Ndak]] migrated south into Lasomo ca. 2200 BP and spent the next three hundred years waging a series of wars against the [[Ngauro]], [[Talo]], [[Gezoro]], [[Faraghin]], and briefly the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]. In the west, the lowlands were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the Ndak empire, as was the [[Rathedān]] to a [[Dāiadak|lesser extent]]. 
This definitively cut off the Meshi from the Miw. In response they moved north into the Mexi valley in the low [[Eiwəl Gourun|Xoron]] and resisted any further encroachment. They still maintained contact with neighbouring peoples including the Ndak, Habeo, and Antagg; some Meshi lived within the empire's borders and served in the imperial cavalry.

The Meshi economy shifted towards pastoralism in this period, partly to adapt to the drier terrain and partly due to developments in husbandry. The majority of the people were nomadic although they had some permanent villages ('''sanu''') and strongholds ('''buru''').

Ndak descriptions of the Meshi are not extensive. As rulers of a prosperous agricultural empire, they had little interest in such a 'primitive' people. The Meshi lacked political unity, cities, writing, and nearly everything else the Ndak valued besides horses. 
However, the Ndak - not known for squeamishness - were particularly shocked by their religious rituals. As well as practicing human sacrifice, the Meshi subjected their young men (and to a lesser extent women) to elaborate initiation rites intended to inure them to pain and mark their passage to adulthood with permanent scarification.

=== Dark Ages ===

As the second millennium wore on the Antagg state collapsed, the Ndak fell into decline, and 'barbarian' nations gained ground at their expense. Similar societal disturbances across [[Akana]] suggest that this was exacerbated by climatic change.

Meshi culture gradually became more warlike in response to these social and ecological pressures. This was particularly marked from the 15th century BP with the Hitatc Empire's brief expansion into the Xoron and the subsequent rise of the Habeo nomad confederation. The Meshi disdained the idea of joining the Habeo even as equals, instead seeing them as rivals to test themselves against, and for three hundred years there was increasingly frequent conflict between the two peoples.

=== Empire ===

By the early 13th century BP the Habeo had developed (or adopted) the saddle, which allowed them to fight much more effectively from horseback. The Meshi quickly copied this advance and around 1100 BP further improved it with the invention of stirrups - which gave them a decisive edge. They beat back the Habeo over the course of a generation and forced them into a truce.

With their traditional enemies defeated, the low Xoron under their control, and their drive to prove themselves in war undimmed, the Meshi needed new objectives. They pushed east into the [[Bwimbai]] valley and quickly subjugated the [[Mohudza]] - another mostly pastoral people - cementing their position of dominance among the nomads. Then they turned their attention south to the settled nations of the Eigə.

The last centralised Ndak states had collapsed generations before, and the city-states and petty kingdoms that succeeded them were in no position to mount a defence. Lasomo had just barely pulled back from the brink of anarchy; Kasca had not. The Meshi swept down from the northwest, demanding surrender from each city they encountered and treating any resistance as a grievous insult. In a few decades they conquered most of the Bwimbai, Eigə, and Milīr valleys and the southern parts of Huyfárah. 
Meshi chieftains established themselves as replacements or superiors of local rulers throughout their empire.
Their centre of power shifted in part to Lasomo (particularly [[Ngahêxôldod]]) and Buruya, which they established as a trading post and stronghold.

=== Collapse and later history ===

While the Meshi readily accepted the submission of other peoples, their society did not adapt well to ruling a much larger agricultural population. To maintain control, they were obliged to either settle in one place or to rely on local client rulers, neither of which suited them. At the same time the traditions of initiation and testing in battle that reinforced their identity became harder to maintain and distanced them from their subjects. 
The empire therefore lacked stability, and friction grew not just between Meshi rulers and subjects but also between 'purist' ('''Meshi beyu''') and 'civilised' ('''Meshi zwama'''). The latter were regularly accused of decadence ('''badachi''').

The invasion of Kasca in the late tenth century BP exposed these weaknesses in the empire and indirectly brought about its downfall. 
A large number of Meshi from the purist faction joined the campaign under the banner of chief Kayri. At first they made good progress, securing the northwestern fringe and the Vuzëi before circling round to the south to capture [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]]. However they ran into difficulties after this point. Securing enough boats to enter the delta proper exhausted the resources of the locals and the patience of the Meshi, leading to ongoing outbreaks of violence. Kayri and a force of Meshi warriors made the crossing to [[Momuva'e]] and captured it but found it disappointingly poor compared to the cities of Lasomo. Further advances gave steadily diminishing returns: the Meshi's cherished horses were of little use in the swampland, and the delta dwellers were impoverished, at best sullenly accepted conquest and at worst hardly understood what it meant. 
In short, the riches and glory the Meshi had expected did not materialise.

After years of fruitless campaigning the horde turned back to Lasomo. Kayri, hungry for a real fight, claimed that the city of [[Akôdaig]] had broken its terms of surrender and needed punishment. To his disgust he was met by a combined army of Ndok and 'civilised' Meshi. Kayri was eventually killed following a series of raids and battles, but the unity of the Meshi had been irreparably broken. Internecine conflict, subject revolts, and counter-invasions by the Habeo, Faraghin, and Hitatc tore the empire apart even more quickly than it had risen. 
By 900 BP the Meshi had lost too much prestige to dominate their neighbours, and no longer had a monopoly on the military advantage of the stirrup. They retreated to the Mexi valley, where they remained as a distinct ethnicity subject by turns to the Mohudza, [[Damak]], and Habeo before being incorporated into the [[Empire of Athalē]].

== Culture ==

=== Tribal structure ===

Like many of the Eigə-Isthmus peoples the Meshi had a decentralised, tribal society.

The basic unit of organisation was the clan or patrilineage ('''kaws'''), which claimed descent from a usually legendary ancestor ('''mifwan'''). These followed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_kinship Omaha] system of kinship. Some noteworthy features were:
* Terms were most descriptive for people in someone's own patrilineage.
* A man called his children '''min''' (son) and '''zak''' (daughter), which also applied to a brother's children.
* A woman called her children '''anar''' (child of a clan woman), which also applied to a sister's children or a father's sister's children.

Chieftains were titled '''jil''' and each held sway over a tribe or group of clans ('''kikaw'''). Socially, they were always men, but in exceptional circumstances a woman could take on the role by undergoing the male initiation rite, taking a wife, and assuming paternity of her wife's children; this was the only circumstance in which extramarital sex was permitted to a woman.

All tribes together made up the Meshi nation ('''aswun Meshi'''). Even in the empire, there was never a single unquestioned leader, a factor that certainly contributed to its instability. Instead the chieftains formed an oligarchy from which campaign leaders or generals ('''jil kana''') emerged or were chosen.

=== Spirituality and honour ===

Meshi religion was polytheistic with elements of animism. They believed in gods ('''nak''') and lesser spirits ('''kayr''') that controlled the powers of nature, the fortunes of humanity, and the afterlife.

Initiation rites ('''beshis''' for men, '''beset''' for women) were a core part of Meshi faith and identity. The details varied by tribe and era but they were always tests of endurance and pain tolerance, more exacting for men than for women, and left distinctive scars. Completing the rite was considered a sign of divine favour and worth ('''zasachi chi Meshi'''), and no Meshi man was permitted to marry or become a warrior until he had been initiated. A very few people undertook the initiation twice - which was considered a truly heroic feat.

Personal honour ('''zus''') was also crucial in Meshi society. Courage in battle ('''nyazachi zwip gwun'''), justice ('''zanachi zasa'''), hospitality ('''fwulachi tan''') and skilful riding ('''zazar zwip ashe''') could all increase honour; weakness ('''munachi'''), cowardice, infidelity (of a woman) and especially failure to respond to an insult would lose honour. 
The worst insult possible was '''swu''', "worthless". If anyone - man or woman - was accused of this and did not retaliate it would be considered true.

The Meshi conducted warfare ('''kana''') mainly to pursue disputes over honour, resources, or other matters, or to. Conflict between Meshi individuals or tribes was partly ritualised, with small numbers of combatants and often prearranged terms of victory. Even against other peoples they did not aim to slaughter as many opponents as possible but to kill, maim, or humiliate particular targets - usually leaders or personal enemies. 
They took a fairly consistent approach during their wars of conquest. They would first call on the enemy leaders to surrender. If the offer was rejected, they would kill anyone involved in the negotiations before giving battle, with the two main aims of killing enemy commanders and breaking the morale of the line troops. Their greatly superior speed and mobility meant that they could engage the enemy piecemeal, often defeating much larger armies in this manner. A city or region that did surrender would become the possession of a Meshi chief and required to pay tribute ('''nape'''), while those that refused were pillaged without mercy ('''bwur zwip wesaw''').

=== Oral and written tradition ===

Stories, legends and myths were transmitted by bards ('''kene''') in the form of narrative poems or songs ('''tum'''), which were distinguished from improvised or celebratory songs ('''li'''). However, the Meshi made no distinction between legend and history and saw significant lives and events as potential new legends. To have one's deeds immortalised in story cemented this and was believed to strengthen the spirit ('''zhin''') in life and death.

The Meshi adopted the inscriptional form of the [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary|Ndak logosyllabary]] to write their language and maintained a tradition of scribes or memorialists ('''kenwa'''). Their use of writing was narrower than the Ndak's - they were concerned almost entirely with commemorating notable deeds and events. The great majority of surviving Meshi texts are from stone monuments ('''awkwai''', a Ndak loan) dedicated to battles, conquests, foundations, and especially to dead heroes. Shorter inscriptions appear on movable goods such as weapons, horse tack, and jewellery.

== See also ==

* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
* [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-08T09:19:47Z

Thedukeofnuke: Outsourcing, minor additions

Aysuchi Meshi/Lexicon

2018-10-08T08:59:29Z

Thedukeofnuke: Outsourcing

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beshis
|
|n
|male initiation
|''*puwsg-sits''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gise
|giseyi
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s-uj, *kI(d)z-uj''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shis
|
|n
|man
|''*sits''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-05T14:37:56Z

Thedukeofnuke:

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d / in onsets
* *ts *dz → s z / elsewhere
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in most polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication. For count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. It is always optional, and rarely used with a quantifier. 
The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''vu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

{{gl|Lud|lud|3PL.NOM}}
{{gl|ga|ga|NEG}}
{{gl|gid|gid|strike}}
{{gl|zawu.|zawu|3SG.ACC}}
{{glend|They didn't strike him.}}

{{gl|Wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|ke|ke|kill}}
{{gl|git.|git|REFL}}
{{glend|He killed himself.}}

{{gl|Lud|lud|3PL.NOM}}
{{gl|nyiz|nyiz|kill\ATEL}}
{{gl|saz.|saz|RECP}}
{{glend|They are fighting each other.}}

== Adjectives ==

Adjectives behave similarly to verbs. They can take the same nominaliser -'''chi''' and can form predicative expressions without a verb.

{{gl|Mi|mi|that}}
{{gl|fwina|fwina|bird}}
{{gl|siz.|siz|large}}
{{glend|That bird is big. ''or'' That's a big bird.}}

= Syntax =

== Basic constituent order ==

The default word order is SVO:
{{gl|Met|met|woman}}
{{gl|gayb|gayb|eat}}
{{gl|tep.|tep|cheese}}
{{glend|The woman ate some cheese.}}

Direct objects precede indirect objects:
{{gl|Met|met|woman}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|tep|tep|cheese}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|nakes.|nakes|slave}}
{{glend|The woman took the cheese from the slave.}}

OSV order can be used to emphasise the object:
{{gl|Tep|tep|cheese}}
{{gl|met|met|woman}}
{{gl|gayb.|gayb|eat}}
{{glend|It was cheese that the woman ate.}}

== Noun phrases ==

Determiners (demonstratives and quantifiers) precede the noun, while adjectives and genitives follow it.
{{gl|mi|mi|that}}
{{gl|sanu|sanu|village}}
{{glend|that village}}

{{gl|tanan|tan~an|custom~PL}}
{{gl|mwud|mwud|3PL.GEN}}
{{glend|their customs}}

{{gl|tur|tur|two}}
{{gl|sar|sar|sister}}
{{gl|ane|ane|2SG.GEN}}
{{glend|your two sisters}}

{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|tur|tur|two}}
{{gl|sar|sar|sister}}
{{gl|fwuse|fwuse|beautiful}}
{{gl|ane|ane|2SG.GEN}}
{{glend|these two beautiful sisters of yours}}

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il pad mwu Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur chima nakes ji zalu. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nakes|nakes|slave}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu.|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

= Lexicon =

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beshis
|
|n
|male initiation
|''*puwsg-sits''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shis
|
|n
|man
|''*sits''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Proto-Eigə-Isthmus

2018-10-04T12:15:17Z

Thedukeofnuke: /* Proto-Eigə Valley > Meshi */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
| date = 5th millenium [[YP|BP]]
| place = [[Huyfárah]]
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
| word-or = VO
| mor-type = agglutinative
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], with help from [[User:Cedh|Cedh]], [[User:Radius|Radius]], and others
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]. It was spoken in eastern Peilaš, probably in the region that later became [[Huyfárah]], during the 5th millenium [[YP|BP]].

The reconstruction of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus is based primarily on comparison of [[Miwan languages|Eastern and Forest Miwan]], [[Ngauro]] loans found in [[Ndak Ta]], and [[Faraghin]] and its ancestor [[Proto-Isthmus]].

= Phonology =

== Syllable structure ==

The Proto-Eigə-Isthmus syllable may be conceived in terms of the following structure:

# an '''onset''' consisting of an initial consonant '''''*Ci''''', which may be followed by an optional liquid or glide '''''*(G)''''' (one of ''*r *l *j *w'');
# a '''vocalic nucleus''' consisting of a vowel '''''*V'''''; and
# an optional '''coda''', consisting of a final consonant '''''*(Cf)''''', which may optionally be preceded by one of '''''*s *n *r *l *j *w''''' to form a coda cluster.

The syllable structure is thus '''''*Ci(G)V((s,n,G)Cf)'''''.

There are of course some further restrictions on possible syllables; for example, the combinations ''*ji *wu'' do not occur (although ''*ij *uw'' do). For restrictions on onset and coda clusters, see the more detailed discussions below.

Many PEI roots consist of a single syllable with this structure. However, no attested EI language is as monosyllabic as this might suggest; compounding and affixation are highly productive derivational processes in all branches of the family, and have been for thousands of years. Indeed, the difficulties of reconstructing PEI arise in large part from the multiple layers of prefixes and suffixes that have attached themselves to roots over time, often causing changes in the root itself before wearing away and being replaced by new affixes.

A prevocalic glide ''*(G)'' sometimes acts as part of the vocalic nucleus rather than the onset. For example, in the changes leading to Proto-Isthmus, sequences of [''*w'' + vowel] have distinct vocalic reflexes when they follow an initial consonant (e.g. PEI ''*Cwa'' > PIsth. ''*Co''). Similarly, postvocalic glides form diphthongs with distinct reflexes in the daughter languages.

== Onsets ==

=== Onset consonant inventory ===

The following onset consonants are reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| *ʔ
|-
|
| *θ *ð
| *s *z
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | *w
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | *j
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

Plosives are reconstructed at three places of articulation: labial '''''*p *b''''', coronal (possibly dental) '''''*t *d''''', and dorsal (presumably velar) '''''*k *g'''''.

There are also coronal affricates '''''*ts *dz''''', and two pairs of coronal fricatives: sibilant '''''*s *z''''' and non-sibilant (probably dental) '''''*θ *ð'''''. These sounds have tended to shift around in the descendant languages, making them considerably more difficult to reconstruct than the plosives. (Labial fricatives are not reconstructed for PEI, although many descendant languages have one or both of /f v/; the Miwan labial fricatives are mainly descended from ''*θ *ð'', while Proto-Isthmus ''*f'' descends from ''*w'' word-initially and ''*θ'' elsewhere.)

Nasals are reconstructed at the same three places of articulation as plosives. The labial and coronal nasals '''''*m *n''''' are perhaps the easiest to reconstruct of the PEI onsets, as they remain unchanged in most of the descendant languages and are found in many clear cognates. By comparison, the evidence for the dorsal nasal '''''*ŋ''''' is extremely murky: it seems to be uncommon, and has merged with other phonemes in many languages.

Liquids '''''*r *l''''' and glides '''''*j *w''''' are reconstructed as well. Of these, ''*l'' survives unchanged in most of the descendant languages; the others are preserved most clearly in the Miwan branch. A number of Eigə-Isthmus languages do not contrast /r l/ with each other, having deleted ''*r'' or shifted it to something else; on the other hand, several Isthmus languages (including Faraghin and Doroh) have innovated new /r/ despite its absence in Proto-Isthmus.

A glottal stop '''''*ʔ''''' is reconstructed for what would otherwise be vowel-initial syllables; this simplifies the syllable structure by making the onset obligatory, and explains some developments in the daughter languages. Most notably, the final consonants of verbal roots regularly develop as codas, even though they're nearly always followed by a stem vowel; this makes sense if the stem vowel was preceded by an onset ''*ʔ''. Further evidence may be found in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages: it's been suggested that ''*ʔ'' induced glottalization or creaky voice on nearby vowels. It's also possible that the phonemic glottal stop found in some Eigə Valley languages is partly descended from PEI ''*ʔ''.

Finally, a second glottal onset '''''*h''''' has been suggested to account for some words which unexpectedly show breathy voice in Eigə Valley languages. However, since it has no consonantal reflexes and only affects one branch of the family, it may make more sense to simply reconstruct this as a tonal distinction in Proto-Eigə Valley.

=== Voicing ===

A simple two-way voicing contrast is reconstructed for all PEI obstruents (plosives, affricates, and fricatives). In plosives and affricates this contrast seems to have been somewhat unstable in the early Eigə-Isthmus family; the regular correspondences in onset position are:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="row" | Proto-Isthmus
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *ts
| *dz
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Eigə Valley
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *ts
| *ts
|}

That is, Proto-Isthmus voiceless plosives correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiced plosives and vice versa, while Proto-Isthmus voiced and voiceless affricates both correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiceless ones.

The evidence (notably from the affricates ''*ts *dz'', whose PIsth. reflexes are not predictable from the merged PEV form) suggests that Proto-Isthmus preserves the original voicing, and that Proto-Eigə Valley onsets underwent the following changes:

# *b *d *dz *g > *bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ > *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ
# *p *t *k > *b *d *g
# *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ > *p *t *ts *k

The murmured or breathy-voiced onsets ''*bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ'' induced breathy voice on the following vocalic nucleus before being devoiced to aspirates. This may have been the first step in the process of tonogenesis among the Eigə Valley languages.

Fricatives did not undergo these changes. The voiced fricatives ''*ð *z'' are reconstructed where Proto-Isthmus ''*d *dz'' correspond to Miwan ''/v z/'': e.g. Faraghin ''daradan'' and Miwan ''varja(:)'' 'dance', both from PEI ''*ða(r)j-ʔa''.

=== Onset clusters ===

Onset consonants may form clusters with a following liquid or glide (''*r *l *j *w''). Miwan preserves more of these clusters than the other branches; the following table shows the clusters found in wordlists from three Miwan languages:

{|
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| ''pl''
|  
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
| bl
|
|
|-
| tr
|
|
| tw
| ''dr''
|
|
| ''dw''
|-
|
| kl
|
| kw
| gr
| ''gl''
|
| gw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| fl
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| sl
|
| sw
|
|
| ''zj''
| ''zw''
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|
|
|
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
|  
| bj
|
|-
| tr
|
| tj
| tw
| dr
|
| dj
| dw
|-
| ''kr''
|
| ''kj''
| kw
|
|
| ''gj''
| gw
|-
|
|
|
| qw
|
|
|
|
|-
| fr
| ''fl''
| fj
| fw
| ''vr''
|
|
| ''vw''
|-
|
|
| sj
|
|
|
|
| ''zw''
|-
|
|
| ''χj''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''nj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| pl
| pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
|  
|  
|
|
|-
| ''tr''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| zw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
| ''lw''
|}
|}
(The entries in ''italics'' are attested only medially, and thus some of them might not represent original onset clusters.)

The set observed in the reconstructed lexicon for Proto-Isthmus is somewhat different:
{|
! Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *pl
| *pj
| rowspan="6" |
| *bl
|
|-
| *tl
| *tj
| *dl
|
|-
|
|
|
| ''*dzj''
|-
| *kl
| *kj
|
|
|-
|
| ''*sj''
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| *nj
|}
|}

Comparing these two sets, we can see that Proto-Isthmus has entirely lost ''*r'' and ''*w''; other interesting differences include PIsth.'s lack of clusters beginning in ''*f'' (because this corresponds to Miwan ''w''), and its very frequent ''*tl *dl'' (which have simplified to ''d t'' in Miwan).

Based on this comparison, a probable set of onset clusters may be reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus (those in parentheses are unattested in any reconstructable vocabulary so far):

{|
! Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| (*pr)
| *pl
| *pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
| *br
| *bl
| *bj
|
|-
| *tr
| *tl
| *tj
| *tw
| *dr
| *dl
| *dj
| *dw
|-
|
| (*tsl)
| (*tsj)
| *tsw
|
| (*dzl)
| *dzj
| (*dzw)
|-
| *kr
| *kl
| *kj
| *kw
| *gr
| *gl
| *gj
| *gw
|-
| *θr
| *θl
| *θj
| *θw
| *ðr
| (*ðl)
| (*ðj)
| *ðw
|-
|
| *sl
| *sj
| *sw
|
| (*zl)
| *zj
| *zw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*mj)
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *nj
| (*nw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*ŋj)
| *ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *rj
| (*rw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *lj
| *lw
|}
|}

A few phonotactic restrictions can be discerned here: onset clusters of [labial + ''*w''] are forbidden, as are [sibilant (''*ts *dz *s *z'') + ''*r'']; ''*r *l'' cannot cluster with each other, nor with nasals. On the other hand, the absence of ''*pr'', ''*tsj'', and ''*dzw'' is doubtless just an accident of our incomplete knowledge of these languages. In between these extremes, it's difficult to tell what the status of such unattested clusters as ''*tsl *dzl'', ''*ðl *ðj'', or ''*mj *ŋj'' is. Further work is needed here; it may also be that some of the clusters found only in one branch or the other are innovations.

Another question worth exploring is whether there are onset clusters ''*ʔr *ʔl *ʔj *ʔw'': if so, they would contrast with plain ''*r *l *j *w'', and would develop differently in some instances (for example ''*wa *ʔwa'' would become ''*fa *o'' respectively in Proto-Isthmus).

=== Proposed correspondences ===

The charts below show the development of onset consonants and clusters in three early daughters of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus: [[Proto-Isthmus]], [[Ngauro]], and [[Miwan languages|Proto-Miwan]]. It will be updated as comparative work continues.

(NB: Correspondences in '''bold''' are attested in fairly certain cognate pairs; those in ''italics'' are postulated to exist but currently unattested. Entries in (parentheses) are not actually found in the relevant lexicon at all. Particularly uncertain correspondences are marked with a "?", whether attested or not. As-of-yet unknown reflexes are left blank.)

==== Onset consonants ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| *p
| (''b'')
| *b
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''d'''
| '''*d'''
|-
| *ts
| '''*ts'''
| '''s'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *k
| *k
| (''g'')
| *g
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| '''*b'''
| ''p''
| '''*p'''
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ''s''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| '''k'''
| '''*k'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| ''*t''¹, ''*f''²
| (''h'')
| ''*f''
|-
| *s
| ''*s''
| (''ś'')³
| ''*s''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ð
| '''*d'''
| (''∅'')
| '''*v'''
|-
| *z
| '''*dz'''
| '''z'''
| '''*z'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| '''*m'''
| '''m'''
| '''*m'''
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| '''n'''
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*nj''¹, ''*jn''²
| ?(''ŋ'')
| ''*ŋ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ''∅''
| (''j'')
| ''*r''
|-
| *l
| '''*l'''
| ''l''
| '''*l'''
|-
| *j
| ''*j''
| ''z''
| ''*j''
|-
| *w
| ''*f''¹, ''∅''²
| (''w'')
| ''*w''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ʔ
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|}
1. Initial.

2. Medial.

3. Possibly pronounced [θ].

4. Presumably with tonal effects.

==== Onset clusters ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| (*pr) *br
| ''*ʈ *ɖ¹''
|
| (''*br'') ''*pr''
|-
| *pl *bl
| ''*pl *bl''
|
| ''*bl *pl''
|-
| *pj *bj
| ''*pj *bj''
|
| ''*bj *pj''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *tr *dr
| '''*ʈ''' *ɖ
| '''dj''' (''tj'')
| ''*dr'' *tr
|-
| *tl *dl
| '''*tl *dl'''
|
| '''*d *t'''
|-
| *tj *dj
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*dj *tj''
|-
| *tw *dw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*dw *tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*tsl *dzl)
| (''*tsl'' ''*dzl'')
|
|
|-
| (*tsj) *dzj
| (''*tsj'') ''*dzj''
|
| ''*tj *tj''
|-
| *tsw (*dzw)
| '''*ts''' ''*dz''¹
|
| '''*tw''' ''*tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *kr *gr
| ''*ʈ *ɖ''
|
| ''*gr *kr''
|-
| *kl *gl
| *kl (''*gl'')
|
| *g(l) ''*kl''
|-
| *kj *gj
| ''*kj'' (''*gj'')
|
| ''*gj *kj''
|-
| *kw *gw
| ''*k'' '''*g'''¹
|
| ''*gw'' '''*kw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θr *ðr
| ''*ʈ''² ''*ɖ''
|
| ''*fr *vr''
|-
| *θl (*ðl)
| ''*tl *dl''
|
| ''*fl'' (''*vl'')
|-
| *θj (*ðj)
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*fj'' (''*vj'')
|-
| *θw *ðw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*fw *vw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *sl (*zl)
| (?''*sl *dzl'')
|
| ''*sl'' (''*zl'')
|-
| *sj *zj
| ''*sj *dzj''
|
| ''*sj *zj''
|-
| *sw *zw
| ''*s'' '''*dz'''¹
|
| ''*sw'' '''*zw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*mj)
| (''*mj'')
|
| (''*mj'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *nj
| '''*nj'''
| '''z'''
| ''*nj''
|-
| (*nw)
| ''*n''¹
|
| (''*nw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ŋj)
| ?''*nj''
|
| (''*ŋj'')
|-
| *ŋw
| ?''*nj''¹
|
| ''*ŋw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *rj
| ?''*j''
|
| ''*rj''
|-
| (*rw)
| ?''∅''¹
|
| (''*rw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *lj
| (''*lj'')
|
| ''*lj''
|-
| *lw
| ''*l''¹
|
| ''*lw''
|}
1. With w-coloring of the following vowel; see vowel correspondences below.

2. Medially > ''*f'', possibly with w-coloring of the following vowel.

== Vowels ==

=== Vowel inventory ===

The vowel systems of the Eigə-Isthmus family show a large amount of variation, even among closely related languages:

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Faraghin
|  
! scope="col" | Feråjin
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
| rowspan=2 | eu
|
| rowspan=2 | oi
|
|-
|
| e
|
| o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
|
|
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
| o oː
|-
|
|
| æ æː
|
| ɒ ɒː
|}
|}

The Miwan languages tend to have particularly small inventories (which they make up for by having length and tone distinctions):

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
|  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|  
|
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|}

Comparison of Ngauro with the reconstruction of Proto-Isthmus is particularly important for understanding the PEI vowel system.

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Ngauro
|  
! scope="col" | Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
|
|
| u
|-
|
| e
| colspan=2 | aü
|
|-
|
|
| ai~ɛ
|
| au~o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *i *ij
|
|
| *u *uj
|-
|  
| rowspan=2 | *e *ej
|
| rowspan=2 | *o *oj
|-
|  
|
|-
|
|
| *a *aj
|
|}
|}

A simple 4-vowel system is reconstructed for PEI, but with a full inventory of diphthongs formed by following semivowels:

{|
! '''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus'''
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| '''*i''' *ij *iw
|
|
| '''*u''' *uj *uw
|-
|
| '''*e''' *ej *ew
|
|
|-
|
|
| '''*a''' *aj *aw
|
|}
|}

The open vowel '''''*a''''' and close vowels '''''*i *u''''' are quite easy to reconstruct, being unchanged in many of the descendant languages. The front mid vowel '''''*e''''' appears somewhat less frequently, and seems to occur only in roots, not in affixes.

All of the diphthongs have tended to merge with monophthongs in many descendant languages, again making them somewhat difficult to reconstruct. In particular, only Isthmus languages distinguish between ''*e'' and ''*aj'' or ''*i'' and ''*ej''; and only Eigə Valley languages distinguish between ''*a'' and ''*aw'', ''*e'' and ''*ew'', or ''*u'' and ''*uw''. (On the other hand, ablaut patterns in the verbal morphologies of the EI languages help quite a bit to clarify the picture.)

===Proposed correspondences ===

Here Old Eastern Miwan and Forest Miwan are listed separately, as they seem to have simplified the vowel system in slightly different ways. Vowels with preceding ''*w-'' are included to show their distinctive reflexes in Proto-Isthmus. There are many points of uncertainty here; the bold, italics, and parentheses have the same meanings as in the consonant charts above.

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | OEMiw
! scope="col" | FMiw
|-
| *a
| '''*a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
|-
| *e
| '''*e'''
| ai~ɛ
| '''e'''
| i
|-
| *i
| '''*i'''
| '''i'''
| i
| '''i'''
|-
| *u
| '''*u'''
| ''u''
| u
| '''u'''
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *aj
| (''*aj'')
| ai~ɛ
| ''e''
| i
|-
| *ej
| ''*ej''
| ''i''
| ''i''
| ''i''
|-
| *ij
| *ij
| ''e''
|
| ?a, u
|-
| *uj
| '''*uj'''
| '''aü'''¹
| a
| i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
|-
| *aw
| '''*a'''
| ''au''~'''o'''
| ''u''
| ''u''
|-
| *ew
| '''*e'''
| '''e'''
| '''iw'''
| ''iw''
|-
| *iw
| ''*(j)u''
| e
| ''iw''
| ''iw''
|-
| *uw
| *u
| ?aü¹
|
| ?i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *wa
| '''*o'''
| (''wa'')
| ''wa''
| '''wa'''
|-
| *we
| '''*o'''
| (''wai~wɛ'')
| ''we''
| '''wi'''
|-
| *wi
| *ji
| wi
| wi
| ''wi''
|}
1. Borrowed as /au/ in Ndak Ta, but /oi/ in Faraghin; probably pronounced something like [œy] in early Ngauro.

== Codas ==

=== Coda inventory ===

Most consonants may be found in coda position:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| (*ʔ)
|-
|
| *θ
| *s
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | (*w)
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | (*j)
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

There is no evidence for a voicing contrast in coda fricatives. On the other hand, although ''*ŋ'' is not well attested in codas, it seems clear that it must have existed. Coda glottals ''*ʔ *h'', like the glottal onsets, might be reflected in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages; there is no other evidence for them.

Postvocalic ''*j *w'' form diphthongs, which are discussed with vowels in the previous section. Coda ''*ts *dz *s'' seem to have merged to ''*s'' in PEV; when followed by a consonant in Proto-Miwan, this usually becomes breathy voice on the preceding vowel (indicated by ''*ʱ'' in the correspondence charts). (However, Forest Miwan does contrast coda /s z/, so it may be that coda ''*dz'' sometimes remained voiced in that branch.)

Coda clusters, consisting of a final consonant (usually a stop or affricate) preceded by one of ''*s *n *r *l *j *w'', are well attested. In this prefinal position, ''*n'' assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, giving ''*mp *mb *ŋk *ŋg''. However, ''*s'' does not assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant: in clusters of ''*s'' + a voiced consonant, the voicelessness of ''*s'' is preserved. Again, ''*j'' and ''*w'' produce diphthongs which are discussed above. The other coda clusters behave differently in different daughter languages, with the prefinal consonant sometimes affecting the vowel (as in Proto-Miwan, where ''*sC'' clusters were one source of breathy-voiced vowels) and sometimes the final consonant (as in Proto-Isthmus, where ''*rC'' clusters became retroflex stops).

Codas were not affected by the changes that reversed the voicing of onset stops and affricates in Proto-Eigə Valley, so voicing in codas is normally consistent across the entire family.

=== Proposed correspondences ===

==== Coda consonants ====
(For coda ''*j *w'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| '''*p'''
| ?(''p'')
| '''*p'''
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *ts
| ''*ts''
| ''s''
| ''*s'', ''*ʱ''
|-
| *k
| '''*k'''
| '''k'''
| ?''*k''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| *b
| ?(''b'')
| ?(''*b'')
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''d'''
| ?''*d''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ?s
| ?''*s'', '''*ʱ'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| ?(''g'')
| '''*g'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| *f
|
| *f
|-
| *s
| '''*s'''
| '''s'''
| '''*s''', ''*ʱ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| *m
| m
| *m
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| (''n'')
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*j''
| (''*ŋ'')
| (''*ŋ'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ?''∅''
|
| *r
|-
| *l
| *l
|
| *l
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ʔ)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ˀ''
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ʱ''
|}

==== Coda clusters ====

(For ''*jC *wC'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *sC
| '''*sC'''
| '''sC'''
| '''*ʱC'''
|-
| *nC
| '''*nC'''
| '''nC'''
| '''*nC'''
|-
| *rC
| *ʈ, *ɖ, ?''*C''¹
| ?*jC
| ?*rC
|-
| *lC
| *lC
| ?C
| ''*lC''
|}
1. Plosives > ''*ʈ *ɖ''. Medial ''*rp *rb'' trigger w-coloring of a following vowel; word-finally, they become ''*ʈu *ɖu''.

== Sound changes ==

These are partly tentative and definitely incomplete.

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Isthmus ===

* Fricative changes:
** ð z > d dz
** initial θ > t
** remaining θ > f

* Retroflexion:
** tr, kr, rt, rk > ʈ
** dr, gr, rd, rg > ɖ
** pr, rp > ʈw
** br, rb > ɖw
** rts rs > ʂ
** rdz > r
** fr, rf > ʂw
** rn, rŋ > ɳ
** rm > ɳw
** rl > ɭ (if this cluster occurs)
* Retroflexion is blocked when the cluster is immediately followed by l, j, or w.

* initial r > ∅
* remaining r > w

* initial w > f

* geminate consonants simplify

* ʔ, (h) > ∅
* intervocalic w > ∅ (probably not including /Vj_V)

* Hiatus reduction: before any vowel, or after a stressed vowel
** first, unstressed a, e > ∅
** then unstressed i u > j w

* W-coloring:
** wa, we > o
** wi > ji
** wo wu > o u

* iw > ju
* remaining coda w > ∅

* w > u when not adjacent to a vowel

*ŋ changes:
** initial ŋ > (ɲ) > nj
** intervocalic ŋ > (ɲ) > jn
** coda ŋ > (ɲ) > j (except perhaps before k g)

* j > ∅ after a retroflex consonant, an onset Cl cluster, or another j

* i e > u o between a labial consonant and a following retroflex consonant

* ʂ ɳ ɭ > s n l

(For subsequent changes in the Isthmus family, see [[Proto-Isthmus]].)

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Eigə Valley ===

* onset voicing shift (and rise of breathy voice on vowels)
** b d dz g > bʱ dʱ dzʱ gʱ > pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ + breathy voice on following vowel
** p t k > b d g
** pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ > p t ts k
** (this shift is blocked in medial clusters of two stops with the same voicing, e.g. PEI ''gasd~gasd'' ‘stream~PL’ > PEV ''kasd~ga(s)d'' > Ng. ''kasdgad'' > NT ''kasadgad'')
(Since *ts doesn't become voiced, *ts and *dz merge: cf. EMiw ''tun'' 'red' < ''*dzusn-'', ''timpi:za'' 'necklace' < ''*tsimp-''.)

* coda ts dz > s z
* ? z > s /V_C

* vowel mergers: e ej ew > aj i iw (although maybe ej > ij in some environments)

* intervocalic ʔ h (if they both existed) induce phonation—creaky voice and breathy voice respectively—on adjacent syllables, then are deleted

* the preposition ''ʔum'' > a prefix ''m-'', which then assimilates to the POA of a following stop (perhaps some other unstressed initial vowels are deleted too; but ''ʔas-'' seems to be preserved as Miwan ''as-'')

* onset tl dl > tɬ dɮ > ts dz (I think it'd be fun to have some hints of the lateral affricate stage in the daughters)
(This change has to happen after the merger of original *ts *dz > *ts; cf. FMiw ''dimbal'' 'wife' < ''*tlujb-''.)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Ngauro ====

(Not all these changes occur before the beginning of Ngauro writing.)

* *aj *aw > ai au in open syllables, > ɛ o in closed syllables
* *iw, *ij > e (maybe [ei])
* *uw, *uj > aü (maybe [œy])

* ? *ɛl > a before a coda consonant
* (other changes involving coda liquids)

* ? *s > θ in onsets
* *ts *dz > s z

* *nj > *ɲ > *j
* *j > z (at least initial)
* *r > j (at least /C_V)

* *m > n /_[+coronal]

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Meshi ====

The order of these changes is not completely certain. However the /*kw *gw/ > /fw zw/ change must take place before ca. 2250 BP.

* *a̤j *a̤w > *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw > e o
* *ʔ > ∅ / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d / in onsets
* *ts *dz → s z / elsewhere
* *w > v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o > ∅ / _#
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C > ∅ / _# in most polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C > ∅ / C_#
* *e *o > i u
* *kw *gw > fw zw
* [+obstruent] > ∅ / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj > *ø > e / _C, _#
* *uj > *øj > ej / _V
* *ij *uw > *əj *əw > aj aw
* *θ *ð > s z
* *ŋ > g / V_V
* *ŋ > ∅ (elsewhere)
* *r *l > j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Proto-Miwan ====

* *ts *dz > *t *d (only occurs in onsets)
* *θ *ð > *f *v

* *aj *aw > *e *o
* *o > *u
* ? *uw > *uj (maybe)

* *s > *ʱ (breathy voice on preceding vowel) /V_C$
(This change may be blocked by morpheme boundaries in the dialect that led to Forest Miwan.)

Breathy voice is now phonemic and found in at least a third of Proto-Miwan roots.

* ? *t, *d > *s~z /_[+plosive] (voicing assimilates to the following consonant)

* tonogenesis

===== Proto-Miwan > Forest Miwan =====

* *e > i
* ? *ij *uj > i/a/u (depending on environment)
* *ŋ > n

===== Proto-Miwan > Old Eastern Miwan =====

* ? some instances of *k *g > q χ (possibly due to early Hitatc influence)
* intervocalic ʔ develops (maybe *wu *ji > ʔu ʔi; possible Hitatc influence here too)
* *z > *s in codas (if this hasn't happened already)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Eastern Miwan ======

* loss of e (probably > i)
* ? u > o /_m (maybe not)
* loss of q χ ʔ (maybe χ > ʁ)
* loss of ŋ (mostly > n)
* loss of coda obstruents
* ? loss of b d g (maybe by lenition to v z ʁ; or by devoicing to p t k, with tonal effects on adjacent vowels; or maybe both: devoiced word-initially, lenited medially?)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Southern Miwan ======

* r > ʀ
* ? χ > ʀ
* ? other uvulars merge into velars except adjacent to /a/
* ʔ > h
* v > w / #_
* l > w / _C, _#
* word-final obstruents become voiced and acquire a trailing short echo vowel, e.g. *dje:zuf > dje:zuvu (this last change is areal; Pirikõsu also inserted vowels after word-final consonants around 500 YP)
* sj > ʃ
* o develops from a variety of sources (< u adjacent to original uvulars, < a /Vw_, < am, etc.)

= Morphosyntax =

== Verbal morphosyntax ==

There are two layers of morphology that can be securely reconstructed for PEI verbs, traditionally known as the '''grades''' and the '''stem vowel'''.

=== Aspect: the grades ===

Aspect in PEI was marked by a somewhat heterogeneous set of inflections applied directly to the verb stem; the resulting forms are called '''grades'''. In the descendant languages, the grades have produced ablaut patterns and even, in the case of Miwan, derivational tone.

Aside from the unmarked '''Zero-grade''' and the '''Reduplicated grade''', the grades were marked by infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others (dividing the verbs into two conjugational classes). These infixes and suffixes were clearly allomorphs of one another, but were not necessarily identical in form. Both infixes and suffixes could be syllabic or non-syllabic, depending on the phonological shape of the stem to which they were attached (the nonsyllabic forms were apparently the result of a reduction of unstressed syllables sometime before the PEI stage).

In infixing verbs, the infixes were inserted immediately before a stem-final consonant. When the stem ended with a single consonant, the infix was normally non-syllabic and a coda cluster was formed. The behavior of infixes in stems that already ended with coda clusters was more complex; syllabic infixes were used here, and probably came between the two consonants of the stem coda, but the details are still being worked out.

In suffixing verbs, the suffix immediately followed the stem. When the stem ended in a consonant, the suffix was normally syllabic. Verbs whose stems ended in a vowel were always suffixing, with a non-syllabic suffix normally forming a coda consonant.

(The infixing verbs were apparently descended from forms in which another set of suffixes followed the aspect suffixes; verb forms marked with these secondary suffixes became lexicalized, leaving the aspect markers trapped inside the newly formed stems. The suffixing verbs were descended from verb forms without the secondary suffixes. The function of the lexicalized secondary suffixes can only be guessed at; one possibility is that they marked something like a telicity distinction.)

Many originally suffixing verbs (if their stems ended in a consonant) could become infixing by analogy. In this way, the infixing pattern gradually spread through the lexicon, leaving fewer suffixing verbs in the descendant languages.

The original system is further obscured by the incomplete preservation of the grades: no one EI language seems to preserve all of them, and they have tended to become derivational. As a result the precise forms and meanings of some of them are difficult to reconstruct, and even the existence of others remains uncertain.

The following grades can be reconstructed with some assurance:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
! scope="col" | Grade
! scope="col" | Marking
! scope="col" | Aspect
|-
! scope="row" | Zero-grade
| unmarked
| perfective
|-
! scope="row" | Reduplicated grade
| partial reduplication (first *CV of stem)
| iterative and/or intensive
|-
! scope="row" | S-grade
| ''*-(u)s''
| resultative
|-
! scope="row" | N-grade
| ''*-(i)n''
| imperfective or continuous
|-
! scope="row" | J-grade
| ''*-i ~ *-j''
| inceptive, inchoative
|}

In addition to those listed above, there may have been up to three more infixing-suffixing grades (the R-, L-, and W-grades).

=== Voice and valency: the stem vowel ===

PEI verbs were obligatorily marked for voice with a suffix traditionally called the '''stem vowel''': this suffix, consisting of a vowel with a glottal stop onset, marked the verb as either '''active''' (''*-ʔa''), '''causative''' (''*-ʔi''), or '''detransitive''' (''*-ʔu''). These suffixes could also be combined with each other to recursively change the valency of verbs (''*-ʔi'' increases valency, while ''*-ʔu'' decreases it); when combined the vowels were not separated by another glottal stop, but merged into diphthongs (''*-ʔaj *-ʔaw *-ʔij *-ʔiw *-ʔuj *-ʔuw'').

This system is easiest to see in Ngauro, where it produces chains of derived verbs; for example, ''kaima'' 'learn, know' → causative ''kaimi'' 'teach' → middle of causative ''kaime'' 'study' (< PEI ''*gajm-ʔiw'' or ''*gem-ʔiw''). It's also reflected (in a more limited way) in Faraghin: most verbs end in ''-an'' (< ''*-ʔa + *ŋwaw''), but causatives are derived with ''-oin'' (< ''*-ʔaj + *ŋwaw'') and past participles with ''-od'' (< ''*-ʔu-di-ʔa'' or ''*-ʔu-di-ha'').

=== Deverbalization ===

PEI had several ways of forming nouns from verbal roots, with at least one acting at each layer of verbal morphology. At the innermost layer, the S-Grade very frequently forms resultative nouns in both branches of the family.

At the next layer, there seems to be an old nominalizing suffix ''*-ga'' that could be added to the root in place of a stem vowel. The semantics of this suffix are somewhat obscure, and it seems to have become unproductive early on; nouns derived with it were already lexicalized in PEI. Examples include ''*njadz-ga'' 'war', and possibly ''*na-ga'' 'lord, chief'.

Finally, there was a newer deverbalizing suffix ''*-di'' which followed the stem vowel. This suffix was quite regular, and remained productive in many descendant languages into the historical period. It is reflected in the Faraghin past participles in ''-od'' and the Ngauro and OEMiw action nominalizer ''-ti''. (The latter was borrowed from Ngauro into Proto-Ferogh or Early Faraghin, producing the Faraghin action nominalizer ''-č''.)

=== Other verbal marking ===

Most other verbal markers seem to be restricted to one group or another of descendant languages. A few examples are discussed here.

==== Agreement in Faraghin ====

Faraghin verbs agree with their subjects; agreement is marked by suffixes that are clearly derived from the personal pronouns. For example, the citation form of Faraghin verbs is the third person singular, marked with the suffix ''-n'' which is clearly related to the 3SG pronoun ''ni'' (both < PIsth. ''*njo'', < PEI ''*ŋwaw''). These agreement suffixes apparently date to Proto-Isthmus; it's still unknown whether any Eigə Valley languages have subject agreement.

(It seems that third person agreement affixes are often grammaticalized later than first and second person ones, if at all. So we could easily posit an older, more fusional pattern for first and second person agreement, maybe dating back to before Proto-Isthmus.)

==== Verbal markers in Miwan ====

The following is a list of verbal affixes (both inflectional and derivational) that appear in attested Miwan words:

* '''''*d-''''' appears to form patientive nouns in OEMiw, cf. '''''d'''re:χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together" ~ ''*re:'' "to speak", possibly ''saχu'''d'''wa'' "flat-food" ~ ''*wa'' "to eat"
* '''''*-ju''''' (very productive in OEMiw) forms agentive nouns
* '''''*sa:v-''''' marks a reciprocal action in OEMiw '''''sa:v'''re:χati'' "not speaking to each other"
* '''''*-s''''' might be an exhaustive plural, cf. OEMiw ''*re:'''s'''ti'' "election" (lit. "everyone speaking").
* '''''*-stu''''' appears to form a cessative aspect, cf. FMiw/OEMiw ''gwa'''stu''''' (n. or v.) "(to) dump" ~ FMiw ''gwa:'' "to use", FMiw ''nidri:'''stu''''' "to regret" ~ ''nidri:'' "to feel warm towards"
* '''''*-χa(s)''''' negative suffix (OEMiw)
* '''''*-ʔi''''' privative (with nouns) or non-potential (with verbs) suffix in OEMiw, cf. ''gwa:'''ʔi'''ti'' "not important, useless" (becomes ''-hi'' in Southern)

In addition to this, Old Eastern Miwan had a hearsay marker ''tu:zi'', which apparently was a free-standing particle (loaned into Naidda as ''tuze'' "I guess"). This appears to be an inflected verb meaning something like "(it) is told", from PEI ''*dlum'' "to tell".

== Nominal morphosyntax ==

=== Number ===

There seem to be two ways of forming plurals in Eigə-Isthmus languages:

* A PEI suffix ''*-wa'' is the source of the plural marker in Faraghin (where it's usually realized as ''-a'').

* Reduplication marks plurals in Ngauro (maybe with the additional meaning 'many', as in ''kasd~ga(s)d'' 'many streams'). It's possible that this is an innovation in the Eigə Valley branch.

=== De-nominalization ===

PEI had a suffix ''*-ʔa'' or ''*-ha'' that derived adjectives from nouns. This suffix was quite regular and remained productive in both branches of the family: it can be seen in Ngauro ''dyaka'' 'kingly, royal' (< PEI ''*trelk-ʔa'' or ''*trelk-ha''), and in the Isthmus participles formed with Proto-Isthmus ''*-dja'' (< ''*-di-ʔa'' or ''*-di-ha'').

=== Case and adpositions ===

==== Case prefixes ====

PEI had two morphemes that were either prepositions or case prefixes: ''*ʔas(-)'' and ''*za(-)''.

In Proto-Isthmus they are definitely case prefixes (genitive-accusative ''*as-'' and dative ''*dza-''), and they still fill this role in the Faraghin pronoun system; some other Isthmus languages also retain an oblique noun stem reflecting the ''*as-'' prefix.

Elsewhere they seem to have become derivational:

* Several FMiw nouns and adjectives begin with ''as-'', likely < PEI ''*ʔas(-)''. There are also a good number of Faraghin nouns that exhibit the consonant mutation caused by PIsth. ''*as-''.

* It's also been proposed that the Meshi-derived word ''zafwi(:)ta(:)'' 'bird's nest' should be interpreted as < ''*za-gwenta'' 'LOC-bird', with a locative ''*za-'' < PEI ''*za(-)''. The reflexes of PIsth. ''*dza-'' also form locative adverbs in Doroh, and directional ones in archaic Boésin.

==== Other adpositions ====

There is at least one other morpheme that becomes a nominal affix in both branches of the family: the name ''Miw'' seems to be formed from PEI ''*pews'' with a nasal prefix derived from the same ''*ʔum'' that becomes a genitive case ''suffix'' in Faraghin and Feråjin. (The first syllable of ''Meshi'' is cognate with ''Miw'', so this word—including the prefix—apparently goes back to Proto-Eigə Valley.) It seems that ''*ʔum'' was a preposition in the branch that led to the Eigə Valley languages, and a postposition in Isthmus.

===== Isthmus =====

The oldest case markers in the Isthmus languages are the two prefixes mentioned above. But newer case markers (at least in Faraghin, Feråjin, and Doroh) are suffixes derived from postpositions. This suggests that the language changed from prepositional to postpositional early on—certainly before the Western Isthmus stage. Since postpositions are pretty strongly (though not exclusively) associated with OV order, that order is the most likely for Proto-Isthmus; but the old prefixes hint at an earlier VO, head-initial stage of the language.

===== Miwan =====

FMiw ''di:za:'' "to wilt" might be formed from ''za:'' "to die" (attested in OEMiw) by prefixing a morpheme possibly meaning "away". If this is derived from an adposition, it would support the assumption that PEI was prepositional.

=== Compounding and noun-phrase syntax ===

Aside from this, there are some other similar developments in both branches, and analysis of noun-noun compounds has proved fruitful for understanding the changes to word order that have happened in the EI family.

==== Compounding in Faraghin ====

In Faraghin compounds, a genitive follows its head noun (NG), but adjectives precede (AN). (These compounds are probably not very old, since they include semantic fields like political, military, and nautical terminology that were probably developed after the Faraghin conquest of Huyfárah. On the other hand the compounding rule may be older than the rule used for clauses.)

In any case, NG order normally coincides with VO order; NG with OV is much rarer, especially when combined with AN (WALS, out of a sample of 1099 languages, lists only one—Tigré—with this combination of features). Since Faraghin compounds are AN, it seems that the NG order should be associated with an earlier VO order. So once again we have evidence for an early head-initial stage.

==== Compounding in Miwan ====

In Miwan, compounds with both head-initial (NA/NG) and head-final (AN/GN) order are attested. However, the distribution of these compound patterns gives a fairly clear picture:

* Old Eastern Miwan, the best-attested language of the family, is overwhelmingly head-final. The only known compound in OEMiw that might possibly be head-initial is ''dre:-χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together", which is reflected in Naidda ''jeorvi'' "chorus, harmony", but it seems rather likely that ''*χurfī'' is actually a nominalised verb form, which would make the compound one of the common GN type.
* Later forms of Eastern Miwan seem to also contain head-initial compounds, including NA compounds such as EMiw ''zuka-tun'' "fruit-red" > "tomato" and ''pa:n-tun'' "music-red" > "guitar". This might be an indication that these dialects switched their compound order at some point during the 1st millennium YP (possibly through influence from Edastean).
* Both genitive compounds attested in Late Eastern Miwan, ''fur-zin'' "tree-life" > "elm tree" and ''za-fwita:'' "nest-bird", follow NG order and, interestingly, have almost identical cognates in western Miwan: FMiw ''fur-zi:n'' and ''za-fwi:ta'', respectively. If these are not borrowings, one can conclude that genitives followed the noun in Proto-Miwan or earlier, and that this ordering was changed later on at least in the eastern dialects. A strong argument in favour of this is presented by the word ''za-fwita:/-fwi:ta'', whose second element is clearly cognate to FMiw ''kwintas'' "bird", but exhibits - in both dialects! - several sound changes not present in the uncompounded form, and therefore appears to be a very old formation. The lenition process turning ''*kw'' into ''fw'' seems similar to the Western Isthmus change of ''*p t k > f s x'' after the genitive preposition ''*as-'', but the word can't be a loan from WI since it would have been ''*ɣonta'' there. It is probably a borrowing from proto-Meshi ''*fwinta'', whose classical Meshi reflex is ''fwina''.
* Forest Miwan does have a head-final AN compound, ''ti:-vur'' "funny-tree" > "hickory tree", but this does not prove that FMiw also switched to head-final compounding because it is identical to a Late Eastern word and might be a borrowing.

As a summary, it seems likely that PEV (pending evidence from Ngauro and/or Meshi) or a slightly later form of the language (i.e. Proto-Miwan) had head-initial compounds, with at least Old Eastern Miwan—but quite possibly all Miwan languages—later switching to head-final order. My guess is that this would have happened before -2000 YP because the strong superstratum influence of Ndak Ta (which is head-initial) would certainly not have encouraged this change.

Furthermore, if PEV was probably head-initial, and a head-initial ancestral stage underlies PIsth., then it seems almost certain that PEI was head-initial.

However, if we allow that the proto-languages need not have been entirely either head-initial or head-final, a slightly different scenario emerges which may provide a simpler explanation. The attested compounds in Forest Miwan show the same orders as Faraghin: NG and AN. It may be that both languages inherited these compound orders from PEI, and that only Eastern Miwan has changed its compound orders—first shifting from NG to GN (to become more consistently head-final), and then later shifting to NG and (mostly) NA under Edastean influence.

If this scenario is correct, PEI turns out to have had a somewhat mixed word-order pattern (but not a particularly rare one according to WALS): NG, VO, and prepositions, but AN.

= Proposed roots =

:{{main|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus/Lexicon}}

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Eigə-Isthmus]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-04T12:15:13Z

Thedukeofnuke:

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d / in onsets
* *ts *dz → s z / elsewhere
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in most polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''vu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

= Lexicon =

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klOn(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|yus
|
|n
|music
|PEV ''*jUs''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwama
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Meshi

2018-10-04T11:55:50Z

Thedukeofnuke:

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Meshi''' is the northwestern branch of the Eigə-Isthmus language family, which is marked in red colors.'']]

The '''Meshi''' were a nomadic people in central [[Peilaš]], who in [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] times lived mostly along the middle [[Eigə]] and one of its major northern tributaries (which was named after them; cf. {{Ad|Mexi}}), in the regions west of [[Lasomo]]. They spoke [[Aysuchi Meshi|a language]] belonging to the Eigə Valley branch of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus]] family.

At the end of the second millennium [[YP|BP]], when nomadic peoples on horseback had gained a military advantage due to the invention of the stirrup and the saddle, the Meshi set out to create one of the largest empires in the history of Peilaš. They conquered almost all of the Eigə valley, ruling the [[Ndok]], the [[Buruya]]ns, and even large parts of [[Kasca]] and what was later to become the southern part of [[Huyfárah]]. Traces of Meshi culture can be found throughout this vast region, in the form of physical artifacts such as artwork and inscriptions as well as in the form of loanwords (most numerous in [[Ndok Aisô]]) and placenames (for instance, the name ''Buruya'' contains the Meshi term '''buru''' "encampment; fortification"). However, the empire was short-lived; it disintegrated around 900 BP, and the Meshi retreated back into their homeland, where they were gradually assimilated by [[Habeo languages|Habeo]] tribes in the course of the following centuries.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

The Meshi of pre-Ndak times left few material traces. They had no towns or writing, and did not practice large-scale agriculture. Despite this, the development of their language provides some clues as to their early history.

Proto-Meshi shares some common sound changes with Proto-Miwan (/*ts *dz/ > /t d/ in onsets, /*aj *aw/ > /*e *o/ and /*o/ > /u/) and there are a number of loans between the two. 
The change of /kw gw/ > /fw zw/ is however characteristically Meshi and turns out to be important in dating the Miw-Meshi split. A few early loans from [[Proto-Habeo]] and [[Gezoro]] show the change ({{PHab|Taʔuqʷuʔe}} "[[Thabīa]]" > ''*Tawkwuy'' > '''Tawfwe''', {{Gez|gwaːmɔ}} "fortress" > '''zwama''') and it is present in at least one loan into Miwan (''*za-fwinta'' > {{FMiw|zafwiːta}}). This demonstrates that the Meshi had contact with all three of these groups in the same period.

Based on this evidence we can safely say that before the Ndak expansion the Meshi occupied a stretch of the southern Eigə valley from southern Lasomo perhaps as far west as the confluence of the Mexi with the Eigə. They were probably semi-nomadic and sustained themselves by a mix of hunting, gathering, fishing, small-scale cultivation, and (increasingly) pastoralism.

=== Ancient era ===

The turn of the second millennium BP was a period of conflict. The [[Ndak]] migrated south into Lasomo ca. 2200 BP and spent the next three hundred years waging a series of wars against the [[Ngauro]], [[Talo]], [[Gezoro]], [[Faraghin]], and briefly the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]. In the west, the lowlands were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the Ndak empire, as was the [[Rathedān]] to a [[Dāiadak|lesser extent]]. 
This definitively cut off the Meshi from the Miw. In response they moved north into the Mexi valley in the low [[Eiwəl Gourun|Xoron]] and resisted any further encroachment. They still maintained contact with neighbouring peoples including the Ndak, Habeo, and Antagg; some Meshi lived within the empire's borders and served in the imperial cavalry.

The Meshi economy shifted towards pastoralism in this period, partly to adapt to the drier terrain and partly due to developments in husbandry. The majority of the people were nomadic although they had some permanent villages ('''sanu''') and strongholds ('''buru''').

Ndak descriptions of the Meshi are not extensive. As rulers of a prosperous agricultural empire, they had little interest in such a 'primitive' people. The Meshi lacked political unity, cities, writing, and nearly everything else the Ndak valued besides horses. 
However, the Ndak - not known for squeamishness - were particularly shocked by their religious rituals. As well as practicing human sacrifice, the Meshi subjected their young men (and to a lesser extent women) to elaborate initiation rites intended to inure them to pain and mark their passage to adulthood with permanent scarification.

=== Dark Ages ===

As the second millennium wore on the Antagg state collapsed, the Ndak fell into decline, and 'barbarian' nations gained ground at their expense. Similar societal disturbances across [[Akana]] suggest that this was exacerbated by climatic change.

Meshi culture gradually became more warlike in response to these social and ecological pressures. This was particularly marked from the 15th century BP with the Hitatc Empire's brief expansion into the Xoron and the subsequent rise of the Habeo nomad confederation. The Meshi disdained the idea of joining the Habeo even as equals, instead seeing them as rivals to test themselves against, and for three hundred years there was increasingly frequent conflict between the two peoples.

=== Empire ===

By the early 13th century BP the Habeo had developed (or adopted) the saddle, which allowed them to fight much more effectively from horseback. The Meshi quickly copied this advance and around 1100 BP further improved it with the invention of stirrups - which gave them a decisive edge. They beat back the Habeo over the course of a generation and forced them into a truce.

With their traditional enemies defeated, the low Xoron under their control, and their drive to prove themselves in war undimmed, the Meshi needed new objectives. They pushed east into the [[Bwimbai]] valley and quickly subjugated the [[Mohudza]] - another mostly pastoral people - cementing their position of dominance among the nomads. Then they turned their attention south to the settled nations of the Eigə.

The last centralised Ndak states had collapsed generations before, and the city-states and petty kingdoms that succeeded them were in no position to mount a defence. Lasomo had just barely pulled back from the brink of anarchy; Kasca had not. The Meshi swept down from the northwest, demanding surrender from each city they encountered and treating any resistance as a grievous insult. In a few decades they conquered most of the Bwimbai, Eigə, and Milīr valleys and the southern parts of Huyfárah. 
Meshi chieftains established themselves as replacements or superiors of local rulers throughout their empire.
Their centre of power shifted in part to Lasomo (particularly [[Ngahêxôldod]]) and Buruya, which they established as a trading post and stronghold.

=== Collapse and later history ===

While the Meshi readily accepted the submission of other peoples, their society did not adapt well to ruling a much larger agricultural population. To maintain control, they were obliged to either settle in one place or to rely on local client rulers, neither of which suited them. At the same time the traditions of initiation and testing in battle that reinforced their identity became harder to maintain and distanced them from their subjects. 
The empire therefore lacked stability, and friction grew not just between Meshi rulers and subjects but also between 'purist' ('''Meshi beyu''') and 'civilised' ('''Meshi zwama'''). The latter were regularly accused of decadence ('''badachi''').

The invasion of Kasca in the late tenth century BP exposed these weaknesses in the empire and indirectly brought about its downfall. 
A large number of Meshi from the purist faction joined the campaign under the banner of chief Kayri. At first they made good progress, securing the northwestern fringe and the Vuzëi before circling round to the south to capture [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]]. However they ran into difficulties after this point. Securing enough boats to enter the delta proper exhausted the resources of the locals and the patience of the Meshi, leading to ongoing outbreaks of violence. Kayri and a force of Meshi warriors made the crossing to [[Momuva'e]] and captured it but found it disappointingly poor compared to the cities of Lasomo. Further advances gave steadily diminishing returns: the Meshi's cherished horses were of little use in the swampland, and the delta dwellers were impoverished, at best sullenly accepted conquest and at worst hardly understood what it meant. 
In short, the riches and glory the Meshi had expected did not materialise.

After years of fruitless campaigning the horde turned back to Lasomo. Kayri, hungry for a real fight, claimed that the city of [[Akôdaig]] had broken its terms of surrender and needed punishment. To his disgust he was met by a combined army of Ndok and 'civilised' Meshi. Kayri was eventually killed following a series of raids and battles, but the unity of the Meshi had been irreparably broken. Internecine conflict, subject revolts, and counter-invasions by the Habeo, Faraghin, and Hitatc tore the empire apart even more quickly than it had risen. 
By 900 BP the Meshi had lost too much prestige to dominate their neighbours, and no longer had a monopoly on the military advantage of the stirrup. They retreated to the Mexi valley, where they remained as a distinct ethnicity subject by turns to the Mohudza, [[Damak]], and Habeo before being incorporated into the [[Empire of Athalē]].

== Culture ==

=== Tribal structure ===

Like many of the Eigə-Isthmus peoples the Meshi had a decentralised, tribal society.

The basic unit of organisation was the clan or patrilineage ('''kaws'''), which claimed descent from a usually legendary ancestor ('''mifwan'''). These followed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_kinship Omaha] system of kinship. Some noteworthy features were:
* Terms were most descriptive for people in someone's own patrilineage.
* A man called his children '''min''' (son) and '''zak''' (daughter), which also applied to a brother's children.
* A woman called her children '''anar''' (child of a clan woman), which also applied to a sister's children or a father's sister's children.

Chieftains were titled '''jil''' and each held sway over a tribe or group of clans ('''kikaw'''). Socially, they were always men, but in exceptional circumstances a woman could take on the role by undergoing the male initiation rite, taking a wife, and assuming paternity of her wife's children; this was the only circumstance in which extramarital sex was permitted to a woman.

All tribes together made up the Meshi nation ('''aswun Meshi'''). Even in the empire, there was never a single unquestioned leader, a factor that certainly contributed to its instability. Instead the chieftains formed an oligarchy from which campaign leaders or generals ('''jil kana''') emerged or were chosen.

=== Spirituality and honour ===

Meshi religion was polytheistic with elements of animism. They believed in gods ('''nak''') and lesser spirits ('''kayr''') that controlled the powers of nature, the fortunes of humanity, and the afterlife.

Initiation rites were a core part of Meshi faith and identity. The details varied by tribe and era but they were always tests of endurance and pain tolerance, more exacting for men than for women, and left distinctive scars. Completing the rite was considered a sign of divine favour and worth ('''zasachi chi Meshi'''), and no Meshi man was permitted to marry or become a warrior until he had been initiated. A very few people undertook the initiation twice - which was considered a truly heroic feat.

Personal honour ('''zus''') was also crucial in Meshi society. Courage in battle ('''nyazachi zwip gwun'''), justice ('''zanachi zasa'''), hospitality ('''fwulachi tan''') and skilful riding ('''zazar zwip ashe''') could all increase honour; weakness ('''munachi'''), cowardice, infidelity (of a woman) and especially failure to respond to an insult would lose honour. 
The worst insult possible was '''swu''', "worthless". If anyone - man or woman - was accused of this and did not retaliate it would be considered true.

The Meshi conducted warfare ('''kana''') mainly to pursue disputes over honour, resources, or other matters, or to. Conflict between Meshi individuals or tribes was partly ritualised, with small numbers of combatants and often prearranged terms of victory. Even against other peoples they did not aim to slaughter as many opponents as possible but to kill, maim, or humiliate particular targets - usually leaders or personal enemies. 
They took a fairly consistent approach during their wars of conquest. They would first call on the enemy leaders to surrender. If the offer was rejected, they would kill anyone involved in the negotiations before giving battle, with the two main aims of killing enemy commanders and breaking the morale of the line troops. Their greatly superior speed and mobility meant that they could engage the enemy piecemeal, often defeating much larger armies in this manner. A city or region that did surrender would become the possession of a Meshi chief and required to pay tribute ('''nape'''), while those that refused were pillaged without mercy ('''bwur zwip wesaw''').

=== Oral and written tradition ===

Stories, legends and myths were transmitted by bards ('''kene''') in the form of narrative poems or songs ('''tum'''), which were distinguished from improvised or celebratory songs ('''li'''). However, the Meshi made no distinction between legend and history and saw significant lives and events as potential new legends. To have one's deeds immortalised in story cemented this and was believed to strengthen the spirit ('''zhin''') in life and death.

The Meshi adopted the inscriptional form of the [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary|Ndak logosyllabary]] to write their language and maintained a tradition of scribes or memorialists ('''kenwa'''). Their use of writing was narrower than the Ndak's - they were concerned almost entirely with commemorating notable deeds and events. The great majority of surviving Meshi texts are from stone monuments ('''awkwai''', a Ndak loan) dedicated to battles, conquests, foundations, and especially to dead heroes. Shorter inscriptions appear on movable goods such as weapons, horse tack, and jewellery.

== See also ==

* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
* [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-03T16:47:04Z

Thedukeofnuke:

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''vu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

= Lexicon =

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|ethnicity, nation
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|beset
|
|n
|female initiation
|''*puwsg-mEt''
|-
|beyu
|
|adj
|pure
|''*puj-ʔu''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|des
|
|n
|wife
|''*tlujsb'' S-grade of "marry"
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klo(w)n(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kikaw
|
|n
|tribe, group of clans
|''*gi-guwsd''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lach
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|nyad-
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reciprocal marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*(d)za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant within clan)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwam
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Meshi

2018-10-03T16:44:36Z

Thedukeofnuke: History and culture

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Meshi''' is the northwestern branch of the Eigə-Isthmus language family, which is marked in red colors.'']]

The '''Meshi''' were a nomadic people in central [[Peilaš]], who in [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] times lived mostly along the middle [[Eigə]] and one of its major northern tributaries (which was named after them; cf. {{Ad|Mexi}}), in the regions west of [[Lasomo]]. They spoke [[Aysuchi Meshi|a language]] belonging to the Eigə Valley branch of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus]] family.

At the end of the second millennium [[YP|BP]], when nomadic peoples on horseback had gained a military advantage due to the invention of the stirrup and the saddle, the Meshi set out to create one of the largest empires in the history of Peilaš. They conquered almost all of the Eigə valley, ruling the [[Ndok]], the [[Buruya]]ns, and even large parts of [[Kasca]] and what was later to become the southern part of [[Huyfárah]]. Traces of Meshi culture can be found throughout this vast region, in the form of physical artifacts such as artwork and inscriptions as well as in the form of loanwords (most numerous in [[Ndok Aisô]]) and placenames (for instance, the name ''Buruya'' contains the Meshi term '''buru''' "encampment; fortification"). However, the empire was short-lived; it disintegrated around 900 BP, and the Meshi retreated back into their homeland, where they were mostly assimilated by [[Habeo languages|Habeo]] tribes in the course of the following centuries.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

The Meshi of pre-Ndak times left few material traces. They had no towns or writing, and did not practice large-scale agriculture. Despite this, the development of their language provides some clues as to their early history.

Proto-Meshi shares some common sound changes with Proto-Miwan (/*ts *dz/ > /t d/ in onsets, /*aj *aw/ > /*e *o/ and /*o/ > /u/) and there are a number of loans between the two. 
The change of /kw gw/ > /fw zw/ is however characteristically Meshi and turns out to be important in dating the Miw-Meshi split. A few early loans from [[Proto-Habeo]] and [[Gezoro]] show the change ({{PHab|Taʔuqʷuʔe}} "[[Thabīa]]" > ''*Tawkwuy'' > '''Tawfwe''', {{Gez|gwaːmɔ}} "fortress" > '''zwama''') and it is present in at least one loan into Miwan (''*za-fwinta'' > {{FMiw|zafwiːta}}). This demonstrates that the Meshi had contact with all three of these groups in the same period.

Based on this evidence we can safely say that before the Ndak expansion the Meshi occupied a stretch of the southern Eigə valley from southern Lasomo perhaps as far west as the confluence of the Mexi with the Eigə. They were probably semi-nomadic and sustained themselves by a mix of hunting, gathering, fishing, small-scale cultivation, and increasingly pastoralism.

=== Ancient era ===

The turn of the second millennium BP was a period of conflict. The [[Ndak]] migrated south into Lasomo ca. 2200 BP and spent the next three hundred years waging a series of wars against the [[Ngauro]], [[Talo]], [[Gezoro]], [[Faraghin]], and briefly the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]. In the west, the lowlands were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the Ndak empire, as was the [[Rathedān]] to a [[Dāiadak|lesser extent]]. 
This definitively cut off the Meshi from the Miw. In response they moved north into the Mexi valley in the low [[Eiwəl Gourun|Xoron]] and resisted any further encroachment. They still maintained contact with neighbouring peoples including the Ndak, Habeo, and Antagg; some Meshi lived within the empire's borders and served in the imperial cavalry.

The Meshi economy shifted towards pastoralism in this period, partly to adapt to the drier terrain and partly due to developments in husbandry. The majority of the people were nomadic although they had some permanent villages ('''sanu''') and strongholds ('''buru''').

Ndak descriptions of the Meshi are not extensive. As rulers of a prosperous agricultural empire, they had little interest in such a 'primitive' people. The Meshi lacked political unity, cities, writing, and nearly everything else the Ndak valued besides horses. 
However, the Ndak - not known for squeamishness - were particularly shocked by their religious rituals. As well as practicing human sacrifice, the Meshi subjected their young men (and to a lesser extent women) to elaborate initiation rites intended to inure them to pain and mark their passage to adulthood with permanent scarification.

=== Dark Ages ===

As the second millennium wore on the Antagg state collapsed, the Ndak fell into decline, and 'barbarian' nations gained ground at their expense. Similar societal disturbances across [[Akana]] suggest that this was exacerbated by climatic change.

Meshi culture gradually became more warlike in response to these social and ecological pressures. This was particularly marked from the 15th century BP with the Hitatc Empire's brief expansion into the Xoron and the subsequent rise of the Habeo nomad confederation. The Meshi disdained the idea of joining the Habeo even as equals, instead seeing them as rivals to test themselves against, and for three hundred years there was increasingly frequent conflict between the two peoples.

=== Empire ===

By the early 13th century BP the Habeo had developed (or adopted) the saddle, which allowed them to fight much more effectively from horseback. The Meshi quickly copied this advance and around 1100 BP further improved it with the invention of stirrups - which gave them a decisive edge. They beat back the Habeo over the course of a generation and forced them into a truce.

With their traditional enemies defeated, the low Xoron under their control, and their drive to prove themselves in war undimmed, the Meshi needed new objectives. They pushed east into the [[Bwimbai]] valley and quickly subjugated the [[Mohudza]] - another mostly pastoral people - cementing their position of dominance among the nomads. Then they turned their attention south to the settled nations of the Eigə.

The last centralised Ndak states had collapsed generations before, and the city-states and petty kingdoms that succeeded them were in no position to mount a defence. Lasomo had just barely pulled back from the brink of anarchy; Kasca had not. The Meshi swept down from the northwest, demanding surrender from each city they encountered and treating any resistance as a grievous insult. In a few decades they conquered most of the Bwimbai, Eigə, and Milīr valleys and the southern parts of Huyfárah. 
Meshi chieftains established themselves as replacements or superiors of local rulers throughout their empire.
Their centre of power shifted in part to Lasomo (particularly [[Ngahêxôldod]]) and Buruya, which they established as a trading post and stronghold.

=== Collapse and later history ===

While the Meshi readily accepted the submission of other peoples, their society did not adapt well to ruling a much larger agricultural population. To maintain control, they were obliged to either settle in one place or to rely on local client rulers, neither of which suited them. At the same time the traditions of initiation and testing in battle that reinforced their identity became harder to maintain and distanced them from their subjects. 
The empire therefore lacked stability, and friction grew not just between Meshi rulers and subjects but also between 'purist' ('''Meshi beyu''') and 'civilised' ('''Meshi zwam'''). The latter were regularly accused of decadence ('''badachi''').

The invasion of Kasca in the late tenth century BP exposed these weaknesses in the empire and indirectly brought about its downfall. 
A large number of Meshi from the purist faction joined the campaign under the banner of chief Kayri. At first they made good progress, securing the northwestern fringe and the Vuzëi before circling round to the south to capture [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]]. However they ran into difficulties after this point. Securing enough boats to enter the delta proper exhausted the resources of the locals and the patience of the Meshi, leading to ongoing outbreaks of violence. Kayri and a force of Meshi warriors made the crossing to [[Momuva'e]] and captured it but found it disappointingly poor compared to the cities of Lasomo. Further advances gave steadily diminishing returns: the Meshi's cherished horses were of little use in the swampland, and the delta dwellers were impoverished, at best sullenly accepted conquest and at worst hardly understood what it meant. 
In short, the riches and glory the Meshi had expected did not materialise.

After years of fruitless campaigning the horde turned back to Lasomo. Kayri, hungry for a real fight, claimed that the city of [[Akôdaig]] had broken its terms of surrender and needed punishment. To his disgust he was met by a combined army of Ndok and 'civilised' Meshi. Kayri was eventually killed following a series of raids and battles, but the unity of the Meshi had been irreparably broken. Internecine conflict, subject revolts, and counter-invasions by the Habeo, Faraghin, and Hitatc tore the empire apart even more quickly than it had risen. 
By 900 BP the Meshi had lost too much prestige to dominate their neighbours, and no longer had a monopoly on the military advantage of the stirrup. They retreated to the Mexi valley, where they were subject by turns to the Mohudza, [[Damak]], and Habeo before being incorporated into the [[Empire of Athalē]].

== Culture ==

=== Tribal structure ===

Like many of the Eigə-Isthmus peoples the Meshi had a decentralised, tribal society.

The basic unit of organisation was the clan or patrilineage ('''kaws'''), which claimed descent from a usually legendary ancestor ('''mifwan'''). These followed the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_kinship Omaha] system of kinship. Some noteworthy features were:
* Terms were most descriptive for people in someone's own patrilineage.
* A man called his children '''min''' (son) and '''zak''' (daughter), which also applied to a brother's children.
* A woman called her children '''anar''' (child of a clan woman), which also applied to a sister's children or a father's sister's children.

Chieftains were titled '''jil''' and each held sway over a tribe or group of clans ('''kikaw'''). Socially, they were always men, but in exceptional circumstances a woman could take on the role by undergoing the male initiation rite, taking a wife, and assuming paternity of her wife's children; this was the only circumstance in which extramarital sex was permitted to a woman.

All tribes together made up the Meshi nation ('''aswun Meshi'''). Even in the empire, there was never a single unquestioned leader, a factor that certainly contributed to its instability. Instead the chieftains formed an oligarchy from which campaign leaders or generals ('''jil kana''') emerged or were chosen.

=== Faith and honour ===

Meshi religion was polytheistic with elements of animism. They believed in gods ('''nak''') and lesser spirits ('''kayr''') that controlled the powers of nature, the fortunes of humanity, and the afterlife.

Initiation rites were a core part of Meshi faith and identity. The details varied by tribe and era but they were always tests of endurance and pain tolerance, more exacting for men than for women, and left distinctive scars. Completing the rite was considered a sign of divine favour and worth ('''zasachi chi Meshi'''), and no Meshi man was permitted to marry or become a warrior until he had been initiated. A very few people undertook the initiation twice - which was considered a truly heroic feat.

Personal honour ('''zus''') was also crucial in Meshi society. Courage in battle ('''nyazachi zwip gwun'''), justice ('''zanachi zasa'''), hospitality ('''fwulachi tan''') and skilful riding ('''zazar zwip ashe''') could all increase honour; weakness ('''munachi'''), cowardice, infidelity (of a woman) and especially failure to respond to an insult would lose honour. 
The worst insult possible was '''swu''', "worthless". If anyone - man or woman - was accused of this and did not retaliate it would be considered true.

The Meshi conducted warfare ('''kana''') mainly to pursue disputes over honour, resources, or something else. Conflict between Meshi individuals or tribes was partly ritualised, with small numbers of combatants and often prearranged terms of victory. Even against other peoples they did not aim to slaughter as many opponents as possible but to kill, maim, or humiliate particular targets - usually leaders or personal enemies. 
During their wars of conquest they would give a chance to surrender and killed anyone who actively refused, but often spared ordinary soldiers once they had been defeated.

=== Writing ===

The Meshi adopted the inscriptional version of the [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary|Ndak logosyllabary]] to write their language and maintained a tradition of specialist scribes ('''kenwa'''). However, their use of writing was narrower than the Ndak's - they were concerned almost entirely with commemorating people and events. The great majority of surviving Meshi texts are from carved monuments ('''awkwai''', a Ndak loan) to battles, conquests, foundations, and especially to dead heroes. Shorter inscriptions appear on moveable goods such as weapons, horse tack, and jewellery.

== See also ==

* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
* [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

History of Akana

2018-10-03T08:27:46Z

Thedukeofnuke: Saddle first, then stirrup

This page attempts to give a general overview over the history of Akana, listing only general developments, approximate dates, and the most important historical events.

* For a detailed chronology see [[Akana timeline]].
* For meta information on the history of the Akana project see [[AkanaWiki:External history]].
* [http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=tPm0KJZO2qL6Z49X2a3Y_qQ&output=html A Google Docs version of this page].

{| {{graytable|lightgraybg c}} style="font-size:smaller;"
|-
!
! Kipceʔ desert
! Coastal corridor
! Lukpanic coast
! Western steppe
! Wañelin
! Xšalad
! Tjakori
! Rathedān
! High Xōron
! Low Xōron
! Middle Aiwa
! Upper Bwimbai
! Lasomo
! Lower Milīr
! Upper Milīr
! Ici Forest
! Tæm Hou
! Buruya
! Kasca
! Mɨdu
! Huyfárah
! Lu Tal
! Isthmus
! Doroh
! Affalinnei
! Lotoka
! Dagæm
! NE coast
! Tymytỳs
! Siixtaguna
! Mûtsinamtsys
! Sumarušuxi
! Fmana-hŋ-talam
! Mrisaŋfa
! Ttiruku
! SW Tuysáfa
!
|-
! -10000
|
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|
| Primundic peoples
! -10000
|-
! -9000
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! -9000
|-
! -8000
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|
! -8000
|-
! -7000
|
|
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|
|
| Yima Valley Neolithic
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Aiwa Valley Neolithic
|
|
|
|
| Aiwa Valley Neolithic
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| (dog, pottery)
|
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! -7000
|-
! -6000
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| (Proto-Canoe)
|
|
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|
! -6000
|-
! -5000
|
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| bgcolor="#ddd"| *Proto-Tæm-Hou
|
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|
| 2nd Wave (Mediundic peoples)
! -5000
|-
! -4500
|
|
| Western Neolithic
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| (kiln, copper)
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
! -4500
|-
! -4000
|
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|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Proto-Macro-Edastean (cattle)
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Ngauro civilisation (bronze)
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
|
| (Southwest Canoe Culture)
|
| (Northwest Canoe Culture)
|
| (Northeast Canoe Culture)
|
| bgcolor="#cff"| (Southeast Canoe Culture)
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"| Pre-Peninsular peoples
|
|
! -4000
|-
! -3500
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Proto-Western (pig)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Pre-Meshi
|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Proto-Hitatc
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
| bgcolor="#cff"| 3rd Wave (Ultimundic peoples)
! -3500
|-
! -3000
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| (horse)
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Proto-Xoronic
| bgcolor="#f99"| Pre-Meshi
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Western Hitatc
| bgcolor="#930"| Proto-Miwan
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Eastern Hitatc
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| (writing)
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Proto-Isthmus (goat)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"| Sumarušuxi Culture
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -3000
|-
! -2500
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| Old Kingdom
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Proto-Talo-Edastean
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Proto-Núalís-Takuña
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"| Tuysáfa Fishing Culture
! -2500
|-
! -2400
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Ngauro
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Pre-Talo
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Isthmus
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2400
|-
! -2300
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"| Pre-Lukpanic peoples
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Western Isthmus
| bgcolor="#f90"| Eastern Isthmus
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2300
|-
! -2200
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro (iron)
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2200
|-
! -2100
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| Xšali invasion
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Pre-Ferogh
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2100
|-
! -2000
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Sánhilu:pyl (Iŋomœ)
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Çetázó
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2000
|-
! -1900
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| 1st Xšali Empire
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Wan
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Mlir
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Faraghin & Feråjin
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Proto-Isles
! -1900
|-
! -1800
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tmaśareʔ
| bgcolor="#ff9"| Proto-Coastal-Western
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1800
|-
! -1700
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Wan
| bgcolor="#008080"| Antagg
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Proto-Peninsular
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1700
|-
! -1600
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"| Proto-Lukpanic
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1600
|-
! -1500
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Isles peoples
|
! -1500
|-
! -1400
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| HItatc Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Isles peoples
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1400
|-
! -1300
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| warring kingdoms
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Faraghin
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1300
|-
! -1200
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo (saddle)
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1200
|-
! -1100
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Siixtaguna culture
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1100
|-
! -1000
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Satnímʔa / Nāuṣḍandva
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tjakori
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Meshi Empire (stirrup)
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Meshi Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"| Komejech
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1000
|-
! -900
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| 2nd Xšali Empire
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Anheshnalåks
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -900
|-
! -800
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| nomad Mohudza
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| settled Mohudza
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| (Hitatc Wan)
| bgcolor="#9cf"| (Hitatc Mlir)
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Kascan city-states
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Siixtaguna culture
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -800
|-
! -700
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Ndok
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Fáralo
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Ferój
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -700
|-
! -600
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"| Ishe
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Maśăś Mel (Hośər) (?)
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -600
|-
! -500
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Wañelinlawag
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Dāiadak city-states
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Damak
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"| Lotoka
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"| Mûtsinamtsys
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Thokyunam
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Kigibül / Mernesha
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -500
|-
! -400
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Anheshnalåks
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Fáralo conquest
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Sútapaj
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -400
|-
! -300
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Etúgə religion
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -300
|-
! -200
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tjakori Empire
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -200
|-
! -100
|
|
|
|
|
| 3rd Xšali Empire
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Gaadràmarneš
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -100
|-
! 0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Zārakātias
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Coastal Hitatc
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Sošunami
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Ppãrwak
|
! 0
|-
! 100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Ngahêxôldod
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Máotatšàlì
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 100
|-
! 200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Ktacwa
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Affalinnei
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 200
|-
! 300
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Empire of Athalē
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"| Forest Miwan
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Tlaliolz
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 300
|-
! 400
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Oigop'oi-bauxeu
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Epuonim
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| Kennan
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 400
|-
! 500
|
|
|
|
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|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Lewsfárah
| bgcolor="#993"| civil war
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| Doroh
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
|
|
|
! 500
|-
! 600
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Takuña pirates
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
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| bgcolor="#999"|
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! 600
|-
! 700
|
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| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
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| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
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| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
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! 700
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! 800
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| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| barbarian invasions
|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
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| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"| Kozzaŋ Fasa
|
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! 800
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! 900
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| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Uplands Hitatc
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
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! 900
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! 1000
|
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| bgcolor="#6b6"| Thāraspē
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Thāraspē
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Læsomo
| bgcolor="#6b6"| (Aθáta)
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Tactak
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Mɨdu
| bgcolor="#993"| Woldulaš
|
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! 1000
|-
! 1100
|
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| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Kuyʔūn
|
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| bgcolor="#993"| Kuaguatia
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
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! 1100
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! 1200
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| bgcolor="#396"| Wï'makwå
|
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! 1200
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! 1300
|
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| bgcolor="#6b6"| invention of printing
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! 1300
|-
|}

[[Category:History|*]]

Timeline of technology

2018-10-03T08:27:02Z

Thedukeofnuke: Saddle first, then stirrup

{{DEFAULTSORT:* Timeline}}{{Article}}

{{Event|Lasomo|c. -7000|Beginnings of [[Aiwa Valley Neolithic|agriculture]] in the [[Aiwa]] valley.}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -7000|Beginnings of [[Yima Valley Neolithic|agriculture]] in Xšalad.}}
{{Event|Sumarushuxi|c. -7000|Domestication of the dog; development of pottery (Sumarušuxi).}}
{{Event|Siixtaguna|c. -6000–-5000|[[Canoe Culture]] develops in northeastern [[Peilaš]].}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -4300|Earliest copper artifacts (found near Buruya).}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -4000|Domestication of cattle ([[Bwimbai]] valley).}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -3800|Invention of [[Bronze Age|bronze]] by the [[Ngauro]] (Kasadgad).}}
{{Event|WCorridor|c. -3500|[[Proto-Western]]ers domesticate the pig.}}
{{Event|WCorridor|c. -3200|Domestication of the horse by [[Western languages|Western]] peoples.}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -3000|Old Ngauro is the first [[Oryziform|written]] language in [[Peilaš]].}}
{{Event|Isthmus|c. -2800|Domestication of the goat in [[Proto-Isthmus|Isthmus]] territory.}}
{{Event|Rathedān|c. -2200|[[Gezoro]] develop iron metallurgy.}}
{{Event|Gourun|c. -1300|The native inhabitants of the High Gourun, the [[Habeo languages|Habeo]], have invented the saddle.}}
{{Event|Gourun|c. -1100|The [[Meshi]] have invented the stirrup.}}
...
{{Event|Rathedan|1289|Printing press invented, probably in Rathedān.}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Akana by period|*]]
[[Category:History|*]]
[[Category:Technology|*]]

Timeline/-2000 to -1000

2018-10-03T08:26:29Z

Thedukeofnuke: Saddle first, then stirrup

<noinclude>{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline 1}}</noinclude>
= -2000 – -1000 =
{{Event|Kasca|c. -2000|[[Ndak Ta|Ndak]] expel foreign rulers; Akan dynasty rises in [[Kasca|Kasadgad]].}}
{{Event|Kasca|-1942–-1915|Reign of Terakan—strong expansion of Ndak.}}
{{Event|Kasca|-1915–-1889|Reign of [[Tsinakan text|Tsinakan]]—height of ancient Kasadgad and fullest extent of the [[Ndak Empire]].}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -1900|A small [[Antagg]] state appears on the upper [[Bwimbai]].}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -1900|Rise of the [[1st Xšali Empire]].}}
{{Event|Lotoka|c. -1800|Small "walled town" city-states develop on the Doroh-Lotoka coast, partly due to trade contacts with the Ndak.}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -1700|[[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]] invasion of the [[Aiwa]] valley above [[Lasomo|Latsomo]]. Antagg are at their height.}}
{{Event|Isles|c. -1600–-1500|[[Isles languages|Isles]] speakers begin migrating from [[Tuysáfa]] to islands.}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -1600|Antagg state has disintegrated.}}
{{Event|Lukpanic|c. -1600|[[Lukpanic languages|Lukpanic]] culture rises on the western coast of [[Peilaš]].}}
{{Event|Huyfarah|c. -1400|[[Faraghin]] conquer the [[Oltu]] valley.}}
{{Event|Isthmus|c. -1400|The [[Feråjin]] push east at the same time, displacing the [[Doroh]] from the [[Čisse river|Čisse]] area.}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -1400|Hitatc have expanded downriver into Latsomo, and upriver into the [[Eiwəl Gourun]].}}
{{Event|Lotoka|c. -1350–-1200|Doroh destroy most of the "walled town" city-states.}}
{{Event|Huyfarah|-1310|Faraghin break into multiple baronies.}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -1300|1st Xšali Empire breaks down; the "Period of Warring Kingdoms" follows.}}
{{Event|Lukpanic|c. -1300–-1000|Height of the [[Lukpanic languages|Lukpanic]] city-states.}}
{{Event|Kasca|-1258|Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -1230|Ndak stop maintaining their [[Aiwa canal|canal]]; it gradually fills with silt and becomes just another shallow river channel.}}
{{Event|Kasca|-1202|Major hurricane destroys coastal Kasadgad cities, sending it into permanent decline.}}
{{Event|Gourun|c. -1200|The native inhabitants of the High Gourun, the [[Habeo languages|Habeo]], have invented the saddle, and have unified into a small nomad empire.}}
{{Event|Lukpanic|c. -1200|[[Proto-Coastal-Western|Coastal Western]] peoples begin invading Lukpanic territory.}}
{{Event|Huyfarah|-1170|Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.}}
{{Event|Gourun|c. -1100–-900|The [[Meshi]], now with stirrups and saddles, and probably better horses than the Habeo, are ejected by the Habeo and travel east. They come to dominate the entire Aiwa valley.}}
{{Event|Siixtaguna|c. -1100|[[User:Tzirtzi/Siixtaguna|Siixtaguna Culture]] rises in northeastern Peilaš.}}

Meshi

2018-10-02T16:46:33Z

Thedukeofnuke: History to -1300

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-01T16:32:33Z

Thedukeofnuke: Kinship terms (Omaha style)

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''wu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

= Lexicon =

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|anar
|
|n
|child of woman in clan (nibling or cross cousin)
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|tribe, ethnicity
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klo(w)n(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child (person not yet of age)
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kawda
|
|n
|granddaughter (man's son's daughter), brother's son's daughter
|
|-
|kawdi
|
|n
|grandson (man's son's son), brother's son's son
|
|-
|kaws
|
|n
|patrilineage, clan
|''*guwsd'' S-grade of "descend"
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|ked
|
|n
|younger brother/parallel cousin
|''*gewd''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe, scholar
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great
|''*gi''
|-
|kimam
|
|n
|paternal grandmother
|
|-
|kipad
|
|n
|paternal grandfather
|''*gi-bad''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|kwir
|
|n
|goat
|NT ''kwir'' < Far. ''xoir''
|-
|lat
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|magi
|
|n
|maternal uncle/grandfather, man in mother's clan
|
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|mam
|
|n
|mother, maternal aunt, woman in mother's clan
|
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|min
|
|n
|son (of a man), brother's son
|''*min''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pada
|padada
|n
|senior paternal uncle
|
|-
|padwu
|padadwu
|n
|junior paternal uncle
|
|-
|pir
|
|n
|elder brother/parallel cousin
|
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|sar
|
|n
|sister/parallel cousin
|''*θar''
|-
|sarpa
|
|n
|paternal aunt
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|sud
|
|adj
|round
|''*sud(-ʔa)''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|boundary; fence
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tu
|
|adj
|dry
|''*tu-ʔa''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*(d)za''
|-
|zak
|
|n
|daughter (of a man), brother's daughter
|
|-
|zami
|
|n
|child (immediate descendant)
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj(-ga)'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwam
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Talk:Aysuchi Meshi

2018-10-01T12:22:16Z

Thedukeofnuke:

Good to see some more Meshi words! ''emus'' "town, city" probably isn't so good though, at least if you want to borrow it from Antagg, because the Ndak Ta ''mos'' is a loanword from Ngauro, and so the Antagg word can't be inherited from Proto-Talo-Edastean. Meshi could of course easily borrow a word for "town" from Ndak Ta, or maybe from Gezoro (''gwaːm'' "fortification", maybe?)... [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] ([[User talk:Cedh|talk]]) 11:05, 20 September 2018 (PDT)
:Well spotted. I'm going to go for the Early Gezoro option, which will become '''zwam'''. [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]] ([[User talk:Thedukeofnuke|talk]]) 05:22, 1 October 2018 (PDT)

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-30T21:40:35Z

Thedukeofnuke: lexicon corrections

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''wu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

== Lexicon ==

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|tribe, ethnicity
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|encampment; stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|garji
|
|n
|goat
|
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klo(w)n(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|kenwa
|
|n
|scribe, scholar
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great; honorific
|''*gi''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|lat
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|wall
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*(d)za''
|-
|zami
|
|n
|family, clan
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj-ga'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwam
|
|n
|city
|Gez. ''gwaːmɔ'' "fortification"
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-28T15:30:45Z

Thedukeofnuke: Up to 132 words!

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the language of the [[Meshi]] people. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "story" → '''tunum''' "stories; tradition".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''wu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

== Lexicon ==

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or infixing atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|build
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|tribe, ethnicity
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|emus
|
|n
|town, city
|Ant. ''emós''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|garji
|
|n
|goat
|
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klo(w)n(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|kenla
|
|n
|scribe, scholar
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great; honorific
|''*gi''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|lat
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|song
|''*li''
|-
|lip
|
|adj
|black
|PEV ''*layp''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mig
|
|adj
|angry
|''*meg''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nis
|
|n
|milk
|PEV ''*nIs''
|-
|niz
|
|v
|walk
|PEV ''*nayz''
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|pyis
|
|n
|calf (of leg)
|PEV ''*priθ''
|-
|rag
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|rakwa
|
|n, v
|game (especially of chance); gamble
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|ris
|
|n
|word
|PEV ''*rays''
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|siz
|
|adj
|large
|''*θidz''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|swu
|
|adj
|dishonoured; worthless
|PEV ''*θlU''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|wall
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|twuz
|
|n
|hand
|PEV ''*t(s)wuz''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|vas
|
|n
|meal, food
|PEV ''*was''
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|wi
|wayi
|v
|give birth to (tr.)
|PEV ''*ŋwaj''
|-
|yun
|
|n
|thigh
|PEV ''*jUn''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*(d)za''
|-
|zami
|
|n
|family, clan
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj-ga'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zhin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zway
|
|v
|hold; own
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]

Meshi

2018-09-27T17:15:17Z

Thedukeofnuke: Link and detail

User:Thedukeofnuke

2018-09-27T16:56:56Z

Thedukeofnuke: Link

I've been involved in Akana for some years now on and off. I'm interested in history, culture, and technology as well as languages.

In the flesh I'm an engineer from England.

Done and dusted:
* Version 2 of [[Zele]] and the early history of [[Zeluzh]], done in cooperation with [[User:Basilius|Basilius]]. I'm quite happy with how the grammar sketch has turned out.

Satisfied for now:
* [[Proto-Tulameya]], the ancestor of a small language family that may explain some of the tendencies observed in the [[Lukpanic languages]]. Intended to provide a substratum for other languages, but if a descendant turned up it would be a pleasant surprise.
* [[Fallo na Mendia]], a brief outline of a divergent [[Namɨdu]] dialect. Probably the prettiest of my Akanaran efforts.

Nearly there:
* [[Kataputi]], created along with its [[Katapaki]] speakers for the Second Reconstruction Relay - morphology complete, syntax needs work.
* The Western language [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] and [[Culture of Ishe|culture]] for the Second Derivation Relay - ditto. Agglutinates like a beast. It's also my only tonal conlang so far.
* [[Woltu Falla]], a descendant of [[Fáralo]] - ditto. A language where everything cliticises to everything else.

In the works:
* [[Ayčasamo]], a Lake Western language spoken in the [[Xōron Eiel]] - currently working on morphology.
* Developing the [[Meshi]] [[Aysuchi Meshi|language]] - developing morphology and syntax.
* Reconstruction work on [[/Proto-T1|Proto-T1]], the ancestor of the [[T1 languages]] - taking a break from this, but I'll be back! An tough but fascinating challenge, and really a rather important part of the second reconstruction relay.
* The [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian|Macro-Anatolionesian]] family, and its most important member [[Imperial Ōmishiman‎]] - on hiatus. MA is not going to see much attention any time soon, but some vocabulary has entered the [[T2 languages]] and the family may yet prove significant.

Other things:
* [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Pictures|Stock images and maps]]
* [[User:Thedukeofnuke/Sample texts|Sample texts]]
* [[User:Thedukeofnuke/People|Historical persons]] for the fleshing-out of the world

Languages of Akana/Eigə-Isthmus

2018-09-27T16:56:16Z

Thedukeofnuke: Link and detail

* [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] {{context|(Huyfárah, c. -5000 to -4500 YP)}}
** '''Eigə Valley languages'''
*** [[Ngauro]] {{context|(Kasca, c. -3500 YP)}}
*** [[Aysuchi Meshi|Meshi]] {{context|(Mexi and middle Eigə, c. -1000 YP)}}
*** [[Miwan languages]]
**** Forest Miwan {{context|(western Ici Forest, c. 500 YP)}}
**** Old Eastern Miwan {{context|(eastern Ici Forest, c. 0 YP)}}
***** Eastern Miwan {{context|(eastern Ici Forest, c. 1000 YP)}}
***** Southern Miwan {{context|(southern Ici Forest, c. 1500 YP)}}
** '''Isthmus languages''': [[Proto-Isthmus]] {{context|(Huyfárah, c. -3000 YP)}}
*** Western Isthmus languages
**** Boésin {{context|(Isthmus north coast, c. -500 YP)}}
**** Ferogh languages
***** [[Faraghin]] {{context|(Huyfárah, c. -1400 YP)}}
***** [[Feråjin]] {{context|(eastern Huyfárah, c. -500 YP)}}
*** Eastern Isthmus languages
**** Doroh {{context|(Doroh, c. 500 YP)}}
**** Kennan {{context|(northern Siixtaguna, c. 500 YP)}}
**** Kietek {{context|(western Siixtaguna, c. 500 YP)}}
**** Ka'alikora {{context|(western Siixtaguna, c. 500 YP)}}

Eigə-Isthmus languages

2018-09-27T16:55:19Z

Thedukeofnuke: Link and detail

{{Article}}
[[Image:Languages -2000.png|thumb|right|300px|Language families of Akana c. -2000 YP. '''''Eigə-Isthmus languages''' in red colors.'']]

The '''Eigə-Isthmus languages''' are a family of related languages spoken in eastern [[Peilaš]]. Their last common ancestor, '''[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]''', was probably spoken in the region that later became [[Huyfárah]] between about -5000 and -4500 [[YP]]. Comparative and reconstructive work on the family is ongoing.

Known members of the family include:

{{:Languages of Akana/Eigə-Isthmus}}

'''[[Ngauro]]''' was the first written language in this part of the world (at least); it's attested from the late fourth millennium to the mid second millennium [[YP|BP]], with inscriptions found mainly in [[Kasca]] and nearby regions.

The closely related '''[[Miwan languages]]''' are spoken in the southern Aiwa valley; the best known are those spoken on the southern fringes of Kasca ('''Eastern Miwan''') and in the Etewg Peidæm or Ici Forest ('''Forest Miwan''') during the first millennium [[YP]].

'''[[Meshi]]''' is another related language, originally spoken in the middle and upper Aiwa regions; at the beginning of the first millennium [[YP|BP]], [[Aysuchi Meshi|Meshi-speaking]] nomads conquered most of the valley, leaving inscriptions scattered throughout their large (but short-lived) empire. Formerly, some scholars placed Meshi within the Miwan group, but recent studies have shown it to be a separate branch of the Eigə Valley family.

The '''[[Proto-Isthmus|Isthmus languages]]''' are a diverse group, spoken mainly north and east of [[Huyfárah]]. The best known of these is the Western Isthmus language '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in the late 2nd millennium [[YP|BP]] in northern [[Huyfárah]], which had a major influence on the development of [[Fáralo]]; also important is the Eastern Isthmus language '''Doroh''', spoken in the first millennium [[YP]] in the region east of Huyfárah.

[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*]]

User talk:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-27T16:48:57Z

Thedukeofnuke: Thedukeofnuke moved page User talk:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi to Talk:Aysuchi Meshi: Substantial enough to move off my user page

#REDIRECT [[Talk:Aysuchi Meshi]]

Talk:Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-27T16:48:57Z

Thedukeofnuke: Thedukeofnuke moved page User talk:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi to Talk:Aysuchi Meshi: Substantial enough to move off my user page

User:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-27T16:48:57Z

Thedukeofnuke: Thedukeofnuke moved page User:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi to Aysuchi Meshi: Substantial enough to move off my user page

#REDIRECT [[Aysuchi Meshi]]

Aysuchi Meshi

2018-09-27T16:48:57Z

Thedukeofnuke: Thedukeofnuke moved page User:Thedukeofnuke/Aysuchi Meshi to Aysuchi Meshi: Substantial enough to move off my user page

{{Tbc|Thedukeofnuke}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Aysuchi Meshi
| phonetic = [ˈaj.su.ʧi ˈme.ʃi]
| date = c. -1000 YP
| place = Mexi valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = adopted [[Ndak]] script
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]   Eigə Valley
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}

'''Aysuchi Meshi''' is the native name for the Meshi language. In this article it is simply referred to as '''Meshi'''.

= Phonology =

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p · b
| t · d
| ʧ · ʤ
| k · ɡ
|-
! Fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| ʃ · ʒ
|
|-
! Approximant
| w
| ɹ · l
| j
|
|-
|}

/ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ ɹ j/ are transcribed '''ch j sh zh r y'''. All other consonants are transcribed as in IPA or the Latin-text equivalent.

/f v/ are very marginal: in native words, /f/ only appears before /w/, and /v/ is only distinguished from /w/ initially and intervocalically.

== Vowels ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
!  front 
!  back 
|-
! diphthong
|align="center" | aj
|align="center" | aw
|-
|-
! high
|align="center" | i
|align="center" | u
|-
! mid
|align="center" | e
|align="center" |
|-
! low
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

/e/ has a broad range of realisations; it is usually [ɛ] in closed syllables, and reduces to [ə] when adjacent to a stressed syllable.

The diphthongs /aj aw/ are transcribed '''ay aw'''. In some respects these behave as vowels (they can be followed by a coda consonant) and in others they behave as vowel-consonant sequences (they can be followed by a vowel).

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), where C is a consonant, V is a vowel or phonemic diphthong, and G is a glide ('''y''' or '''w''').

Clusters of two obstruents or nasals in any combination or order are forbidden.

Vowel hiatus is broken up by an epenthetic glide or, in some cases, '''v'''.

The clusters '''ty dy sy zy''' always simplify to post-alveolar '''ch j sh zh'''.

== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə Valley ==

* *a̰j *a̰w → *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw → e o
* *ʔ → Ø / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d
* *w → v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o → Ø / _#
* *m̩ → *am / _[+obstruent]
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C → Ø / _# in polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C → Ø / C_#
* *e *o → i u / including diphthongs
* *kw *gw → fw zw
* [+obstruent] → Ø / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj → *ø → e / _C, _#
* *uj → *øj → ej / _V
* *ij *uw → *əj *əw
* *əj *əw → aj aw
* *θ *ð → s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → Ø
* *r *l → j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj → ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

= Morphology =

Extensive apocope between PEV and Meshi has resulted in the loss of most of PEV's suffixes, with the result that Meshi is largely isolating, with little inflectional morphology.

== Nominal morphology ==

=== Number ===

Nouns inflect for number by partial or full reduplication; for count nouns, this forms plurals, while for mass nouns it indicates a large quantity. The reduplicated form of a noun can be formed in one of three ways:
* Monosyllabic nouns reduplicate the full syllable if they end in a vowel or approximant, or the last (G)V(G)C if they end in an obstruent or nasal. Hence '''twa''' "gold" → '''twatwa''' "lots of gold"; '''tes''' "lake" → '''teses''' "lakes".
* Polysyllabic nouns reduplicate the first C(G)V (or the first VC if they begin in a vowel). Hence '''sanu''' "village" → '''sasanu''' "villages", '''aku''' "source" → '''akaku''' "sources".
* A number of common nouns are irregular, usually combining one of the above processes with a consonant change; this is most common for nouns ending in a nasal consonant. Hence '''bwi''' "worm" → '''bwimi''' "worms", '''tum''' "word" → '''tunum''' "words".

=== Pronouns ===

Meshi personal pronoun inflections derive transparently from case prepositions. The former dative has taken on an accusative role.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" |
! nominative
! accusative
! genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 1st person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''ta'''
| '''zat'''
| '''ana'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''kur'''
| '''zaku'''
| '''agu'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 2nd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''sen'''
| '''zase'''
| '''ane'''
|-
! align="c" | pl.
| '''ve'''
| '''zave'''
| '''mwe'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | 3rd person
! align="center" | sg.
| '''wu'''
| '''zawu'''
| '''mwu'''
|-
! align="center" | pl.
| '''lud'''
| '''zalu'''
| '''mwud'''
|-
|}

Some correlatives are also known for Meshi:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" align="mid" |
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | interrogative
! colspan="2" align="center" | demonstrative
|-
! proximal
! distal
|-
! colspan="3" | determiner
| '''gi'''
| '''in'''
| '''mi'''
|-
! rowspan="4" align="mid" | pronoun
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | human
! sg.
| '''gipwi'''
| '''imwi'''
| '''miswi'''
|-
! pl.
| '''gipwin'''
| '''imwin'''
| '''miswin'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" align="right" | non-human
! sg.
| rowspan="2" align="mid" | '''gen'''
| '''ine'''
| '''mise'''
|-
! pl.
| '''inen'''
| '''misen'''
|-
! rowspan="2" align="mid" | pro-adverb
! colspan="2" align="right" | place
| '''gimu'''
| '''imu'''
| '''misu'''
|-
! colspan="2" align="right" | manner
| '''gire'''
| '''inye'''
| '''mishe'''
|-
|}

== Verbal morphology ==

=== Telicity ===

The only verbal inflection in Meshi that can clearly be described as such is the atelic, deriving from the PEI J-grade. This is formed either by ablaut or infixing, depending on the last vowel of the root:
* All verbs in '''a''', and most in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo ablaut.
* All verbs in '''e ay aw''', and some in '''i''' and '''u''', undergo infixing. The form of infix is not predictable for verbs in '''u''' or '''e''', and must be learned.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Radical
! Ablauted
! Infixed
|-
| '''a'''
| '''i'''
|
|-
| '''i'''
| '''ay'''
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''u'''
| '''e'''
| '''avi''' '''uvi'''
|-
| '''e'''
|
| '''eyi''' '''ivi'''
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| '''ayi'''
|-
| '''aw'''
|
| '''uvi'''
|-
|}

=== Stem suffixes ===

Meshi retains reflexes of the stem vowels, although apocope has worn away the active suffix *''-ʔa''. These are somewhere between inflectional and derivational, creating "families" of related verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! After a consonant
! After a vowel
|-
! Causative
| -'''i'''
| -'''yi'''
|-
! Anticausative
| -'''u'''
| -'''wu'''
|-
! Middle of causative
| -'''e'''
| -'''ye'''
|-
|}

* The causative usually increases valency by one, while the anticausative decreases it by one.
* The causative suffix -'''i''' palatalises word-final '''t d s z''' to '''ch j sh zh'''.
* Some verbs have a slightly different form when taking stem suffixes, typically adding an intrusive consonant; this is noted in the lexicon.

Examples of stem suffixes:

* Root (active) '''ays''' "talk to"
* Causative '''ayshi''' "introduce"
* Anticausative '''aysu''' "speak"
* Middle of causative '''ayse''' "answer"

=== Other verbal forms ===

==== Nominalisation ====

The highly productive suffix -'''chi''' nominalises verbs. It always follows a stem suffix - if there is none, an epenthetic -'''a'''- is added (a remnant of the old active suffix). For example, '''ays''' "talk to" becomes '''aysachi''' "talking, conversation"; the anticausative '''aysu''' "speak" becomes '''aysuchi''' "speech, language", as in the name of the language.

The suffix -'''yu''' forms agentive nouns. For example, '''deb''' "marry" has the agentive '''debyu''' "bride or groom".

Either of these particles can be combined with the atelic: for example '''ayisachi''', the nominalised active atelic of '''ays''', means "address, invocation".

==== Verbal particles ====

The particle '''ga''' before the verb negates it. 
The particle '''git''' forms reflexives (a single subject affecting themself) and '''saz''' forms reciprocals (each subject affecting the other), both of which follow the verb.

= Sample =

'''Zaryuches pishi in awkwai chi zus il mwu pad Kaswun. 
'''Mus Kasad Kaswun nyaz zwip gwun Dak, am wu bwur ji zalu chima nanakes. Nakak zan ni wu zasa chi Meshi.'''

{{gl|Zaryuches|Zaryuches|Zaryuches}}
{{gl|pishi|pis-i|shape-caus}}
{{gl|in|in|this}}
{{gl|awkwai|awkwai|monument}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|zus|zus|honour}}
{{gl|il|il|GEN}}
{{gl|mwu|mwu|3SG.GEN}}
{{gl|pad|pad|father}}
{{gl|Kaswun.|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{glend|Zaryuches commissioned this monument in honour of her father Kaswun.}}

{{gl|Mus|mus|LOC}}
{{gl|Kasad|Kasad|Kasca}}
{{gl|Kaswun|Kaswun|Kaswun}}
{{gl|nyaz|nyaz|fight}}
{{gl|zwip|zwip|INS}}
{{gl|gwun|gwun|fierce}}
{{gl|Dak,|Dak|Ndak}}
{{gl|am|am|and}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|bwur|bwur|take}}
{{gl|ji|ji|from}}
{{gl|zalu|zalu|3PL.ACC}}
{{gl|chima|chima|many}}
{{gl|nanakes.|na~nakes|PL~slave}}
{{glend|He fiercely fought the Ndak in Kasadgad, and he captured many slaves from them.}}

{{gl|Nakak|nak~ak|god~PL}}
{{gl|zan|zan|decide}}
{{gl|ni|ni|COMP}}
{{gl|wu|wu|3SG.NOM}}
{{gl|zasa|zasa|worthy}}
{{gl|chi|chi|BEN}}
{{gl|Meshi.|Meshi|Meshi}}
{{glend|The gods will judge him worthy of the Meshi.}}

''[http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=39366&start=550#p1095836 source]''

== Lexicon ==

Unless otherwise noted, "etymology" gives the suffixing form (with hyphen) or atelic (otherwise) for verbs, and the plural for irregular nouns.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
!Word
!Morphology
!Type
!Gloss
!Etymology
|-
|agem
|
|n
|tea
|PH ''ʔankem''
|-
|aku
|
|n
|base, source
|
|-
|alpe
|alpeyi
|v
|built
|PEV ''*alpuj''
|-
|Altaba
|
|top
|[[Lasomo]]
|early NA ''ɒltsɒbɒ''
|-
|am
|
|conj
|and
|
|-
|ashe
|akashe
|n
|horse
|PH ''akešeʔ''
|-
|aswun
|
|n
|tribe, ethnicity
|PH ''ʔaskʷun''
|-
|at
|
|n
|hill
|
|-
|awkwai
|
|n
|monument
|NT ''âukwai'' "sculpture"
|-
|ays
|
|v
|talk to (tr.)
|''*ʔijs, *ʔijz''
|-
|bad
|
|adj
|decadent
|NT ''bad'' "cultured"
|-
|bat
|
|#
|one
|''*pat''
|-
|buru
|
|n
|stronghold
|
|-
|bwi
|bwimi
|n
|worm
|PEV ''*blIŋ''
|-
|bwur
|bwer
|v
|seize, take
|
|-
|chak
|
|n
|ritual
|PEV ''*t(s)rak''
|-
|chayr
|
|n
|resin, amber
|PEV ''*tja̤jr''
|-
|ches
|cheyis
|n, v
|fire; burn (intr.)
|''*drujθ''
|-
|chi
|
|prep
|for; for the purpose of; benefactive marker
|
|-
|chik
|chayk
|v
|do, make
|''*dik''
|-
|chim
|
|n
|rope, cord
|''*tsimp(-ga)'' "twist"
|-
|chima
|
|n
|large quantity
|''*d(l)en-?, *d(l)ajn-?''
|-
|Dak
|
|n
|[[Ndak]]
|NT ''Ndak''
|-
|deb
|deyib
|v
|marry (tr.)
|''*tlujb''
|-
|dwa
|
|n
|meat
|PEV ''*d(z)wa''
|-
|emus
|
|n
|town, city
|Ant. ''emós''
|-
|fwin
|fwayin
|v
|fly
|''*gwent''
|-
|fwina
|
|n
|bird
|PEV ''*kwint-as'' < PEI ''*gwent''
|-
|fwul
|fwel
|v
|treat kindly
|PEV ''*kwul''
|-
|fwuse
|
|adj
|beautiful
|PH ''qʷuse-'' "likeable"
|-
|gan
|
|n
|stone
|
|-
|gar
|
|adj
|good
|''*kard(z), *karg''
|-
|garji
|
|n
|goat
|
|-
|gas
|
|part
|negative marker
|PEV ''*gas''
|-
|gayb
|
|v
|eat
|''*kijb''
|-
|gaw
|
|n
|road
|NT ''gau''
|-
|gi
|
|det
|what, which (int.)
|''*kej''
|-
|gid
|gayd
|v
|strike
|''*kid''
|-
|ginig
|
|n
|iron
|Gez. ''ginig''
|-
|gis
|gayis
|v
|defecate
|''*kI(t)s, *kI(d)z''
|-
|git
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|''*kit''
|-
|gwun
|
|n, adj
|bravery; fierce, brave
|''*klo(w)n(-ʔa)'' "guts(-ADJ)"
|-
|il
|
|prep
|of; genitive marker
|
|-
|in
|
|det
|this (prox.)
|
|-
|ini
|
|n
|child
|
|-
|ji
|
|prep
|from; ablative marker
|PEV ''*d(z)I''
|-
|jil
|jilchil
|n
|chief, ruler
|''*trelk''
|-
|jun
|
|n, adj
|north
|''*tjUn(t)'' "left hand"
|-
|ka
|
|n
|cow
|PH ''qa''
|-
|kan
|
|v
|flow
|''*gand'' N-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|kana
|
|n
|war
|Ant. ''kanā''
|-
|kas
|
|n
|stream, creek
|''*gasd'' S-grade of "flow, float"
|-
|Kasad
|
|top
|[[Kasca]]
|Ng. ''Kasdgad''
|-
|kaym
|
|v
|learn, know
|''*gajm''
|-
|kayr
|
|n
|spirit (supernatural being)
|''*gijr''
|-
|ke
|keyi
|v
|kill
|''*guj''
|-
|kenla
|
|n
|scribe, scholar
|Ng. ''kenla''
|-
|kene
|
|n
|bard, storyteller
|PH ''qense''
|-
|kesh
|
|n
|anvil
|Gez. ''keːx''
|-
|Keyalda
|
|top
|[[Akelodo]]
|early NA ''Ŋkeɒldɒd''
|-
|ki
|
|adj
|great; honorific
|''*gi''
|-
|kug
|
|n
|jar, pot
|''*gUg''
|-
|kulun
|
|n, top
|steppe; the [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
|PH ''qułun''
|-
|kwe
|
|n
|air
|PEV ''*klujŋ''
|-
|lat
|
|n
|country
|NT ''lats''
|-
|li
|
|n
|story, ballad
|''*li''
|-
|luken
|
|n
|saddle
|PH ''luken'' "seat"
|-
|makad
|
|n
|bronze
|Gez. ''makhad''
|-
|met
|
|n
|woman
|''*mEt(s)''
|-
|mi
|
|det
|that (dist.)
|
|-
|mifwan
|
|n
|paternal ancestor
|PH ''umikʷan-a''
|-
|mul
|
|adj
|stupid
|''*mul, *mawl''
|-
|mun
|
|adj
|weak
|''*mun''
|-
|mus
|
|prep
|at; locative marker
|''*maws'' "house"
|-
|nak
|
|n
|god
|PEV ''*naka''
|-
|nakes
|
|n
|slave
|Ant. ''náktes''
|-
|nape
|
|n
|tribute
|Ant. ''*nápē''
|-
|ni
|
|part
|that; relativiser and complementiser
|
|-
|nus
|
|n, v
|flood (intr.)
|PEV ''*nus''
|-
|nyaz
|
|n, v
|fight (tr.)
|''*njadz(-ga)''
|-
|pad
|
|n
|father
|''*bad''
|-
|pis
|
|v
|form, shape (intr. or tr.)
|
|-
|Recham
|
|top
|the [[Rathedān]]
|Gez. ''Reːtsom''
|-
|rima
|
|n
|stir-fry
|
|-
|sanu
|
|n
|village
|
|-
|saz
|
|part
|reflexive marker
|
|-
|ser
|
|n
|water
|PEV ''*sujr''
|-
|shi
|
|n, adj
|holiness; holy
|''*siŋ''
|-
|shuz
|shez
|v
|cut
|PEV ''*sjUð''
|-
|sur
|
|n
|tree
|''*θur, *θawr''
|-
|tachan
|
|adj
|solemn
|PH ''tatšan''
|-
|tal
|
|v
|think
|''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''
|-
|tan
|
|n
|custom, tradition
|PEV ''*tsan''
|-
|taw
|
|n, v
|number; count
|PEV ''*tsa̤w''
|-
|Tawfwe
|
|top
|[[Thabīa]]
|PH ''Taʔuqʷuʔe''
|-
|tekag
|
|n
|wall
|Ant. ''tehkāg'' "stones"
|-
|tep
|
|n
|cheese
|
|-
|tes
|
|n
|lake, sea
|''*tsujθ''
|-
|tum
|
|n
|word
|''*dlum''
|-
|tur
|
|#
|two
|''*tsurn''
|-
|tus
|
|adj
|red
|''*dzusn''
|-
|twa
|
|n
|gold
|''*tswa''
|-
|twi
|
|n, adj
|heat; hot
|PEV ''*t(s)wI''
|-
|udai
|
|n
|salt
|NT ''odai''
|-
|unu
|
|n
|shaman
|
|-
|usak
|
|n
|capital; centre of power
|NT ''ospák'' "throne"
|-
|wesaw
|
|n
|sword
|Gez. ''wesau''
|-
|za
|
|prep
|to; dative/locative marker
|''*(d)za''
|-
|zami
|
|n
|family, clan
|
|-
|zan
|
|v
|decide, judge
|''*zant''
|-
|zar
|zary-
|v
|move swiftly
|''*ðarj'' (? R-grade of) "dance"
|-
|zasa
|
|adj
|worthy, fitting
|
|-
|zazar
|
|n
|grace, speed
|''*ða~ðarj-ga'' reduplicated grade of *ðarj "dance"
|-
|zin
|
|n
|thought; spirit (of a being)
|PEV ''*zIn''
|-
|zum
|zem
|v
|eat
|PEV ''*zUm''
|-
|zus
|
|n
|personal honour
|PEV ''*ðUθ''
|-
|zwip
|
|prep
|with; instrumental marker
|
|-
|zwir
|
|adj
|bright
|''*zwir(t/ts/k)''
|-
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Aysuchi Meshi]]