AkanaWiki - User contributions [en]

Languages of Akana

2024-09-09T02:09:31Z

Rorschach: /* Southern languages (Team A) */

{{Article}}
:''Note: Language families are sorted by continent, according to where most of the relevant languages are spoken.''

= Northern Peilaš =
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Northern Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east:<br>
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

== [[Isles languages]] ==
{{/Isles}}

== [[Macro-Edastean languages]] ==
=== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ===
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-edastean-100.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of Edastean languages around 100 YP. From southwest to northeast:<br>
<ul><li>Red: [[Adāta]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Ndok Aisô]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Buruya Nzaysa]]</li>
<li>Dark green: [[Naidda]]</li>
<li>Light green: [[Komejech]]</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Fáralo]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Qedik]]</li></ul>]]
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

=== [[Xoronic languages]] ===
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 1000 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo
*** Plains Habeo
*** River Habeo
** [[Damak]]

== [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] ==
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

== [[Western languages]] ==
{{/Western}}

== [[Lukpanic languages]] ==
{{/Lukpanic}}

== Tulameya languages ==
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Lokud languages ==
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Tæm-Hou languages ==
=== [[Peninsular languages]] ===
{{/Peninsular}}
=== [[Hitatc languages]] ===
{{/Hitatc}}

== !Ho languages ==
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Old Xšali]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -1200 YP - [[User:Xshalad|Xshalad]])}}
*** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
*** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

== Núalís-Takuña languages ==
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

<hr />

= Tuysáfa =
[[Image:TuysafaY0.PNG|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of languages on Tuysáfa around 0 YP.]]
== [[Ronquian languages]] ==
{{/Ronquian}}

== [[Leic languages]] ==
{{/Leic}}

== Wendoth languages ==
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

== Mbingmik languages ==
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

== Muyan languages ==
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

== [[Dumic languages]] ==
{{/Dumic}}

== [[T1 languages]] ==
{{/T1}}

== Macro-Anatolionesian languages ==
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Northeastern Tuysáfa languages ==
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

<hr />

= Zeluzhia =

== Nookesho languages ==
* [[Nookesho Family]] {{context|(West Zeluzhia - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}

== Kopian languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Northeast Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Damo-Tingreya languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Northeast Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

<hr />

= Southern Peilaš =

== Island-Highland languages (Team B) ==
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Akam Chinjir|akam chinjir]])}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13)}}
* [[Jarang]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Kʰajlun]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Pʰeśin]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Tomē Nilōyi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - dhok)}}

== Southern languages (Team A) ==
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP - Moose-tache)}}
* [[Lécāi|Lécāi]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}
* [[Màpxèracáma|Màpxèracáma]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Kodane, a.k.a. kodé)}}
* [[Sáśaravi|Sáśaravi]] {{context|(Còchin Kingdom, southern Peilaš, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Languages of Akana/Ronquian

2024-09-09T02:08:21Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-Ronquian]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:vec|vec]] & [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ray Tyuwey Išup]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Əktoś Duəmeuk]] {{context|(City of Ránj’a, northern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:vec|vec]])}}
** [[Mhakh Thandim]] {{context|(Kè mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ronc Tyu]] {{context|(Śou Pínc / Kè mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] {{context|(northern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:kanejam|kanejam]])}}

Languages of Akana/T1

2024-09-09T02:07:47Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-T1]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP)}}
** [[Cednìtıt]] {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 0 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
***Cednìtıt Muok {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 700 YP)}}
****[[Ehnadhi]] {{context|(Western Potantrommo coast, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
** [[Old Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -800 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[West Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[East Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[Early North Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -400 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
** [[Hkətl’ohnim]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Omari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Tumetıęk]] {{context|(north Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Clıck|Clıck]])}}
** [[Tari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
** [[Northeastern Bay Language]] {{context|(Northeastern Bay and the Heneššéme Basin, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}
***[[Asséta]] {{context|(Northeastern Bay and the Heneššéme Basin, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}

Antarctica

2024-09-09T02:02:15Z

Rorschach:

Antarctica

2022-06-08T02:22:48Z

Rorschach:

<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Antarctica.png|thumb|right|250px|A map of Antarctica and surrounding continents.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:140px; right:220px; font-size:smaller">
'''Peilaš'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:110px; right:65px; font-size:smaller">
'''Njemnetsa'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:110px; font-size:smaller">
'''East<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:20px; font-size:smaller">
'''West<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:10px; right:100px; font-size:smaller">
'''Zeluzhia'''
</div>
</div>

'''Njemnetsa''' is a continent covering much of the southern polar region of [[Akana]]. It is the least-populated continent in the world. Denizens of this continent include the '''Ṭṣaśayk!aso''' (''*ʈʂaʃaj k!as-o'' 'sun people') people groups.

Current theories suggest that Njemnetsa was first populated around -3000 YP by a population traveling there via island chains from [[Zeluzhia]]. A secondary migration to the mainland from the islands to the west appears to have occurred at some time around -1600 YP.

There are five main groups of languages on the continent and its surrounding islands, all of which appear to be related: Insular, Peripheral, Delta, Great Lakes, and Riverine.

The name "Njemnetsa" is derived from [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]] *'''ńjem nǁeṭṣa''' 'cold ground'.

==Contact==
Peilaš made contact with Njemnetsa in the 1700s.

==Names==

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]]
| Ńjemn//eṭṣa
| [ˈɲɟem.nǁe.ʈʂa]
| 'cold ground'
|-
! [[Peninsular K!asic]]
| Zen//utsage
| [zenǁɨtsæ]
| < PMK ''Ńjemn//eṭṣa''
|-
! [[Inich Nenen]]
| Char
| [xar]
| < Proto-Ornitic
|-
|}

==Locations==
===Cities===
*Dhätsu
*Niə̯kǃolax
===Mountains===
*[[Xik//utsag]]

==Culture==
===Music===
Njemnetsa is known for its ''xiṇḍẓo'' instrument that has ten strings.

==Biology==
''Main Article: [[Njemnetsian Biology]]''

Njemnetsa has a wide range of biology. While the animals are very different from those elsewhere on Akana, some of the plants are very similar. It is believed that many of these plants were brought over from other continents.

== See also ==
* [[Njemnetsian Biology]]
* [[Peilaš]]
* [[Zeluzhia]]

{{Article}}
{{Stub}}

[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Njemnetsa]]

Antarctica

2022-06-06T00:01:42Z

Rorschach: /* Names */ oops

<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Antarctica.png|thumb|right|250px|A map of Antarctica and surrounding continents.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:140px; right:220px; font-size:smaller">
'''Peilaš'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:110px; right:65px; font-size:smaller">
'''Njemnetsa'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:110px; font-size:smaller">
'''East<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:20px; font-size:smaller">
'''West<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:10px; right:100px; font-size:smaller">
'''Zeluzhia'''
</div>
</div>

'''Njemnetsa''' is a continent covering much of the southern polar region of [[Akana]]. It is the least-populated continent in the world. Denizens of this continent include the '''Ṭṣaśayk!aso''' (''*ʈʂaʃaj k!as-o'' 'sun people') people groups.

Current theories suggest that Njemnetsa was first populated around -3000 YP by a population traveling there via island chains from [[Zeluzhia]]. A secondary migration to the mainland from the islands to the west appears to have occurred at some time around -1600 YP.

There are three main groups of languages on the continent and its surrounding islands, all of which appear to be related: Central K!asic, Peripheral K!asic, and Insular K!asic.

The name "Njemnetsa" is derived from [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]] *'''ńjem nǁeṭṣa''' 'cold ground'.

==Contact==
Peilaš made contact with Njemnetsa in the 1700s.

==Names==

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]]
| Ńjemn//eṭṣa
| [ˈɲɟem.nǁe.ʈʂa]
| 'cold ground'
|-
! [[Peninsular K!asic]]
| Zen//utsage
| [zenǁɨtsæ]
| < PMK ''Ńjemn//eṭṣa''
|-
! [[Inich Nenen]]
| Char
| [xar]
| < Proto-Ornitic
|-
|}

==Biology==
''Main Article: [[Njemnetsian Biology]]''

Njemnetsa has a wide range of biology. While the animals are very different from those elsewhere on Akana, the plants are very similar. It is believed that many of these plants were brought over from other continents.

== See also ==
* [[Njemnetsian Biology]]
* [[Peilaš]]
* [[Zeluzhia]]

{{Article}}
{{Stub}}

[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Njemnetsa]]

Antarctica

2022-06-06T00:00:58Z

Rorschach: /* Contact */

<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Antarctica.png|thumb|right|250px|A map of Antarctica and surrounding continents.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:140px; right:220px; font-size:smaller">
'''Peilaš'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:110px; right:65px; font-size:smaller">
'''Njemnetsa'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:110px; font-size:smaller">
'''East<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:210px; right:20px; font-size:smaller">
'''West<br/>Twin'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:10px; right:100px; font-size:smaller">
'''Zeluzhia'''
</div>
</div>

'''Njemnetsa''' is a continent covering much of the southern polar region of [[Akana]]. It is the least-populated continent in the world. Denizens of this continent include the '''Ṭṣaśayk!aso''' (''*ʈʂaʃaj k!as-o'' 'sun people') people groups.

Current theories suggest that Njemnetsa was first populated around -3000 YP by a population traveling there via island chains from [[Zeluzhia]]. A secondary migration to the mainland from the islands to the west appears to have occurred at some time around -1600 YP.

There are three main groups of languages on the continent and its surrounding islands, all of which appear to be related: Central K!asic, Peripheral K!asic, and Insular K!asic.

The name "Njemnetsa" is derived from [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]] *'''ńjem nǁeṭṣa''' 'cold ground'.

==Contact==
Peilaš made contact with Njemnetsa in the 1700s.

==Names==

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Proto-Macro-K!asic language|Proto-Macro-K!asic]]
| Ńjemn//eṭṣa
| [ˈɲɟem.nǁe.ʈʂa]
| 'cold ground'
|-
! [[Peninsular K!asic]]
| Zen//utsage
| [zenǁutsæ]
| < PMK ''Ńjemn//eṭṣa''
|-
! [[Inich Nenen]]
| Char
| [xar]
| < Proto-Ornitic
|-
|}

==Biology==
''Main Article: [[Njemnetsian Biology]]''

Njemnetsa has a wide range of biology. While the animals are very different from those elsewhere on Akana, the plants are very similar. It is believed that many of these plants were brought over from other continents.

== See also ==
* [[Njemnetsian Biology]]
* [[Peilaš]]
* [[Zeluzhia]]

{{Article}}
{{Stub}}

[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Njemnetsa]]

Main Page

2021-11-24T00:19:28Z

Rorschach:

{| style="border:0; background:transparent; margin:0 auto;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="10"
|-

| colspan="2"|
==<center>Welcome to the AkanaWiki!</center>==
[[Image:NE-Peilash-physical3.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš, the focus area of the Akana project.]]

The world of [[Akana]] is a collaborative conlanging and conworlding effort, with a focus on family diachronics and a shared historical basis for these linguistic developments. The world grew out of two different games on the [http://www.incatena.org/ Zompist Bulletin Board]: a linguistic reconstruction game in 2005 for which Akana was originally created, and a diachronic derivation relay in 2006, which gradually metamorphosed into the conworld of today and its flagship language family, the [[Edastean languages]].

'''Overview: [http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0ByfFAGMBy-9XMTgwN2EyMTMtY2IxZC00ZjIyLWIyYWUtNzU0YjlhYmMwZmZh&hl=en&authkey=CI6q6doD The World Of Akana]'''
|-

| style="width:50%; vertical-align:top; border:1px solid #b38d7d; background-color:#fffaf7" |
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">History</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Akana timeline|Timeline]] • [[Year of the Prophet]] • [[:Category:Akana by period|Akana by period]]
:''([[:Category:History|more...]])''

</div>
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d; border-top:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Geography</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Maps of Akana|Maps]]
:Continents • ''[[Njemnetsa]]'' • ''[[Peilaš]]'' • ''[[Tuysáfa]]'' • ''[[Zeluzhia]]''
:Regions • ''[[Aiwa valley]]'' • ''[[Kasca]]'' • ''[[Lasomo]]'' • ''[[Rathedān]]''
:Cities • ''[[Ngahêxôldod]]'' • ''[[Oigop'oibauxeu]]'' • ''[[Buruya]]'' • ''[[Momuva'e]]'' • ''[[Ussor]]'' • ''[[Azbǽbu]]'' • ''[[Mæmedéi]]'' • ''[[Sertek]]'' • ''[[Isi]]'' • ''[[Naəgbum]]''
:''([[:Category:Geography|more...]])''

</div>
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d; border-top:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Nations</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Ndak Empire]] • [[Empire of Athalē]] • [[Huyfárah]] • [[Woldulaš]] • [[Affalinnei]] • [[Zeluzh]] • [[Xšalad]] • ''([[:Category:Nations|more...]])''

</div>
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d; border-top:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Culture</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:Edastean sphere: ''[[Ngauro]]'' • ''[[Ndak Calendar]]'' • ''[[Ndok]]'' • ''[[Dāiadak]]'' • ''[[Anaitism]]'' • ''[[Etúgə]]'' • ''[[Culture of Kasca|Kasca]]'' • ''[[Culture of Mɨdu|Mɨdu]]'' • ''[[Talo]]''
:Western sphere: ''[[Proto-Western/Culture|Proto-Westerners]]'' • ''[[Culture of Ishe|Ishe]]'' • ''[[Ìletlégbàku culture|Nugbùn]]''
:''([[:Category:Culture|more...]])''

</div>

| style="width:50%; vertical-align:top; border:1px solid #b38d7d; background-color:#fffaf7" |
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Languages</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] • ''[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]''
:[[Talo-Edastean languages]] • ''[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]]''
::Talo languages • ''[[Tlaliolz]]''
::[[Edastean languages]] • ''[[Ndak Ta]]''
:::''[[Adāta]]'' • ''[[Ndok Aisô]]'' • ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' • ''[[Delta Naidda|Naidda]]'' • ''[[Fáralo]]''
:[[Xoronic languages]] • ''[[Proto-Xoronic]]''
:[[Isles languages]] • ''[[Proto-Isles]]''
:::''[[Mûtsipsa']]'' • ''[[Thokyunèhòta]]'' • ''[[Naxuutayi]]'' • ''[[Zele]]'' • ''[[Affanonic]]''
:[[T1 languages]] • ''[[Proto-T1]]''
:::''[[Cednìtıt]]'' • ''[[Hkətl’ohnim]]'' • ''[[Teyetáti]]'' • ''[[Tkeḏ]]'' • ''[[Omari]]'' • ''[[Yalan]]'' • ''[[Tumetıęk]]'' • ''[[Tari]]'' • ''[[Asséta]]''
:[[Dumic languages]] • ''[[Proto-Dumic]]''
:::''[[Potɑnsʉti]]'' • ''[[Wokatasuto]]'' • ''[[Trinesian]]'' • ''[[Kataputi]]'' • ''[[Jouki Stəy]]'' • ''[[Kaspzoch]]''
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Antarctica

2021-11-23T01:37:54Z

Rorschach:

Habíci

2021-11-23T01:32:41Z

Rorschach: /* Numerals */

'''Habíci''' [hə'bit͡ɕɪ] ('''pãtuɹix Habíci''' 'Habíci language', also known as '''Bíji Bíji''') is a language spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

= Phonology =

== Prosody ==

Habíci exhibits lexical stress, which strongly influences the language's rhythm and sound. In particular, some vowel distinctions are merged in lexically unstressed syllables. Lexical stress never falls on the last syllable in polysyllabic words.

Rhythm is trochaic: syllables are grouped in feet, with the first syllable of a foot being stressed. Feet which do not contain the lexical stress, only exhibit a slight secondary stress. Single syllables at word boundaries are unstressed and unpaired. If lexical stress is marked with S, secondary stress with H and no stress with L, the following are possible word stress patterns:

* L·SL·HL
* SL·HL·L
* L·HL·HL·SL·L
* HL·SL·HL

Unstressed syllables (L) are articulated subtly more shortly and less loudly.

== Consonants ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| m || n || ||
|-
| b || d || j / d͡ʑ/ || ||
|-
| p || t || c /t͡ɕ/ || k
|-
| f /ɸ/ || s || x /ʃ/ || h
|-
| || r || ||
|-
| || ɹ || ||
|}

/ʃ/ is realised as [ɕ] when:
* Next to one of /i ĩ/
* The consonant before or after it is one of /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/ or [ɕ]
Otherwise, /ʃ/ is realsed as [ʂ].

Single onset voiceless stops and affricates are realised with slight aspiration.

== Vowels in stressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| í /i/ || || ú /u/
|-
| e /e/ || á /ə/ || o /o/
|-
| || â /a/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| ẽ /ẽ/ [ẽɪ̯̃] || || õ /õ/ [õʊ̯̃]
|-
| || ã /ã/ [ɐ̃] ||
|}

== Vowels in unstressed syllables ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
| i /i/ [ɪ] || || u /u/ [ʊ]
|-
| || a /ə/ ||
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| į /ĩ/ [ɪ̃] || || ų /ũ/ [ʊ̃]
|-
| || ą /ə̃/ ||
|}

Unstressed high vowels are lowered to mid vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low or mid vowel.
Unstressed mid vowels are lowered to low vowels if the next syllable contains a stressed low vowel.

== Phonotactics ==

Syllable shape is (C(C))V(C), with CV syllables being predominant.
* Onsetless syllables are allowed only word-initially.
* Consonant clusters may only contain two consonants, with Cɹ and ɹC being by far the most common. Word-initially, only Cɹ clusters are allowed.
* Consonant clusters and /m n b d h r/ do not occur word-finally.
* Nasal consonants do not occur in syllable coda.

= Morphology =

In Habíci only nouns, pronouns and verbs inflect.

== Nominal morphology ==

Nouns inflect for definiteness and case (nominative and oblique), with animate nouns further inflecting for number. Noun morphology is almost entirely prefixal, with inflection type depending on animacy and the root initial sound. Lexical animacy mostly follows innate animacy, but there are some exceptions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, consonantal (AC)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| kõ- || ɹi- / ɹí-
|-
! OBL
| hi- / hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| animate, vocalic (AV)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| kųj- / kub- || ɹaj-
|-
! OBL
| j- || aj-
|}

* Nouns denoting humans take '''kub-''', other nouns take '''kųj-'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, consonantal (IC)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| fâta- || pã-
|-
! OBL
| hí- || âja-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=3| inanimate, vocalic (IV)
|-
! || DEF || INDEF
|-
! NOM
| fad- || pam-
|-
! OBL
| j- || aj-
|-
|}

Prefixes marked with stressed vowels attract lexical stress. Nouns are given in their indefinite nominative form in the lexicon.

Stress is marked with reduplication of the syllable preceding the last consonant:

'''ɹifúha''' 'macaw' → '''ɹifúfuha''' 'macaws'

If the word ends in a consonant, the last onset and coda reduplicate instead:

'''ɹikõdax''' 'animal' → '''ɹikõdadax''' 'animals'

If the root consists of a single syllable, it reduplicates instead:

'''ɹíkɹa''' 'boy' → '''ɹíkɹakɹa''' 'boys'

=== Definiteness in names ===

Names, especially personal names, typically do not inflect for anything. Some particular names inflect for case, in which case they take the definite case markers. Owing to word order, ambiguity is usually minimal even without case marking.

== Pronominal morphology ==

Pronouns referring to nouns inflect only for case and generally take the definite oblique prefix to mark oblique case. The exceptions are as follows:

* '''cɹábi''' 'you (sg.)' → '''hícɹabi'''
* '''nɹáda''' 'what' → '''jɹáda'''
* '''ɹâ''' 'this' → '''jɹâ'''
* '''ɹõbas''' 'that' → '''jɹõbas'''
* '''ɹõs''' 'he, she, it' → '''jɹõs''' or '''hiɹõs'''
* '''pãɹada''' 'something' → '''âjąɹada'''
* '''ɹajúbas''' 'someone' → '''ajúbas'''

== Verbal morphology ==

Habíci verbs are by far the most morphologically complex part of the language, and inflect for person, number, reflexion and reciprocity, tense, voice, mood, negation and interrogation.

There are five different inflection groups a verb can inflect in. Some verbs exhibit vowel height ablaut of their stressed vowel, and, orthogonal to that, some verbs have two stems.

In lexical entries verbs are given in their third person present realis agentive voice form, along with their conjugation class.

=== Vowel height ablaut ===

Some verbs distinguish between two vowel height grades in their stressed syllable - low and high - and will alternate between them within a paradigm:

'''kúpakų''' 'I buy' ~ '''kópacą''' 'you (sg.) buy'

Affixes that trigger low and high vowel grade are marked with O and U respectively. Only oral vowels undergo height ablaut. Verbs that exhibit height ablaut are presented in O grade in their lexical entry, and those that do not in an unalternating U grade. So kópatą 'he/she/it buys; they buy' undergoes height ablaut, while tanajídą 'he/she/it taps; they tap' does not.

=== Verbal conjugation and stem formation ===

Each verb has two stems, which may coincide in form, and falls in one of six conjugations. Stem formation is completely determined by the verb's conjugation class. Conjugation classes are named after the endings of verbal lexical entries.

Canonically, stem I is the stem of non imperative finite forms and stem II is the stem of imperative forms.

==== -dą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-dą'''.

==== -tą verbs ====

Both stems are formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

==== -itą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-itą'''.

==== -atą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-atą'''.

==== -(f)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-f'''.

==== -(x)tą verbs ====

Stem I is formed by dropping final '''-tą'''.

Stem II is formed by dropping final '''-tą''' and then adding '''-x''' for imperative forms and '''-s''' for non imperative forms. The sole exception is '''sujâtą''' 'to paint, to dye', which adds '''-x''' for all forms.

=== Inflection groups ===

Verbs in inflection groups other than group 1 are in U ablaut grade.

==== Group 1: most finite forms ====

Inflection group 1. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 1. is the following:

'''(SUBORD) - root (- ASP) - PERS.NUM / REFL / RECIP (- REFL / RECIP) - T.V (/ T.V.IRR) (- NEG) (- Q)'''

Height ablaut is determined in the following way:
* If a T.V affix selects for an ablaut grade, that ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, if a PERS.NUM affix is present, its selected ablaut grade surfaces.
* Otherwise, the ablaut grade is U.

SUBORD is a marker for subordinate clauses (and sometimes main clauses) and may be one of the following (segments in brackets serve to break up vowel hiatuses and consonant clusters):

* '''ką(h)-''' when
* '''kat(a)-''' during
* '''xu(h)-''' because
* '''xuhu(h)-''' in order to
* '''xiɹ-''' if
* '''xur(a)-''' while
* '''ųnų(h)-''' then
* '''ųk(a)-''' else
* '''cus(a)-''' until
* '''xuj(a)-''' therefore
* '''ɹų(h)-''' that / which

ASP is a marker that is falling out of use and is found only in the speech of elderly speakers. It may be filled with '''-bu-''' to mark progressivie aspect.

PERS.NUM is the person and number slot. Number distinction is not made in 3rd person. Second allomorph is used in '''-dą''' verbs, first allomorph is used in all other verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| U -ku / -hu || U -ka / -ha
|-
! 2
| O -ca / U -ja || O -ra
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| O -ta / U -da
|}

REFL / RECIP is a slot that marks either reflexivity ('''-mi-''') or reciprocity ('''-mį-'''). 3rd person suffix is dropped if either of the affixes is present.

T.V is the tense and voice slot. Tenses are past, present and future; voices are agentive, patientive, locative and circumstantial. Voice semantics and usage is explained in the syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mų || -ɹbitą || U -ribą || O -dajɹą
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ- || -ɹ || U -ri || O -daj
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jak || -ɹbį || U -ribak || O -dajɹį
|}

ⁿ marks nasalisation of the preceding vowel.

IRR is a slot that may contain the irrealis aspect marker. While in principle it is possible to describe it as some separate morpheme with various allomorphs, in this analysis it is presented as being fused to T.V morphemes:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || AV || PV || LV || CV
|-
! PST
| ⁿ-mųci || -ɹbitącit || U -ribąɹi || O -dajɹąna
|-
! PRS
| ⁿ-muɹci || -ɹcit || U -riɹi || O -dajɹana
|-
! FUT
| ⁿ-jaci || -ɹbįcit || U -ribakɹi || O -dajɹįna
|}

NEG is a slot that optionally contains the negative marker. It is '''-apak''' after consonants and '''-bak''' after vowels.

Q is a slot that optionally contains the interrogation marker. It is '''-af''' after consonants and '''-kaf''' after vowels.

==== Group 2: imperatives ====

Inflection group 2. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 2. is the following:

'''root - IMP.NEG.NUM'''

IMP is the imperative marker, which is '''-ɹį''' for positive forms and '''-ɹaj''' for prohibitive commands. It may optionally reduplicate to indicate plural referrents: '''-ɹįɹį''', '''-ɹaɹaj'''.

==== Group 3: participles ====

Inflection group 3. uses stem I. The verbal complex of group 3. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root - T.V'''

Inflection group 3. forms participles in some tense and voice. T.V is the same affix slot as in inflection group 1. NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of participles is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 4: the gerund ====

Inflection group 4. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 4. is the following:

'''NMLZ - root'''

NMLZ is a nominal inanimate prefix for case and definiteness. Usage of the gerund is discussed in the syntax section.

==== Group 5: the infinitive ====

Inflection group 5. uses stem II. The verbal complex of group 5. is just the bare root which doesn't inflect for anything. Usage of the infinitive is discussed in the syntax section.

=== Copula ===

There is no proper copula. Instead, almost any non verb word can be verbalised to mark it as predicate. Such newly formed verbs are defective in that they have only finite forms:

{{gl|Sornųtąmų|sornų-ta-ⁿmų|far_away-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõxɹik.|kõ-xɹik|NOM.DEF.ANIM-thylacine}}
{{glend|The thylacine was far away.}}

Verbalised words also don't exhibit vowel height ablaut or stem alternation.

= Syntax =

== Clausal word order ==

The word order within a clause is VSOX. First and second person pronouns are usually dropped, with person being marked on the verb. The third person pronoun, however, is rarely dropped (unless it's in a subordinate clause, when it's always dropped due to being known by context).

== Nominal phrase ==

The word order within a nominal phrase is:

'''noun (adjectives) (numeral) (determiner)'''

A noun phrase cannot be headless. So when a noun referrent is unknown, unspecified or unimportant, the word order instead is:

'''determiner (adjectives) (numeral)'''

A determiner is a pronoun (other than personal pronoun) which refers to an object or a person (e.g. pãɹada 'some (object)', ɹâ 'this').

A nominal phrase can also be filled by a single personal pronoun or name.

== Verbal phrase ==

A verbal phrase consists of a finite verb and optional adjectives, which act as adverbs on the verb.

== Postpositional phrase ==

A postpositional consists of a nominal phrase followed by a postposition.

== Morphosyntactic alignment ==

Habíci exhibits symmetric morphosyntactic alignment, in which verb's arguments' roles are determined by the verb's voice. Details of each of the four voices' semantics follow. A verb's voice is determined by the clause's focus. No matter the voice, the nominative argument is always the first argument following the verb (traditionally expressed as VSO word order).

=== Agentive voice ===

This voice can be equated with active voice of nominatitive-accusative languages. The nominative agent of an agentive voice verb is the doer of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius with a knife.}}

=== Patientive voice ===

This voice can be equated with the passive voice of nominative-accusative languages. The nominative agent of a patientive voice verb is the recipient of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaɹbitą|Hudâ-ta-ɹbitą|stab-3-PST.PV}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|âjapabuɹi|âja-pabuɹi|INDEF.OBL.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|kã.|kã|with}}
{{glend|Julius was stabbed by Brutus with a knife.}}

=== Locative voice ===

The nominative agent of a locative voice verb marks the location of the action:

{{gl|Hudâtaribą|Hudâ-ta-ribą|stab-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|fâtasinatus|fâta-sinatus|DEF.NOM.INAN-senate}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|In the Senate Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

=== Circumstantial voice ===

The nominative agent of a circumstantial voice verb can be almost any other argument of the verb, though in practice it is almost always either the instrument of the action (when inanimate), or its benefactee (when animate):

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|kõsinatutuɹ|kõ-sinatu⟨~tu⟩ɹ|DEF.NOM.ANIM-senator⟨PL⟩}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|For the senators' sake Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

{{gl|Hudâtadajɹą|Hudâ-ta-dajɹą|stab-3-PST.CV}}
{{gl|pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|ɹâk.|ɹâk|in}}
{{glend|Using a knife Brutus stabbed Julius.}}

== Subordinate clauses ==

Subordinate clauses immediately follow the nominal phrase they modify. Usually, subordinate clauses are marked with a designated prefix on the subordinate verb:

{{gl|Hudâtąmų|Hudâ-ta-ⁿmų|stab-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|kątahẽtąmųbak.|ką-tahẽ-ta-ⁿmų-bak|when-know-3-PST.AV-NEG}}
{{glend|Brutus stabbed Julius when (Julius) didn't know (about that).}}

However, more complex subordinate clause formation strategies also exist:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿmų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|hudâf|hudâf|stab}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{gl|Ihúɹihus|Ihúɹihus|Julius}}
{{gl|jɹáfuk.|jɹáfuk|after}}
{{glend|After his stabbing of Julius, Brutus left. / After having stabbed Julius, Brutus left.}}

== Possession ==

Possession is marked by means of the postposition '''fa'''. Postpositional phrases of possession follow the nominal phrase they modify:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõką|tõką|sharp}}
{{gl|Bɹútus|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{gl|fa|fa|POSS}}
{{glend|Brutus' sharp knife.}}

== Possessive clauses ==

Possessive clauses are formed with the possessee being verbalised in locative voice and with the possessor being in nominative case:

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|Bɹútus.|Bɹútus|Brutus}}
{{glend|Brutus had a sharp knife.}}

== Existential clauses ==

Existential clauses are formed just in the same way as possessive clauses, with the possessor being '''pã''' 'there':

{{gl|Pãpabuɹi|pã-pabuɹi|INDEF.NOM.INAN-knife}}
{{gl|tõkątaribą|tõką-ta-ribą|knife-3-PST.LV}}
{{gl|pã.|pã|there}}
{{glend|There was a sharp knife.}}

== Participles ==

Participles are used when the speaker wishes to use verbs to elaborate on a nominative phrase without having to use any subordinate clauses:

{{gl|Cɹadâɹtąmų|cɹadâɹ-ta-ⁿ-mų|leave-3-PST.AV}}
{{gl|kõhudąmų.|kõ-huda-ⁿmų|NOM.DEF.ANIM-stab-PST.AV}}
{{glend|The one who stabbed left.}}

== The gerund ==

Gerunds are mostly used when talking about actions:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|fâtajiba.|fâta-jiba|DEF.NOM.INAN-swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

== The infinitive ==

The infinitive is a somewhat rarely used form of the verb. Some elderly speakers use it in lieu of the gerund:

{{gl|Káɹijitąbak|káɹij-i-ta-ⁿ-bak|difficult-0-3-PRS.AV-NEG}}
{{gl|jibá.|jiba|swim}}
{{glend|Swimming is easy.}}

Otherwise, the infinitive is used in subordinate clause formation (as described above), or when forming commands for members of the family or close friends:

{{gl|Cijí!|cijí|come}}
{{glend|Come here!}}

== Modal verbs ==

Modal verbs usually take an argument in irrealis aspect, which is really a subordinate clause (though elderly speakers may substitute it with an infinitive). Strictly speaking, there are just two modal verbs in Habíci:

{{gl|Funokaką|funoka-ka-ⁿ|have_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|jibákãmuɹci.|jibá-ka-ⁿmuɹci|swim-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We have to swim.}}

{{gl|Fokaką|foka-ka-ⁿ|be_able_to-1.PL-PRS.AV}}
{{gl|crekakąmuɹci.|creka-ka-ⁿmuɹci|perform_rituals-1.PL-PRS.AV.IRR}}
{{glend|We can perform rituals.}}

= Lexicon =

[http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/e/e6/Habici_vocabulary.pdf Habíci lexicon]

== Personal pronouns ==

Nominative
{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| ornit || nírit
|-
! 2
| cɹábi || bíbi
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| ɹõs
|}

Oblique
{| {{softtable|c}}
! || SG || PL
|-
! 1
| jornit || hinírit
|-
! 2
| hícɹabi || hibíbi
|-
! 3
|colspan=2| hiɹõs, jɹõs
|}

== Other pronouns ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || interrogative || indefinite || negative || universal || proximal || distal
|-
! object
| nɹáda || pãɹada || kúpak || kúric || ɹâ || ɹõbas
|-
! object (oblique)
| jɹáda || âjanɹada || hikúpak || hikúric || jɹâ || jɹõbas
|-
! person
| úbas || ɹajúbas || kúpak || kúric || ɹâ || ɹõbas
|-
! person (oblique)
| júbas || ajúbas || hikúpak || hikúric || jɹâ || jɹõbas
|-
! time
| nõbaɹ || pãnųbaɹ || nõbak || nõbic || nõbas || nųbâ
|-
! place
| númą || pãnumą || númak || númic || pãɹų || pã
|-
! manner
| núdaj || pãnudaj || || ||colspan=2| kât
|-
! reason
| núsą
|-
! quality
| jíhix || pãjihix || jíhipak || kúrihix ||colspan=2| ɹųjíhix
|}

== Numerals ==

* 1 '''fú'''
* 2 '''kúka'''
* 3 '''ɹõda'''
* 4 '''xíbij'''
* 5 '''kúni'''
* 6 '''ɹúhuf'''
* 7 '''xíri'''
* 8 '''úką'''
* 9 '''kúhį'''
* 10 '''núba'''
* 100 '''nabába'''

* Ordinals are formed by means of the postposition '''ɹâk''' 'in'.

[[Category:Ornitic languages]]

Taamangku

2021-11-23T01:31:45Z

Rorschach:

Taamangku [ˈta:ˌmaŋku] is the language of the Taamamma (sg Taama). ‘’’’’More about the Taamamma to come’’’’’

ˌˈŋɣʃʧ

== Phonology ==

=== Consonant Inventory ===
{| {{softtable|c}}
| p || t || ch /ʧ/ || k
|-
| b || d || ||
|-
| || s || sh /ʃ/ ||
|-
| v || z || || gh /ɣ/
|-
| m || n || || ng /ŋ/
|-
| w || l || j ||
|}

Voiceless obstruents and nasals can be geminated. Gemination can be lexical, but is more often a result of morphology.

'''Allophony''' '''''to come'''''

=== Vowel Inventory ===
'''Short Vowels:'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i || || u
|-
| e || || o
|-
| || a ||
|}

'''Long Vowels:'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
| || ||
|-
| ee /e:/ || || oo /o:/
|-
| || aa /a:/ ||
|}

=== Syllable Structure ===

Syllable structure in Taamangku is CV(:)(C). CV syllables are light, while CV:, CVC and CV:C syllables are heavy (there is no separate superheavy category).

Long vowels do not appear in word-final syllables, unless they are the only stressed syllable in the word: ˈCV:(C) or CV.ˈCV:(C).

=== Prosody ===
Words in Taamangku have left-to-right iambic stress, i.e., possible feet are (ˈH), (LˈH), and (LˈL). Final syllables are unstressed ''unless'' they are the only stressable syllable in the word: . The first stressed syllable is primary, while other stresses are secondary.

The minimal word is CV(:)C, i.e., there are no CV(:) words. Monosyllabic words are uncommon in Taamangku; disyllabic and trisyllabic words are by far the most common. Words of four syllables are longer are possible due to morphology but aren't as frequent.

'''Acoustic correlates of stress and intonation''' '''''to come'''''

== Morphology ==

=== Nominal Morphology ===

==== Proclitics ====

Nouns' syntactic roles are marked by proclitics. These proclitics distinguish subjects and objects; the thematic role of subject and object depends on the verb.

The proclitics are also different depending on whether the noun precedes or follows the verb. Pre-verbal arguments are either topicalized or focused. Post-verbal arguments are often comments (in the topic/comment structure) or else generic/weakly referential. While topics and foci both precede the verb, they sit in different positions in the syntax. See the soon-to-be-filled-in Syntax section.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || Pre-verbal || Post-verbal
|-
| Subject || kuN= || liV=
|-
| Object || vaT= || paN=
|}

All other nouns (i.e., neither subjects or objects) are marked with the proclitic [eV=], except in certain syntactic and phonological environments. '''''To be described soon'''''

The proclitic-final segments {N, V, T} could be thought of as morphophonemes. Their realization depends on the following segment, i.e., the beginning of the noun it attaches to. Here's how the final segments of the proclitics are realized:

- N becomes a homorganic nasal before plosives; [n] before a vowel; geminates following nasals; and is zero before fricatives and glides.

- V voices a following voiceless obstruent (/ʧ k ʃ/ -> [z ɣ z]); becomes [j] before a vowel; and is otherwise zero.

- T geminates following voiceless obstruents and nasals; geminates and devoices following voiced plosives; becomes [d] before a vowel; and is zero before voiced fricatives and glides.

Here's a few paradigms to illustrate:

/taama/ 'warrior, Taamangku endonym'
{| {{softtable|c}}
| || Pre-verbal || Post-verbal
|-
| Subject || kun=taama || li=daama
|-
| Object || vat=taama || pan=taama
|-
| Other || e=daama
|}

/sedaam/ 'terror bird'
{| {{softtable|c}}
| || Pre-verbal || Post-verbal
|-
| Subject || ku=sedaam || li=zedaam
|-
| Object || vas=sedaam || pa=sedaam
|-
| Other || e=zedaam
|}

/lezik/ 'cooking utensil' (generalized)
{| {{softtable|c}}
| || Pre-verbal || Post-verbal
|-
| Subject || ku=lezik || li=lezik
|-
| Object || va=lezik || pa=lezik
|-
| Other || e=lezik
|}

==== Pluralization ====

Several dozen animate nouns have separate plural forms. Other nouns do not distinguish plurality. Some example animate nouns with singular and plural forms are below:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| || Singular || Plutal
|-
| person || pena || penaan
|-
| Taama person || taama || taamamma
|-
| terror bird || sedaam || sedaamam
|-
| sage || emis || emimmi
|-
| infant || sazap || sazappap
|-
| emissary || liliiba || liliibampa
|-
| nun || nena || nenaan
|}

==== Possession ====

=== Pronouns ===

=== Verbal Morphology ===

==== Object Agreement Prefixes ====

==== Subject Agreement + Voice Suffixes ====

==== Tense + Mood Suffixes ====

[[Category:Ornitic languages]]

Category:Ornitic languages

2021-11-23T01:30:43Z

Rorschach:

Page for the languages developed by Team B of the 2021 Reconstruction Relay. They are spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

Category:Ornitic languages

2021-11-21T00:50:34Z

Rorschach:

Page for the languages developed by Team B of the 2021 Reconstruction Relay. They are spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

* [[Inich Nenen]]

Category:Ornitic languages

2021-11-21T00:48:39Z

Rorschach: Created page with "Page for the languages developed by Team B of the 2021 Reconstruction Relay. They are spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia."

Page for the languages developed by Team B of the 2021 Reconstruction Relay. They are spoken in southeastern Zeluzhia.

Languages of Akana/Ronquian

2020-05-23T21:00:36Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-Ronquian]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:vec|vec]] & [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ray Tyuwey Išup]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Əktoś Duəmeuk]] {{context|(City of Ránj’a, northern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:vec|vec]])}}
** [[Mhakh Thandim]] {{context|(Kè mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
** [[Ronc Tyu]] {{context|(Śou Pínc / Kè mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Rof Tiŋe Wak]] {{context|(northern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
** [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] {{context|(northern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:kanejam|kanejam]])}}

Languages of Akana/T1

2020-05-23T21:00:20Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-T1]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP)}}
** [[Cednìtıt]] {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 0 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
***Cednìtıt Muok {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 700 YP)}}
****[[Ehnadhi]] {{context|(Western Potantrommo coast, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
** [[Old Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -800 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[West Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[East Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
*** [[Early North Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -400 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
** [[Hkətl’ohnim]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** Proto-Southeastern T1 {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -1500 YP)}}
*** [[Teyetáti]] {{context|(Yètùpono'mòn mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
*** [[Tkeḏ]] {{context|(Yètùpono'mòn mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
** [[Omari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Tumetıęk]] {{context|(north Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Clıck|Clıck]])}}
** [[Tari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]])}}
** [[Northeastern Bay Language]] {{context|(Northeastern Bay and the Heneššéme Basin, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}
***[[Asséta]] {{context|(Northeastern Bay and the Heneššéme Basin, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}

Languages of Akana

2020-05-21T23:40:50Z

Rorschach: /* Southern languages */

{{Article}}
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east:<br>
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

= [[Isles languages]] =
{{/Isles}}

= [[Macro-Edastean languages]] =
== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ==
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

== [[Xoronic languages]] ==
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 1000 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo
*** Plains Habeo
*** River Habeo
** [[Damak]]

= [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] =
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

= [[Western languages]] =
{{/Western}}

= [[Lukpanic languages]] =
{{/Lukpanic}}

= Tulameya languages =
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Lokud languages =
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Tæm-Hou languages =
== [[Peninsular languages]] ==
{{/Peninsular}}
== [[Hitatc languages]] ==
{{/Hitatc}}

= !Ho languages =
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

= Núalís-Takuña languages =
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

= [[Ronquian languages]] =
{{/Ronquian}}

= [[Leic languages]] =
{{/Leic}}

= Wendoth languages =
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

= Mbingmik languages =
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

= Muyan languages =
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

= [[Dumic languages]] =
{{/Dumic}}

= [[T1 languages]] =
{{/T1}}

= Macro-Anatolionesian languages =
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Northeastern Tuysáfa languages =
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

= Kopian languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Damo-Tingreya languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Team B languages =
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - akam chinjir)}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13)}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Frislander)}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Tomē Nilōyi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - dhok)}}

= Southern languages =
* [[Báxbílâtáxa|Báxbílâtáxa]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP)}}
* [[Lécāi|Lécāi]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}
* [[Sáśaravi|Sáśaravi]] {{context|(Còchin Kingdom, southern Peilaš, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}
* [[Stuhmì|Stuhmì]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tathketer|Tathketer]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tmèktol|Tmèktol]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Màpxèracáma|Màpxèracáma]] {{context|(somewhere in southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:kodane|kodane, a.k.a, kodé]])}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Languages of Akana

2020-05-19T01:53:28Z

Rorschach: /* Southern languages */ How could I mess this up so badly?

{{Article}}
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east:<br>
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

= [[Isles languages]] =
{{/Isles}}

= [[Macro-Edastean languages]] =
== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ==
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

== [[Xoronic languages]] ==
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 1000 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo
*** Plains Habeo
*** River Habeo
** [[Damak]]

= [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] =
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

= [[Western languages]] =
{{/Western}}

= [[Lukpanic languages]] =
{{/Lukpanic}}

= Tulameya languages =
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Lokud languages =
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Tæm-Hou languages =
== [[Peninsular languages]] ==
{{/Peninsular}}
== [[Hitatc languages]] ==
{{/Hitatc}}

= !Ho languages =
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

= Núalís-Takuña languages =
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

= [[Ronquian languages]] =
{{/Ronquian}}

= [[Leic languages]] =
{{/Leic}}

= Wendoth languages =
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

= Mbingmik languages =
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

= Muyan languages =
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

= [[Dumic languages]] =
{{/Dumic}}

= [[T1 languages]] =
{{/T1}}

= Macro-Anatolionesian languages =
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Northeastern Tuysáfa languages =
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

= Kopian languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Damo-Tingreya languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Team B languages =
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - akam chinjir}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Frislander}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous}}

= Southern languages =
* [[Báxbílâtáxa|Báxbílâtáxa]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP)}}
* [[Sáśaravi|Sáśaravi]] {{context|(Còchin Kingdom, southern Peilaš, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}
* [[Stuhmì|Stuhmì]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tathketer|Tathketer]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tmèktol|Tmèktol]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Languages of Akana

2020-05-18T23:37:13Z

Rorschach: /* Southern languages */

{{Article}}
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east:<br>
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

= [[Isles languages]] =
{{/Isles}}

= [[Macro-Edastean languages]] =
== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ==
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

== [[Xoronic languages]] ==
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 1000 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo
*** Plains Habeo
*** River Habeo
** [[Damak]]

= [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] =
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

= [[Western languages]] =
{{/Western}}

= [[Lukpanic languages]] =
{{/Lukpanic}}

= Tulameya languages =
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Lokud languages =
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Tæm-Hou languages =
== [[Peninsular languages]] ==
{{/Peninsular}}
== [[Hitatc languages]] ==
{{/Hitatc}}

= !Ho languages =
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

= Núalís-Takuña languages =
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

= [[Ronquian languages]] =
{{/Ronquian}}

= [[Leic languages]] =
{{/Leic}}

= Wendoth languages =
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

= Mbingmik languages =
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

= Muyan languages =
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

= [[Dumic languages]] =
{{/Dumic}}

= [[T1 languages]] =
{{/T1}}

= Macro-Anatolionesian languages =
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

= Northeastern Tuysáfa languages =
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

= Kopian languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Damo-Tingreya languages =
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

= Team B languages =
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - akam chinjir}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Frislander}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous}}

= Southern languages =
* [[Báxtáxabílâ|Báxtáxabílâ]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP)}}
* [[Sáśaravi|Sáśaravi]] {{context|(Còchin Kingdom, southern Peilaš, c. -1000 YP - [[User:Thethief3|Thethief3]])}}
* [[Stuhmì|Stuhmì]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tathketer|Tathketer]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}
* [[Tmèktol|Tmèktol]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Man in Space]])}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Zeluzhia

2020-02-25T08:34:52Z

Rorschach:

{{Article}}
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Akana-blank-NE_hemisphere.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A map of Zeluzhia and surrounding continents.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:50px; right:260px; font-size:smaller">
'''Peilaš'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:45px; right:60px; font-size:smaller">
'''Tuysáfa'''
</div>
<div style="position:absolute; top:115px; right:120px; font-size:smaller">
'''Zeluzhia'''
</div>
</div>

'''Zeluzhia''' is a large continent in the world of [[Akana]]. It is located mainly in the Southern Hemisphere, south of [[Tuysáfa]]. It is separated from [[Njemnetsa]] by a small, island-filled sea.

A large, high mountain range, formed by the collision of the Western Zeluzhia plates with the Eastern Zeluzhia Plate, runs north to south through the southeastern part of the continent. The far north is also mountainous.
Most of Zeluzhia is tropical savannah and grasslands; the equatorial regions, and much of the east coast, are covered by rainforest. There are small areas of desert and scrubland in the north and the southwest, and the far south is temperate.

Zeluzhia was populated at some point between -14000 and -12000 [[YP]] by paleolithic hunter-gatherers belonging to the [[Theory of Three Waves#First wave|first wave of human settlement]] of Tuysáfa. Accordingly, most of the indigenous language families of Zeluzhia are considered to belong to the [[Primundic languages|Primundic]] phylum. A couple of [[Mediundic languages|Mediundic]] and [[Ultimundic languages|Ultimundic]] languages are spoken in Zeluzhia as well, but these arrived much later, being clearly related to languages spoken elsewhere.

The word ''Zeluzhia'' is derived from [[Zeluzh]], the name of a kingdom in the northwestern part of the continent, because Zeluzh was the first nation of Zeluzhia contacted by the great nations of [[Peilaš]].

==Names==

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Jamna Kopiai]]
| Hioah
| [ˈhɪ.wah]
| "everyone", "the world"
|-
! [[Zele]]
| Tsashagimi
| [tsaˈʃa.ɡi.mi]
| [[Proto-Isles|PI]] ''ta sákimi'', "great South"
|-
! [[Wippwo]]
| Saγãi
| ['sa.ɣãj]
| <-- reflex of ''Tsashagimi''
|-
|}

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Zeluzhia|*]]
[[Category:Geography]]

Antarctica

2020-02-24T05:07:04Z

Rorschach:

Antarctica

2020-02-24T05:05:13Z

Rorschach:

Antarctica

2020-02-24T05:02:05Z

Rorschach:

Antarctica

2020-02-24T04:53:40Z

Rorschach:

Antarctica

2020-02-24T04:52:30Z

Rorschach: Rorschach moved page Antarctica to Njemnetsa

Antarctica

2018-08-06T02:35:03Z

Rorschach:

Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)

2016-03-11T11:05:52Z

Rorschach: I'm correcting mistakes from my end, not the other team's—hopefully fixing this isn't too forward of me. If so, I apologize.

Proto-Rompian (a.k.a. Proto-Ronquian) as reconstructed by T2. Rompian comes from the reconstructed word for 'language':

*roxʷ < *roŋxʷ < *romp ARN
*ɻɔ̃ʔ < *rɔ̃p < *romp RT
*rǒp < *rɔ̃p < *romp RTJ
*rof < *romf < *romp RNW
*rɔm < *romp MT
*raj (< rV(V)(C) < *romp) RTI
*reː < *raj (< rV(V)(C) < *romp) RRK

Initially the name Proto-Ronquian was used, as the word for language was thought to be *roŋkʷ. However as serious reconstructing began, it quickly became obvious that labiovelars were an innovation of [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] from labials under some conditions and consequently the word for language was rather *romp. Therefore the term Proto-Ronquian is obsolete and Proto-Rompian is more accurate. Nevertheless, the former is more widely used.

Proto-Northwest-Tuysáfa was also sometimes used.

[[Category:Ronquian languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Ronquian]]

List of used abbreviations:

* ARN - [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]]
* MT - [[Mhakh Thandim‎]]
* PR - Proto-Rompian
* RT - [[Ronc Tyu]]
* RTJ - [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]]
* RNW - [[Rof Njiŋe Wek]]
* RRK - [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]]
* RTI - [[Ray Tyuwey Išup]]
* ƏD - [[Əktoś Duəmeuk]]

= Phonology =

== Sound inventory ==

Zju has suggested the following consonant inventory.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Fortis stop
| p || t || k || q || ʔ
|-
! Lenis stop type
| b || d || g || ɢ
|-
! Fricative
| f || s ɬ || x || χ || h
|-
! Sonorant
| w || r l || j || ʀ
|-
! Nasal
| m || n || ŋ || ɴ
|}

*R denotes a consonant phoneme of unknown quality that appears after a coronal onset and which is reflexed as w in RT and MT, but as retroflexing of the onset in RTJ. It was not deleted by the CRV > CVː sound change in MT, unlike most other liquids, but lengthened the following vowel nevertheless.

KathAveara has suggested the following consonant inventory.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Palatal
! Velar
! Labio-velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! V.less Stop
| p
| t
|
| k
| kʷ
| q
| ʔ
|-
! Voiced Stop
| b
| d
|
| g
| gʷ
| ɢ
|-
! Fricative
| f
| s, ɬ
|
| x
| xʷ
| χ
|-
! Approximant
|
| l, r
| j
|
| w
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
| ŋ
| ŋʷ
| ɴ
|}

Vowel inventory:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Vowels
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i
|
| u
|-
! Mid
| e
| ə
| o
|-
! Low
|colspan=3|a
|}

'''ə''' stands for a vowel that shows up variously as '''e''' or '''a''' in RT and RTJ, with or without palatalising effect, and only as '''a''' in MT.

Vowels could be preceeded and followed by any of w, j.

=== Allophony ===

One allophonic process can be safely reconstructed for PR.

==== Lenition ====

Onsets of strong syllables lenited intervocally when being a single consonant and in some consonant clusters:

* hC > C
* p t k q > b d g ɢ
* f s ɬ x χ > w r l j ʀ (<β z ɮ ɣ ʁ at pre PR stage)
* b d g ɢ > f s x χ
* m n ŋ ɴ w r l j ʀ > m n ŋ ɴ w r l j ʀ (sonorants don't lenite)

Consonant clusters containing plain stops and non-stop consonant lenited only the stop:

* *trip 'offense, insult'
* *sədrip < *sətrip 'offenses, insults'

Clusters of a plain stop and a glottal stop also behaved in this way:

* *əbʔik 'once' < *pʔik 'one'

==== Plosive series ====

One of the two plosive series could have had allophones under some circumstances. The possible scenarios are:

* T, D
* T ~ Tʰ, D
* Tʰ, D ~ T
* Tʰ, T

With the first three being most likely, since fricatives also come in voiceless and voiced series and the two sets change their series under the same condition - namely intervocalic lenition.

=== Phonotactics ===

At least the following sets of onsets are likely to have existed:

*(h)(C)C(r l)(ʔ h j w)
*NC
*∅

Where C doesn't include glottal consonants and NC is a cluster of a homorgranic nasal and plain stop. It's quite possible that not all combinations of (h)(C)C(r l ʔ)(j w) were permitted.

When -j-, -ʔ- or -w- was infixed, any of preceding j, w, ʔ was deleted.

A liquid and ʔ were metathesized for the purpose of forming an ejective at a later stage.

The following codas seem to have been permitted:

*T
*NT
*N
*ɬ
*r

Where T is a plain stop and NT is a homorganic cluster. Additionally, l, s, h and ʔ are also somewhat likely to have been permitted as coda consonants, but currently no reflex of any of them is known.

== Strong syllables ==

Strong syllables probably carried some kind of tone or stress. Words had one and only one strong syllable.

== Weak syllables ==

Weak (reduced) syllables had the same set of onsets as strong syllables. However they had no coda and a limited set of vowels, or only one vowel - ə. Additionally they were atonic or unstressed if there was phonemic tone or stress in PR.

It's possible that PR words had no weak syllables at all and only one syllable instead.

= Grammar =

PR grammar was largely analitical, however with some traces of inflectional morphology.

== Nouns ==

Nouns likely had multiple ways of forming plural number, or it was that plurality was not yet a well defined category in PR and there were several concurrent ways of expressing plural meaning.<br/>
Many, if not all, of the following affixes were likely derivational rather than inflectional, which were later grammaticalised differently.

=== Prefixes ===

* *ə- - forming construct state in some cases.
* *h- - forming plural number in some cases.
* *t- - paucal or collective prefix.
* *m- - deverbal prefix forming abstract nouns.
* *s(ə)- - deverbative prefix, perhaps for resultative nouns. A vowel was inserted before consonants.
* *r- - augmentative prefix.
* *Vr- - agent prefix.
* *Vk- - instrumental prefix.

=== Infixes ===

* *-j- - singulative infix, placed between onset and nucleus of the main syllable.
* *-w- - plurative infix, placed between onset and nucleus of the main syllable, forming plural number in some cases.
* A paucal infix of the shape *-nt- could also have existed.
* *-ʔ- - of unknown exact function. An example is *pʔom 'hat' < *pom 'head'.
* *-r- - diminutive infix.

The usage of singulative and plurative infix was lexicalised in some cases, if they were not originally a part of the derivational morphology in the first place.

=== Suffixes ===

* *-t - dual or plural suffix
* *-Ri - diminutive suffix.
* *-nu - agent suffix.
* *-(h)it - resultative suffix.
* *-Ra - instrumental suffix.

=== Construct state ===

Construct state was formed by prefixing a lone vowel of unknown quality (probably already reduced in PR), which on its part triggered consonant lenition. That vowel was subsequently lost in most cases, leaving consonant lenition as the marker of the construct state.<br/>There might have been some other changes involved in forming the construct state, such as deleting glottalic consonants in the onset.

The construct state had various functions, such as marking the possessee. It contrasted with absolute state, which was the unmarked form of the noun.

== Verbs ==

A verb in PR was either transitive or intransitive - transitive verbs couldn't be used in intransitive constructions and vice versa. Instead, derivational morphology existed.

=== Attributive forms ===

Verbs had an attributive form, which essentially turned the verb into an adjective. It was formed by the prefix g-.

== Affixes ==

=== Prefixes ===

* *g- - turning verbs into adjectives(called attributive verbs). It had the allomorph *k- before voiced obstruents probably already in PR. Additionally the allomorphs *gə-, *kə- before certain consonant clusters existed either in PR or at a later stage.
* *n- - antipassive prefix; reduces the valency of the verb, e.g. pʔi 'grow' > mpʔi 'grow up, become an adult'
* *nr- - the state of resembling a noun.

=== Infixes ===

* *-Ert- - reversing the meaning of a verb.

=== Suffixes ===

== Particles ==

PR had at least the particle *ni for indicating plural number in nouns. It was placed before its head noun.<br/>
Two particles *t and *n also existed, marking the noun for paucal and/or plural number.

== Pronouns & Determiners ==

=== Personal Pronouns ===

Proto-Ronquian had 3 persons in at least 3 numbers, singular, dual and plural. It also had a 3rd person collective pronoun. There may have been an animacy distinction in the 3rd person too.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! sing.
! dual
! plur.
! coll.
|-
! 1st
| na
| nat
| haj
|-
! 2nd
| muŋ
| mint < miŋt
| wor
|-
! 3rd Anim.
| gi
| gut
|
| -
|-
! 3rd Inan.
| mdo
|
|
| do
|}

*mdo seems to be formed from *do with prefixation of *m-; its connection with the other two *m- prefixes is unclear.

=== Indefinite Determiners ===

=== Demonstratives ===

=== Interrogative Determiners ===

=== Indefinite Quantifiers ===

== Numerals ==

Proto-Ronquian uses a mixed base-6/24 number system. The basic numerals are reconstructed as:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!colspan=2| KathAveara
!colspan=3| Zju
|-
!
! cardinal
! ordinal
! cardinal || multiplier || ordinal
|-
! 1
| pʔik
| mʔək
| *pʔik || *əbʔik || *hmək
|-
! 2
| ki:
| kso
| *qis || *əɢis || *qzo
|-
! 3
| tʔuq
| ntoq
| *tʔuq || *ədʔuq || *ntoq
|-
! 4
| paɬ
|
| *pjaɬ, *paɬ || *əbaɬ ||
|-
! 5
| fəɴ
|
| *fjaŋ, *faŋ || *əwjaŋ, *əwaŋ ||
|-
! 6
| ɬja ~ ɬa
|
| *ɬja, *ɬa || *ɐla ||
|-
! 12
| ɬat
|
| *ɬat || ||
|-
! 18
| qoɬ
|
| *quɬ || ||
|-
! 24
| tram
|
| *tram || ||
|}

Numbers 4, 5, 6 had variants with and without singulative infix. Numbers 6 and 12 shared the same root, with 12 having dual suffix, and 6 having either the bare root or singulative infix.

The construct state of a numeral was used as a multiplier.

== Syntax ==

=== Prepositions ===

There were two sets of prepositions - noun-like (nouns in construct state) and primary.

= Sound changes =

Sound changes preceeded by an interrogative are entirely speculative (or nearly so) and rather have the status of suggestions.

Conditions preceeded by an interrogative mark are unknown and/or speculative.

== To [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] ==

* Tʔ > Tʼ
* Tʼ > T / _V[-stress]
* NT > NÞ > Þ / _#
* V > ɐ / _[-full syllable]
* ɬ > ʃ / _#
* C > Cʲ / _i, ?
* C > Cʷ / _u, ?
* Cj Cw > Cʲ Cʷ / _V
* P > Kʷ / ?_{a o u}
* P > Kʷ / {o u}_#
* C > Cʲ / {e i}_#, _Cʲ
* C > Cʷ / {o u}_#, _Cʷ
* ɬj ɬ > ʃʲ ʂ
* q > χ / #_
* ɐ > ɪ / _Cʲ; ʊ / _Cʷ
* ʀ > ʁ
* ɢʲ ɢ ɢʷ > ʁʲ ʁ ʁʷ
* ɲʲ ŋʲ > nʲ
* ɳʷ > nʷ
* si > ʃi
* tj > tʃ

* N > Þ / _# '''NB:''' Only two cases found, neither from an original NT coda, details about this SC are unclear. It may or may not be connected with NT > NÞ > Þ / _#. <br/>It may also have not occured at all, but rather such a correspondance being raised via a single consonant suffix being attached to those two words('thou' and 'five') before NT > NÞ > Þ / _#.

== To [[Mhakh Thandim]] ==

* T[-voice]ʔ > Tʼ
* b > w / V_V
* tr > dr / V_V
* drV dlV > rV[+length] lV[+length]
* CC{ʔ r l w j s}V > C{ʔ r l w j s}V[+length]
* C{ʔ r l w j s}V > CV[+length]
* md sd ng rg > mr sr nl rl
* rl > ral
* ŋ > ʔ / #_VN
* D T > T Tʰ
* ? ʀ > ∅ / _VC[+uvular]
* ʀV, Vʀ > V[+breathy]
* hN > N[-voice]
* hV hCV > V[+breathy] CV[+breathy]
* ? Vh > V[+breathy]
* q > h / #_
* ? g > h / #_, ?
* q > ʔ / _#
* ɬ > u / _#
* ɬ > s / #_
* ? V > a/ə / ?
* ek > ak / _#, ?
* ij uw ow > ii uu uu
* aL > aj
* a o u e i > ə ɔ ʊ ɛ ɪ
* jɛ > e
* aa oo uu ee ii > a o u e i
* CCC Cj > CCəC Cɪj / ?
* Q > K
* NT > N / _#
* ? NT > N[-voice] / #_
* hV > jV[+breathy]
* ? k kʼ > ʔ / #_[+ ?]
* NT > ND / V_V
* x > χ
* pʰ tʰ kʰ > ɸ θ x / _#, #_
* p t k > pʰ tʰ kʰ / when not in CCs; however #_TV is a valid condition
* m > ∅ / #_u
* ɸ > w / V_V

At some point there was a reduplication process word initially that affected some of the words, which took place before changing NT clusters. The reduplicated vowel was a, which agreed in length with the main vowel.

Metathesis of onset consonants also took place, e.g. in klu /kʰlʊ/ destroy, but salcu /səlʔʊ/ destruction, ruin < *lku, *s(a)-lku

== To [[Ronc Tyu]] ==

* ? u > o / [+uvular]_
* Q > K
* V > ∅ / [-full syllable] (almost unconditional - some RT words are not monosyllabic)
* regressive voicing assimilation (e.g. sd > zd)
* D > N / _[+stop]
* C[-stop +voice]V > C[-stop +voice]V[+mid tone] / ?
* ? CwV > CwV[+high tone]
* ʔV > V[+low tone]
* C[+stop +voice] > C[+nasal] / _V[+low tone]
* C[+stop +voice]V > C[+stop -voice]V[+mid tone]
* hNV > NV[+high tone] / #_
* md > mr > nr > ndr > nɖʐ
* zt > zd > d
* sm > sb > zb > b
* tr > r / #_
* q χ ɴ > g x ŋ
* s > ʣ / #_, ? (or was it tz/dz > ʣ with initial d being lost elsewhere?)
* j > dʑ / #_V[+full syllable], ?
* ∅ > j / #_i
* Simplification of consonant clusters in the onset leads to new voiced consonants.
* hV > hV[+mid tone]
* h > ∅ / N_V
* hC[-voiced obstruent]{w y ∅}V[+mid tone] > C[-voiced obstruent]{w y ∅}V[+high tone]
* t d k g > ts dz tɕ dʑ / _{V[+front] j}
* s > r / #_V, ?
* r > ∅ / #_u, ?
* ɬ > u / _#
* ɬ > ∅ / #_j
* ɬ > l / #_, ?
* ɬ > hl / #_, ?
* ij uw aː> iə uə aə / ?
* ja wa > iə uə
* ij uw > ɛɪ ɔʊ / ?
* aj aw > ɛɪ ɔʊ / ?
* aL > a
* a > o / _{p m}
* VN(T) > V[+nasal](T) / _#
* p t k > ʔ / _#
* tj dj kj gj sj zj ŋj lj rj wj > ts dz tɕ dʑ ɕ ʑ nj j j j
* x > ɕ / _V[+front]
* x > h
* kwu > ku

Evidence from the multiplier numbers (mìc nòc < *bʔik *dʔuq < *əbʔik *ədʔuk < *pʔik *tʔuk) suggests that all instances of a nasal followed by low tone vowel could go back to clusters of a voiced stop and glottal stop.

=== Construct state development ===

Construct state fell out of RT when unstressed vowels were deleted and initial consonant clusters were simplified. This completely distorted lenition patterns, they become unproductive and soon ceased to be used. Marking possession by simple juxtapostion without any morphological change is the sole reflex of the construct state.

== To [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]] ==

* Tʔ > Tʼ
* Vɬ > V[+length] / _#
* tr > dr / V_V
* VN > V[+nasal +low tone] /_#
* VNT > V[+nasal +what tone?]T / _#
* ? VNT > V[+nasal +?]T / V_V
* C[+stop]N[+voice] > N[-voice]
* hN > N[-voice]
* NT > əT ~ əD / #_, ?
* ? ja aj > e / ?, eː /?
* ? wa aw > o / ?, oː /?
* ? ẽ õ → ɛ̃ ɔ̃
* Vʀ > Vː
* oɬ > oː
* wi > uː
* i u > e o / _#
* V[+nasal] > V[-nasal +length] / lengthens only in open syllables
* V[+?] > V[+low tone] / ?
* V[-low tone] > V[+high tone]
* V > V[+low tone] / N_C
* D > N / _V[+low tone]
* D T > T Tʰ
* V > ə / _[-full syllable]
* ? l N > ə / #_C, ?
* rk > rək
* q > k / _i
* ? u > o / [+uvular]_
* ? səf > sf > fʰ / _[+full syllable] (? sC > Cʰ)
* ? sʔ > sʰ
* kC[+obstruent -aspiration -ejectiveness] > Cʰ
* kN[+voice] > N[-voice]
* regressive PoA assimilation for stops
* C[+stop]C[+stop] > C[+stop]əC[+stop]
* C[+stop -aspiration]h > C[+stop +aspiration]
* kw kʰ kʼw > p pʰ pʼ
* ə > e / [+full syllable]

===Retroflection and r loss===

r stands for any liquid other than lʲ

* tʰr tr tʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* tsʰr tsr tsʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* tɕʰr tɕr tɕʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* kʰr kr kʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* qr qʼr qʰr > ʀ
* hr > r[-voice]
* sr sʰr ɕr ɕʰr xr xʰr χr χʰr > ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ
* ɬr ɬʰr ɬʲr ɬʲʰr > ꞎ ꞎʰ ꞎ ꞎʰ (ɬ[+retroflex])
* lr ʎr > ər
* rt rtʼ rtʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rts rtsʼ rtsʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rtɕ rtɕʼ rtɕʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rk rkʼ rkʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rs rsʰ rɕ rɕʰ > ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ
* nr rn > ɳ
* r > ∅ / {V C}_C

===Palatalisation===

* s sʰ tʰ t tʼ ɫ > ɕ ɕʰ tsʰ ts tsʼ ɬʲ / _V[+front]
* ts > ʦ
* sj sʰj tʰj tj tʼj ɫj > ɕ ɕʰ tsʰ ts tsʼ ɬʲ
* k kʰ kʼ > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ / _V[+front]
* kj kʰj kʼj > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ
* klʲ kʰlʲ kʼlʲ > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ
* nj ŋj > ɲ
* n ŋ > ɲ / _V[+front]

===χ loss===

* χ > ɕ / _V[+front]
* χ > h / ?
* χ > f / ?

== To [[Rof Tiŋe Wak]] ==

* CʔV > CV[+creaky]
* ? i > oː / q_
* ? pa > pu
* ? V[-creaky] > V[+breathy] / [+stop]_
* NT > NÞ > Þ / _#
* (ʔ/h)V > V[+breathy] / #_
* rV > V[+creaky] / #_

== To [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]] ==

* sn sm > st sp
* m > v / _VN
*m > ∅ / #_u
* D > T
* Tʔ > D
* Q > K
* i > ɨ / K_
* i > ɨ / ?
* tr > tw
* s > ʃ
* ɬ > s / #_
* ɬ > l / _#
* VN > V[+length]
* p’ t’ k’ b d > b d g v r / V_V
* n > r / ? #_V
* ?i ?ɨ ?e > ı u a
* ?iː ?ɨː ?ɛː > ɛː aː ːɨ

= Important correspondances =

The correspondance<br/>
RT táen pass htáen, attr gláen, RTJ tràì, MT thang 'doubt'<br/>
conflicts with some of the posited sound changes, so they'll need to be changed to say the least. Currently, each word requires a slightly different reconstruction: tajN, trajN, taŋ

* RTJ zr - MT r + tense vowel < *dr
* RTJ cr - MT l
* RTJ length - MT breathiness < *X
* RTJ ê - MT i < *E
*RT a - RTJ á - MT aj < *aL
*RT ou - RTJ ó - MT ú < *oɬ
*RT kw - RTJ p - MT h < ? *kp
*RT kw + low tone - RTJ pʼ - MT ʔ < ? *kpʔ
* RTJ í - MT ú
*RT s - RTJ h - MT h

RT - pwanc, pl dànc- RTJ blád, dlád - MT pán /pʰan/, all meaning child. Note the parallel irregularity in RT and RTJ. PR was probably *bwan~blan, with the sonorant changing in either RT or RTJ and lengthening the vowel in MT.

RT pienc - RTJ bád, dlyád - MT púyan /pʰujən/: orphan - a derivative from *bl/wan using a infix?

RTJ àì# - MT əN

'''NB''' There is an element which made a vowel breathy in MT and diphthongised it in RT in most cases. Could it be a coda /h/?

*RT dz - RTJ x - MT s
*RT dź - RTJ hx - MT ds

In what way is breathiness connected with the coda?
*ang /əŋ/ rightness, righteousness - grágh < *qraɴq
*āng /ə̤ŋ/ hurt, wound, injure, harm - grág < *qraŋk, *?aŋk, *qhraŋk

What are the conditions for prothetic vowels and why does CrV → CV[+length] not apply? Are RT fricatives rather voiced because of VsV → VzV → zV?
*asakh /əsəx/ wolf - zac, hsac - srég < *(a)srVk
*asac /əsəʔ/ eagle - zoc, hsoc - ságh < *(a)sVq

kr → ʈ in RTJ?? There are a few other examples besides this one of a k(ʼ) ~ tr(ʼ) correspondance.
*gak’ókh /kək’ox/ hunt - getrʼóg < *kakʔrok

How to interpret the onset:
*gen /kɛn/ be different, be unusual, be another - ngàì

*MT '''yakh''' /jəx/ throat - RTJ '''yág''' /ják/ id. < *jak
*MT '''yaŋ''' /jəŋ/ be happy - RTJ '''yágh''' /jáq/ id. < *jaɴq
*MT '''yaŋ''' /jəŋ/ happiness - RTJ '''grágh''' /ʀáq/ id. < *?aɴq
however:
*MT '''tokh''' /tʰɔx/ wood - RTJ '''dóg''' /tók/ id < *dok
*MT '''tong''' /tʰɔŋ/ ant - RTJ '''dóg''' /tók/ id < *doŋk
*MT '''tung''' /tʰʊŋ/ vomit - RTJ '''dúgh''' /túq/ id < *duɴq
*MT '''sung''' /sʊŋ/ pool, pond - RTJ '''súg''' /súk/ < *suŋk

*MT '''súkh''' /sux/ be slow - RT '''sruc''' /ʂuʔ/ - RTJ '''srúg''' /ʂúk/ < *sruk '''NB!''' In mT ru → ū → u due to CrV → CV[+length]
*MT '''sung''' /sʊŋ/ pool, pond - RTJ '''súg''' /súk/ < *suŋk

*MT '''safai''' /səfaɪ̯/ source, origin - RTJ '''hfáí''' /fʰɛ́/ id < *səfaj
*MT '''safeng''' /səfɛŋ/ thanks - RTJ '''hfég''' /fʰék/ id < *səfeŋk

*MT '''rúmbú''' /rumbu/ wrist - RTJ '''rrĕbú''' /rəpú/ id < *rumpu

Tracing the origin of RTJ initial ĕwĕ-:

*MT '''rómbáth''' /rombaθ/ palace - RTJ '''ĕwĕbád''' /əwəpát/ id
*MT '''róla''' /rolə/ raven - RT '''ogá''' id - RTJ '''ĕwĕqa''' /əwətɕʰa/ id

*MT '''pgo''' /pʰkɔ/ stick - RTJ '''ko''' /kʰo/ id
It's interesting that no word in MT begins in p, only ɸ, pʰ and pʼ.

RTJ has retained a distinction that MT and RT have merged:
*MT '''nath''' /nəθ/ teeth - RT '''nac''' /naʔ/ id - RTJ '''nèd''' /nèt/ id < *net
*MT '''nath''' /nəθ/ both - RT '''nac''' /naʔ/ id - RTJ '''nàd''' /nàt/ id < *nat

Evidence of reduplication in MT:
*MT '''mummung''' /mʊmmʊŋ/ squirrel - RT '''mwinc''' /mwĩʔ/ id - RTJ '''mòg''' /mòk/ id < *muŋk
*MT '''nonnong''' /nɔnnɔŋ/ girl - RTJ '''nògh''' / nòq/ id < *noɴq

Vowel deletion leading to consonant clusters, also a r - ʈʂ correspondance and unstressed vowel reduction:
*MT '''khirúm''' /xɪrum/ fast (abstain from eating) - RT '''grunc''' /grũʔ/ id - RTJ '''kĕzrúb''' /kʰəʈʂúp/ id < *khirump

One possible origin of voiceless nasals?
*MT '''dandí''' /təndi/ summer - RT '''ndàe''' id - RTJ '''hnò''' /n̥ò/ id < *(ta)ntV
*MT '''dandu''' /təndʊ/ admit, confess - RT '''ndù''' id - RTJ '''hnô''' /n̥ô/ id < *(ta)ntu

*MT '''ē''' /ɛ̤/ feeling, sense, intuition - RTJ '''ĕháí''' /əhɛ́/ id < *Vhɛ

== Numerals comparison ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || RTJ || RT || MT || ARN || pre ARN || RNW || RRK || ƏT || RTI || PR
|-
!1
| p’íg || pìc || p’ikh || pʲik || *pjik² || pęq || bik || bek || piš || *pʔik
|-
!2
| kú || káe || hí || x̠i || *qi || qó: || kıı || kuś || čey || *qis
|-
!3
| t’úgh || tòc || t’uc || tʷ'uq || *tʔuq || tįq || duk || dok || truk || *tʔuq
|-
!4
| pé || pyáo || phau || ʃʷaʃ || *xwaʃ³ || púl || pal || pel || pal || *pjaɬ, *paɬ
|-
!5
| fàì || fyein || fang || ʃʷax̠ || *fjax̠ || fu || huu || fən || huu || *fjaŋ, *faŋ
|-
!6
| dlyă || yé || sa || ŋʷoʃkʲe || *ʃe || ɬu || sa || ɬa || sa || *ɬja, *ɬa
|-
!12
| dlád || lác || sath || ʂat || || || sat || ɬat || šat || *ɬat
|-
!18
| khó || kóu || hú || (24: x̠oʃ) || || || kol || qul || kol || *quɬ
|-
!24
| crà || tróun || thám || (36:sram) || || || twaa || trən || tree || *tram
|}

¹ In RTJ none of qʰ q qʼ appears before /i/.<br/>
² The singulative infix -j- was inserted, which deleted the glottal stop.<br/>
³ The plurative infix -w- was likely inserted, which caused the dissimilation pw > xw to occur, which was subsequently assimilated to ʃw, due to the influence of coda ʃ. This onset ʃʷ later replaced the original onset in the word for 5.

4, 5 and 6 all seem to have had variants with and without the singulative infix.

== Pronouns comparison ==

== Onset correspondances ==

Only some basic types are shown here, without, for example, including the correspondances that are given rise to by palatalisation. Uvulars and velars merged in MT and RT, so the uvular series is not presented either, being completely analogous to the velar one.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | PR
! scope="col" | Comment
|-
| ɸ θ x || p t k +high tone || pʰ tʰ kʰ || p t k ||
|-
| pʰ tʰ kʰ || p t k +mid tone || p t k || b d g ||
|-
| pʼ tʼ kʼ || p t k +low tone || pʼ tʼ kʼ || pʔ tʔ kʔ || sometimes MT has ʔ instead
|-
| m n ŋ || m n ŋ +mid tone || m n ŋ || m n ŋ ||
|-
| m̥ n̥ ŋ̊ || m n ŋ +high tone || m̥ n̥ ŋ̊ || hm hn hŋ ||
|-
| pʰ tʰ kʰ || m n ŋ +low tone || p t k || bʔ dʔ gʔ || merged with b d g in almost all branches
|-
|}

== Intervocalic correspondances ==

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | Comment
|-
| r || || ʈʂ
|-
| r || || ʈ
|-
| mb || || p
|-
| nd || ∅ || t
|-
| jV[+breathy] || h || h
|-
|l || g || tɕʰ
|-
|r || || ʈʂ
|-
|}

== Rhyme correspondances ==

== Coda correspondances ==

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | PR
! scope="col" | Comment
|-
|m n ŋ ŋ || ~ || ∅ || m n ŋ ɴ || There are some hints of former nasalisation in RTJ.
|-
|m n ŋ ŋ || ~ʔ || p t k q || mp nt ŋk ɴq
|-
|ɸ θ x ʔ || ʔ || p t k q || p t k q
|-
|}

= Lexicon =

The partially reconstructed lexicon is available here: [[RED|Rompian Etymological Dictionary]]

= Internal reconstruction =

In all likelihood the liquid series comes from voiced fricative series:

w r l j ʀ < β z ɮ ɣ ʁ

Firstly, this makes the reconstruction of two stop series - voiceless and voiced - all the more more likely. And secondly, it raises the question was there ɦ, and if it was present, what are its reflexes? Some or all of w, r, l, j could already have been present before this shift, however.

Main Page

2013-01-21T01:40:56Z

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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Languages</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] • ''[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]''
:[[Talo-Edastean languages]] • ''[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]]''
::Talo languages • ''[[Tlaliolz]]''
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:::''[[Adāta]]'' • ''[[Ndok Aisô]]'' • ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' • ''[[Delta Naidda|Naidda]]'' • ''[[Fáralo]]''
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Languages of Akana/T1

2013-01-21T01:36:50Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-T1]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP)}}
** [[Cednìtıt]] {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 0 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
** Old Yalan {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -800 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[West Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[East Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
** [[Hkətl’ohnim]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** Proto-Southeastern T1 {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -1500 YP)}}
*** [[Teyetáti]] {{context|(Yètùpono'mòn mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Linguifex]])}}
*** [[Tkeḏ]] {{context|(Yètùpono'mòn mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Linguifex]])}}
** [[Omari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Hato]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:2-4|2-4]])}}
** Northeastern Bay Language {{context|(Northeastern Bay, c. -1000 YP)}}
*** [[Cëzëdeğozin]] {{context|(Ieğiuk River Basin, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}
*** [[Śetiid]] {{context|(Ieğiuk River Basin, Śetiid Plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}

Cednìtıt

2013-01-21T01:31:35Z

Rorschach: /* Sample Text */ Added citation.

{{Language
| language = Cednìtıt
| phonetic = [ {{IPA|ɕɛtnjʌ̀tʰəʔ}} ]
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = [[Potantrommo Bay]], in southeastern [[Tuysáfa]]
| speakers = ''unknown''
| script = ''unknown''
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />  Cednìtıt
| word-or = OV/SOV
| mor-type = agglutinating/polysynthetic with some fusion
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Treskro|Treskro]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Cednìtıt''' ('''ca-dnittobcì''' lit. ''the-dust-language'') is a [[T1 languages|T1 language]] spoken in southeastern [[Tuysáfa]]. The exact location is located slightly west of the main focus area of Cursed Relay 2, against the southern coastline of a bay area called [[Potantrommo Bay|Potantrommo]] ('''potantrommo''' [pʰotʰantʰommo] lit. ''it-flows-into-this-place''). It is a descendant of [[Proto-T1]] and was created for the reconstruction relay. Though Cednìtıt is actually the endonym of speakers of what they call '''ca-dnittobcì''', due to similarities between the two words it will be referred to as Cednìtıt throughout this article. Cednìtıt is related to [[West Yalan]], [[East Yalan]], [[Omari]], [[Teyetáti]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], [[Hato]] and [[Cëzëdeğozin]].

The lexicon can be found [[Cednìtıt/Lexicon|here]].

=Phonology=
==Phoneme inventory==
===Consonants===

Consonants in parentheses are considered allophonic.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! width="14%" | labial
! width="14%" | dental
! width="14%" | alveolar
! width="14%" | retroflex
! width="14%" | velar
! width="14%" | glottal
|-
! plosive
| p pʰ
| {{IPA|(t̪ t̪ʰ)}}
| t tʰ
| ʈ ʈʰ
| k kʰ
| (ʔ)
|-
! nasal
| m
| {{IPA|(n̪)}}
| n
| ɳ
| ŋ
|
|-
! fricative
| ɸ
| {{IPA|s̪~θ}}
| ɕ
| ʂ
| x
|
|-
! liquid
| ʋ
|
| r l
|
|
|
|-
|}

* /p t̪ t ʈ k/ are written b d d dr g
* /pʰ t̪ʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ/ are written p t t tr k
* word final glottal stops are written as aspirated plosives
* l r are usually pronounced [ʋ], depending on the source word.
* /ɸ s̪ ɕ ʂ x/ are written f th c sr x
* /ʋ/ is written w

===Vowels===
The Cednìtıt vowel inventory is as follows.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! width="25%" | front
! width="25%" | central
! width="25%" | back
|-
! high
| i
|
| u
|-
! mid
| e
| ə
| o
|-
! low
|
| a
|
|-
|}

Additionally, there are two low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/.

==Phonotactics==
A basic syllable consists of an onset, nucleus, and coda. Of these, only the vowel is obligatory.

====Onset====
Valid onsets may consist of the following combinations:
* nothing
* any single consonant
* any fricative followed by any nasal
* /θ/ followed by any fricative
* any coronal plosive followed by a fricative at the same POA: /t̪θ t̪ʰθ tɕ tʰɕ ʈʂ tʰʂ/ <dth tth dc tc dsr tsr>. These function basically as a series of coronal affricates.
* any aspirated plosive followed by a nasal at a different POA.
* all of the above followed by the glide /ʋ/ <w>
* <l> is pronounced [ʋ] in onsets

====Nucleus====
Valid nuclei consist only of single vowels or the low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/.
Compounding or affixing that results in two vowels adjacent to each other is resolved by:
*epenthetic [ʋ~w] is inserted after /a o u/ and spelled <w>
*epenthetic [a] is inserted after /ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀/ and spelled <a>
*epenthetic [w] is inserted after /i e/ and spelled <w>

====Coda====
Valid codas may consist of the following combinations:
* nothing
* any single consonant
* any coronal plosive followed by fricative at same POA
* <l>, which is pronounced [l]
* the glide /ʋ/ followed by a nasal
* nasal followed by plosive at same POA
* fricative followed by /t/
* /r/ followed by a plosive

==Allophony==
Cednìtıt practices coronal harmony, where all coronal consonants in a "word" (including root and bound affixes, but not including clitics) conform to the point of articulation the first coronal consonant in the word. It should be noted that {{IPA|[t̪]}} and {{IPA|[n̪]}} are not phonemic and thus trigger alveolar harmony. The three coronal series are as follows:
* Dental: {{IPA|t̪ t̪ʰ n̪ s̪~θ}} <d t n th>
* Alveolar: {{IPA|t tʰ n ɕ}} <d t n c>
* Retroflex: {{IPA|ʈ ʈʰ ɳ ʂ}} <dr tr nr sr>
Because spelling is based on principles of phonemes, the word <owdrubthık> /oʋʈupθək/ is pronounced [oʋʈupʂəʔ].

* Final plosives become glottal stop [ʔ]

* /l/ is [ʋ] in all positions except word finally.
* /r/ is [ʋ] as a coda or in a coda cluster.

* Some dialects lower high vowels in positions adjacent to velar consonants.
* Initial plosives are often dropped when found in onset clusters with nasals. The nasal takes the POA of the plosive.
* unstressed vowels may be diphthongized or centralized; /i u e o ə a/ > [jɪ wʊ jə wə ɔ aj/aw] > [ɪ ʊ ə ə ɔ æ ɒ]
* word final /i e ə/ are devoiced adjacent to voiceless consonants, and eventually dropped completely.
* /ɸ/ > [f] adjacent to dental consonants

*Neutral Vowel Allophony
**[ɨ] following front vowels and /ɕ/; [ʌ] following /ʋ/
**Coda morphs:
***/ə/ > [ʋ] > [w] / [a,o,u]_
***/ə/ > [a] / [ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀]_
***/ə/ > Ø / [i, e]_
***[n t tʰ] > [ɾ] / V_ə
***[ŋ k kʰ] > [ŋʷ kʷ kʰʷ] / V_ə
**[ə] elsewhere.

*Assimilation
**Sequences of two consecutive plosives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of plosive on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (wit + pnim [stem] > wippnim)
**Sequences of two consecutive fricatives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of fricative on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (ox [stem] + thu > oxxu)
**Sequences of obstruent + nasal across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of obstruent and geminate nasal. (it + ne > inne)

=Morphology=
==Nouns==
Cednìtıt inflects for animacy/definiteness, and case. These affixes generally follow a simple template of <root>-DEF.A/I-CASE

===Animacy and Definiteness===
The following chart lists
The definite article '''=ca''' has largely become an indicator of animacy. It has, in effect, fused with original animate/inanimate affixes to the point that the animacy of the noun is only specified when a specific instance of the noun is being introduced.

Animacy/Definiteness is only specified for third person arguments.
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! Animate
| '''-co'''
| '''-ncu'''*
|-
! Inanimate
| '''-ca'''
| '''-nca'''
|-
|}
*'''-ncu''' often becomes '''-nco''' by analogy.

===Case===
Cednìtıt inflects rather simply for case, generally employing only three main affixes.
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Nominative
| (unmarked)
| class="l"| used to mark subjects of clauses.
|-
! Accusative
| '''-(a)n''' (nasal assimilates to POA of final obstruent -ip > -im. The allomorph '''-an''' is used after nasals)
| class="l"| used to mark direct objects of transitive clauses
|-
! Oblique
| '''-ı''' (after consonants)/'''-w''' (after vowels)
| class="l"| used to mark secondary objects of ditransitive clauses. Also used in some genitive constructions.
|-
|}

===Pronouns===
Because pronominal prefixes are present as verbal affixes, pronouns are often dropped in the first and second persons, but can be useful in distinguishing between third person arguments because of their similarity.

'''Nominative'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| dop
| ithep
|-
! 2
| ıwp
| nudep
|-
! 3a
| both
| both
|-
! 3i
| poth
| poth
|-
|}

'''Accusative'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| tom
| thim
|-
! 2
| ìm
| num
|-
! 3a
| om
| om
|-
! 3i
| om
| om
|-
|}

'''Oblique'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| odci
| idthi
|-
! 2
| ıdci
| udci
|-
! 3a
| doc
| doc
|-
! 3i
| tco
| tco
|-
|}

===Possessive Prefixes===
Possessives in Cednìtıt are indicated by modifying prefixes on the noun, indicating the possessors. Only animate nouns can act as possessors; inanimate nouns form compounds using the genitive construction.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! singular
! plural
|-
!1
|'''e'''
|'''de'''
|-
!2
|'''thı'''
|'''di'''
|-
!3a
|'''mupu'''
|'''o'''
|}

*Note: Nouns beginning with '''mu-''', '''nu-''', or '''ŋu''' lose '''u-''' when a prefix is attached. ie. '''nusrip''' ''ear'' → '''ensrip''' ''my ear''

===Compounding===
Compounding is a simple method of combining multiple nominals to form a more complex meaning. The most common construction takes the form of <HEAD>-OBL/GEN-<MODIFIER>, forming a general genitive compound. The genitive marker is often elided when the second part of the compound begins with a vowel, resulting in a simple concatenation of the two nouns.

Examples:
*'''dteŋ''' ''hair'' + '''paxı''' ''lion'' → '''dteŋıpaxı''' ''mane''
*'''ar''' ''star'' + '''cowo''' ''summit, peak'' → '''arıcowo''' ''North Star'' (?)

==Verbs==
Cednìtıt verbal morphology is significantly more complex than nominal morphology. Verbal complexes are formed using the following template:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!-3
!-2
!-1
!0
!1
!2
!3
|-
|pronoun
|modal
|preverb
|stem
|adverb/aspectual marker
|voice
|deverbalizer
|-
|prefix
|
|
|
|
|
|valence
|-
|}

===Pronoun Prefixes===
Cednìtıt employs several sets of pronominal prefixes. The first is used for simple subjects, indicating the person, number, and animacy of subjects of intransitive clauses. Tense marking, which is differentiated between nonpast and past tenses, is incorporated into the pronoun prefixes.

'''Subject Pronouns'''
{| {{softtable|c}}

|-
| class="l" colspan="4"| '''Nonpast'''
! rowspan="6"|
| class="l" colspan="4"| '''Past'''
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! plural
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1
| e
| de
! colspan="2" | 1
| tr(u)
| u
|-
! colspan="2" | 2
| ù
| di
! colspan="2" | 2
| a
| t(u)
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3
! anim.
| o
| o(n)
! rowspan="2" | 3
! anim.
| th(ı)
| ù
|-
! inan.
| o(m)
| o(n)
! inan.
| p(o)
| ù
|}

* Additionally, the definite article '''ca''' can also be used as a particle which marks appositives and relative clauses when it is prefixed before nominalized predicate.
**'''cadnittobcìw onen edadthakıxt.''' <br><small>ca=dnit-dobcì-w o-ne-n eda-dthak-ıxt</small><br><small>DEF=dust-language-OBL speak-NOMINALIZER-ACC 1s>3si-have.ability-NEG </small><br>''I don't have the ability to speak Cednìtıt.''

'''Subject>Object Pronouns'''

In transitive and ditransitive clauses, the roles of the subject and primary object must be specified.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
| '''Nonpast'''
|-
!subj\obj
!1s
!1p
!2s
!2p
!3sa
!3pa
!3si
!3pi
!rflxs
!rflxp
|-
!1s
|
|ec(e)
|ì
|ec(i)
|mo
|no
|ed(a)
|ed(a)
|ece
|
|-
!1p
|de
|
|dì
|dc(i)
|do
|do
|dc(ì)
|dc(ì)
|
|dege
|-
!2s
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|ùcı
|
|-
!2p
|de
|dc(e)
|dì
|dc(i)
|dì
|dì
|dc(a)
|dc(a)
|
|digi
|-
!3sa
|oh
|ttho
|io
|tco
|om
|on
|ot(a)
|ot(a)
|oco
|
|-
!3pa
|ne
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|od(a)
|od(a)
|
|ogo
|-
!3si
|me
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|ob(a)
|ob(a)
|onco
|
|-
!3pi
|ne
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|od(a)
|od(a)
|
|ogo
|-
!colspan="11" |
|-
| '''Past'''
|-
!subj\obj
!1s
!1p
!2s
!2p
!3sa
!3pa
!3si)
!3pi
!rflxs
!rflxp
|-
!1s
|
|tsr(e)
|ù
|tsr
|tro
|tro
|dr(a)
|dr(a)
|trucu
|
|-
!1p
|we
|
|u
|uc(i)
|mu
|nu
|ud(a)
|ud(a)
|
|ugu
|-
!2s
|e
|ath(e)
|ù
|ac(i)
|ma
|na
|ad(a)
|ad(a)
|aca
|
|-
!2p
|te
|tth(e)
|tù
|tc(i)
|to
|to
|tud(a)
|tud(a)
|
|tugu
|-
!3sa
|the
|th(e)
|thù
|th(i)
|tho
|tho
|thıd(a)
|thıd(a)
|thıcı
|
|-
!3pa
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|
|ùgı
|-
!3si
|pe
|pth(e)
|pù
|poc(i)
|pom
|pon
|pth(a)
|pth(a)
|poco
|
|-
!3pi
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|
|ùgı
|-
|}

===Modal Affixes===
Cednìtıt employs various modal infixes/particles to provide nuances on the meaning of the verb.

{| class="wikitable"
! width="12%" | Potential
| width="8%" | '''-tthon-'''
| align="left" | denotes ability or potential for action to occur in the future. Often functions as a future tense marker, though it can also be combined with past tense pronoun prefixes.
|-
! Volitional
| '''-r(u)-'''
'''-w(u)-'''
| align="left" | denotes desire for a nominal, or desire for oneself or someone/thing else to perform an action
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''-(o)sr-'''
| align="left" | denotes possible future outcome, implies possibility, but not absolute certainty. Certainty is of a lesser and more neutral degree than that which is implied by the Potential modal marker, which is skewed towards the fulfillment of the specified situation.
|-
! Imperative
| '''-wit-'''
| align="left" | indicates command
|}

===Preverbs===
Preverbs indicate various relationships between nominal arguments and specify manners in which actions are performed. Many verb stems associate heavily with specific preverbs to form lexicalized idiomatic compounds.

{| class="wikitable"
| width="5%"|
! align="left" width="12%" | Affix
! align="left" width="10%" | Referent Case
! align="left" | Usage
|-
|
| '''-o-'''
| ACC
| align="left" | towards, near, antibenefactive
|-
|
| '''-ath(ga)-'''
| ACC
| align="left" | away, apart, into pieces, benefactive
|-
|
| '''-rı(x)-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | up (imperfect)
|-
|
| '''-rıw-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | above, onto
|-
|
| '''-gı-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | down (imperfect)
|-
|
| '''-gıw-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | below, underneath
|-
|
| '''-t(a)n-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | into
|-
|
| '''-gim-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | out of, through
|-
|
| '''-em-''', '''-en-'''
|
| align="left" | across, along exterior surface, around, beside (without interaction)
|-
|
| '''-ut-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | without
|-
|
| '''-wot-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | wavering, no clear direction (also refers to habitual states so overcooked that they are taken to be inalienable truths at the moment of utterance)
|-
|
|'''-(i)wk-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | inside, within
|}

[*] With transitivizing suffix '''-(i)nt''', if necessary.

===Verbal Stems and Aspect Markers (Circumstantials)===

Unlike previous affixes, which are generally true prefixes (or infixes for preverbs), circumstantials are fusional in nature and may cause minor stem changes depending on the interaction between the final sounds and circumstantial affixes. In some cases, circumstantial affixes can be used to form lexical verbal compounds. For the most part, Cednìtit uses circumstantials as aspectual markers, indicating level of completion and level of volition.

====Indicative====
The indicative form is used to describe general events in sequence. It consists of a pronominal marker and the bare form of the stem, though it can never be combined with prefixes marking past tense.

*'''wucu''' ''pull'' → '''mupunsrip edawucu''' ''I pull on his/her ear''

====Aspect====
Cednìtit differentiates five aspects: prospective, inceptive, imperfective, progressive, and perfective. These can all be used to describe events in the present and past tenses.

'''Prospective''' is in anticipatory state which announces an intention for some action to occur.
*For consonantal stems, -e is suffixed: <br> '''tenir''' ''make'' → '''edatenire''' ''I intend to make (something)''
*For non-consonantal stems, the final vowel is fronted. < i e u > become '''-i''', and all other vowels become '''-e'''. <br> '''xene''' ''breathe'' → '''ùxeni''' ''you intend to breathe'' <br> '''xwù''' ''kill'' → '''thexwe''' ''he intended to kill me''

'''Inceptive''' refers to the point in time in which events have just begun.
*Consonantal stems: '''-i''' is suffixed: <br> '''ıdcap''' ''lie down'' → '''ùwıdcapi''' ''they started to lie down''
*Coronal stems <th t d n c tr dr nr sr>: final coronal consonant is dropped, '''-dci''' is suffixed: <br> '''dcıt''' ''stare at'' → '''udcıdci''' ''we started to stare at you''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-ic''' is suffixed: <br> '''wınti''' ''shine upon'' → '''tthowıntic''' ''(the sun) begins to shine down upon us''

'''Imperfective''' refers to events in progress at the time of reference but not yet completed.
*Consonantal: '''-ı''' is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition: plosive > fricative; nasal/sonorant+plosive > nasal/sonorant(geminate): <br> '''cıt''' ''run'' → '''ocıcı''' ''they are running'' <br> '''aŋk''' ''apologize'' → '''ìaŋŋı''' ''I'm sorry (to you)''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-ı''' is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant: <br> '''noranti''' ''wash, clean'' → '''wontan donorannı''' ''we are washing the dog''

'''Progressive''' describes events advancing towards a specific goal, or advancing towards the state describe by a stative verb.
*Consonantal: '''-a''' is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition: <br> '''rìwul''' ''be drunk'' → '''erìwulla''' ''I am getting (becoming) drunk'' <br> '''triŋ''' ''rule over'' → '''otriŋŋa''' ''he will (soon) be ruling over us''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-a''' is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant: <br> '''cuctcu''' ''be dry'' → '''ırnca ocuctca''' ''the flowers are drying out''

'''Perfective''' marks actions which have been completed or have ended.
*Consonantal: '''-thu''' is suffixed, assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant. <br> '''exp''' ''be tanned'' → '''expfu''' ''I am completely tanned'' <br> '''neck''' ''climb (a mountain)'' → '''truneckxu''' ''I finished climbing (the mountain)''
*Coronal: '''-uthu''' is suffixed, again, with '''th''' assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant. <br> '''xowt''' ''pillage'' → '''ùdaxowtucu''' ''they completely pillaged it''
*Non-consonantal: '''-thu''' is suffixed: <br> '''xwù''' ''kill'' → '''thıxwùthul''' ''she was murdered (passive)''

===Voice===
Though lexical verb stems usually have a specific valence with assigned roles for subject and object(s), these can be modified through the use of voice markers, which are affixed to the verb complex. Valence affixes also exist; however, many distinctions are lexical in nature.

{| class="wikitable"
| width="8%" | '''-(a)l-'''
| align="left" | stative passive voice marker. Original subject and primary object exchange roles.
|-
| '''-(a)wk-'''
| align="left" | dynamic passive voice marker.
|-
| '''-k(a)-'''
| align="left" | causative for intransitive stems. Also marker for dynamic verbs.
|-
| '''-ca-'''
| align="left" | causative for transitive stems.
|}

===Deverbalizer/Valence===

{| class="wikitable"
| width="8%" | '''-n(i)t-'''
| align="left" | transitivizer for intransitive verbs. Also used as a comparative suffix (see below).
|}

(to be expanded)

==Derivational Morphology==

===Verb > Noun===

* '''Xne''' - general verbal nominalizer, the way one Xs (marginal) - ''-n'' assimilates to POA of final plosive, if applicable, and causes it to become a geminate nasal
**'''thın''' ''walk'' > '''thınne''' ''walking'', or '''thınne''' ''gait''
* '''Xcu''', '''Xtcu''', '''Xdcu''' - abstract nominalization of X - final syllable removed if it does not end with a coronal plosive or nasal
**'''tenir''' ''create, make'' > '''tencu''' ''idea, something that has been created''
**'''oxtı''' ''honor (someone)'' > '''oxtcu''' ''honor''
*'''Xmı''', '''Xemı''' - occupation or person associated with ''non-stative'' verb X- '''m''' assimilates to POA of final plosives or nasals and causes final plosives to become nasals. The form '''Xemı''' replaces final vowels of roots that end in < i e ı>.
**'''xwù''' ''kill'' > '''xwùmı''' ''killer, murderer''
**'''guth''' ''dig, farm'' > '''guthmı''' ''farmer''
**'''fak''' ''hit, fight'' > '''faŋŋı''' ''fighter, warrior''

===Noun > Noun===

*'''X(o)rt''' - related to X
**'''triŋìme''' ''king'' > '''triŋìmort''' ''be kingly, be royal, be regal''

=Syntax=
Basic word order is SOV. Pronouns are usually only present for emphasis or for introducing an actor in a sentence. Third person pronouns are also often used to differentiate between singular, plural, animate and inanimate third person nouns.

==Noun Phrases==
Noun phrases head consist of a nominal head, inflected for case, which are preceded by modifiers in the form of verbal compounds.

{{+|
{{gl|owancu|o-ancu|3s.A.PRS-be_white}}
{{gl|aco|a-co-Ø|horse-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM}}
{{glend|the white horse}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|onowp|o-nowp|3p.A.PRS-be_calm}}
{{gl|paxı|paxı-Ø|lion-NOM}}
{{glend|calm lion(s)}}
}}

In noun phrases with only a single argument and a stative verb, it is common to attach the uninflected noun directly to the front of the stem, precluding the need for pronominal prefixes on the verb. In this case, definiteness is not marked as a suffix on the noun and is no longer distinguished; instead, emphasis is placed on the entire compound, which gains the relativizer '''ca=''' (also '''c'=''') and a nominalizing suffix (usually '''-ne'''). Relative clauses will be covered in more detail later.

{{+|
{{gl|c'|ca|REL}}
{{gl|awancune|a-ancu-ne|horse.DEF.ANIM.SG-be_white.NOMINALIZER}}
{{glend|white horse}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|paxınowmme|paxı-nowp-ne|lion-be_calm-NOMINALIZER}}
{{glend|calm lion(s)}}
}}

Verbal modifiers are not limited to stative verbs.
{{+|
{{gl|iowathgathınna|io-athga-thın-a|3s.A.PRS>2s-away-walk-PRG}}
{{gl|both|both|3s.a.NOM}}
{{glend|the one (person/animal) walking away from you}}
}}

Though first and second pronouns are generally not necessary, they may be included for emphasis, especially when the noun phrase is to be used as an embedded phrase within a longer sentence.

===Numerals===

For the most part, numbers and ordinal clauses pattern similarly to stative verbs and adjectival phrases.

Cednìtit has a base-10 counting system.
{| {{softtable|c}}
! width=13%| 1.
| width=20%| ot
! width=13%| 11.
| width=20%| otanatr
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| nıt
! 12.
| nıtanatr
! width=13%| 20.
| width=20%| nanıt
|-
! 3.
| tha
! 13.
| thanatr
! 30.
| nantha
|-
! 4.
| gep
! 14.
| gepanatr
! 40.
| naŋep
|-
! 5.
| we
! 15.
| wenatr
! 50.
| nanwe
|-
! 6.
| dok
! 16.
| dokanatr
! 60.
| nanok
|-
! 7.
| ù
! 17.
| ùnatr
! 70.
| nanù
|-
! 8.
| fe
! 18.
| fenatr
! 80.
| name
|-
! 9.
| ola
! 19.
| olanatr
! 90.
| nanola
|-
! 10.
| anatr
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| enetr
|}

Numbers from 21-99 are formed by compounding the units digit with the corresponding tens digit. An epethentic <a> is inserted before the tens digit if preceded by a consonant.

'''21'''
{{+|
{{gl|ot-|one-}}
{{gl|ananıt|twenty}}
{{glend|otananıt}}
}}

'''75'''
{{+|
{{gl|we-|five-}}
{{gl|nanù|seventy}}
{{glend|wenanù}}
}}

Values greater than 100 are formed in a similar manner, with the multiplier for the 100s digit preceding '''enetr''' ''hundred''.

'''101'''
{{+|
{{gl|ot-|one-}}
{{gl|enetr|hundred}}
{{glend|ot enetr}}
}}

'''819'''
{{+|
{{gl|olanatr|nineteen}}
{{gl|fe-|eight-}}
{{gl|enetr|hundred}}
{{glend|olanatr fenetr}}
}}

To specify a specific quantity of a noun, the number root is inflected as a typical verb root, taking the appropriate person agreement prefix. The noun whose quantity is being specified only denotes singular or plural when a definite article is being employed. In any other case, the noun remains uninflected except for case. Note special suppletive vocabulary for definite and ordinal forms for 1 and 5.

'''paxı''' ''lion''
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!Number
!Definite
!Ordinal
|-
|'''ot''' ''one'', '''un''' ''begin''
|'''paxı owot'''
|'''paxıco owun'''<sup>1</sup>
|'''ca paxunne'''<sup>1</sup>
|-
|'''nıt''' ''two''
|'''paxı onıt'''
|'''paxıncu onıt'''
|'''ca paxınınne'''
|-
|'''tha''' ''three''
|'''paxı otha'''
|'''paxıncu otha'''
|'''ca paxıthane'''
|-
|'''gep''' ''four''
|'''paxı ogep'''
|'''paxıncu ogep'''
|'''ca paxıgemme'''
|-
|'''we''' ''five'', '''fak''' ''hit, strike, slap''
|'''paxı owe'''
|'''paxıncu ofak'''<sup>2</sup>
|'''ca paxıfaŋŋe'''<sup>2</sup>
|-
|'''dok''' ''six''
|'''paxı odok'''
|'''paxıncu odok'''
|'''ca paxıdoŋŋe'''
|-
|'''ù''' ''seven''
|'''paxı owù'''
|'''paxıncu owù'''
|'''ca paxùne'''
|-
|'''fe''' ''eight''
|'''paxı ofe'''
|'''paxıncu ofe'''
|'''ca paxıfene'''
|-
|'''ola''' ''nine''
|'''paxı owola'''
|'''paxıncu owola'''
|'''ca paxıwola'''
|-
|'''anatr''' ''ten''
|'''paxı owanatr'''
|'''paxıncu owanatr'''
|'''ca paxıwanannre'''
|-
|'''nanıt''' ''twenty''
|'''paxı onanıt'''
|'''paxıncu onanıt'''
|'''ca paxınanıt'''
|-
|'''otananıt''' ''twenty-one''
|'''paxı owotananıt'''
|'''paxıncu owunananıt'''<sup>1</sup>
|'''ca paxunananıt'''<sup>1</sup>
|-
|'''wenanù''' ''seventy-five''
|'''paxı owenanù'''
|'''paxıncu owenanù''' (no suppletion)
|'''ca paxıwenanù''' (no suppletion)
|-
|}
<sup>1</sup>Uses the root '''un''' ''begin''<br>
<sup>2</sup>Uses the root '''fak''' ''hit, strike, slap''

==Basic Clauses==
'''Intransitive Verbs''': the simplest construction consists of an intransitive or stative verb and a single nominal argument.
{{+|
{{gl|efwuŋ|e-fwuŋ|1s.PRS-fall}}
{{glend|I am falling.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|fmolıxtncu|fmolıxt-ncu-Ø|monster-DEF.ANIM.PL-NOM}}
{{gl|ùrìwul|ù-rìwul|3p.A.PST-be_drunk}}
{{glend|The evil monsters were drunk.}}
}}

'''Transitive Verbs''' take an additional argument, and have polypersonal agreement as per the pronominal prefixes described earlier. Third person nominal arguments take appropriate case suffixes

{{+|
{{gl|triŋìmeco|triŋìme-co-Ø|king-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM}}
{{gl|ensripan|en-srip-an|1s.POS-ear-ACC}}
{{gl|thıddenthık|thıd-denthe-ık|3s.A.PST>3s.I-cut-INTENS}}
{{glend|The king sliced my ear off.}}
}}

'''Ditransitive Verbs''' function similarly to transitive verbs, the only difference being that an additional nominal argument is added, taking the role of indirect object (recipient) or instrumental (by means of). Verbal morphology does not receive any affixes to agree with the oblique argument; oblique case pronouns are used instead.

{{+|
{{gl|enìbitan|e-nuìbit-an|1s.POS-rope-ACC}}
{{gl|doc|doc|3s.A.OBL}}
{{gl|draŋuxedthu|dra-ŋuxedı-thu|1s.PST>3p.I-lend-PERF}}
{{glend|I lent him my rope.}}
}}

==Relative Clauses==
Relative clauses can be thought of as glorified versions of noun phrases. Cednìtit has three relative particles, which precedes the modifier clause. The full relative clause precedes the noun which is being modified.

*'''ca''' is a general use particle, and is found before clauses modifying abstract nominals:
**'''ca dìomuìxınal dacuŋŋe''' ''the heresy you forced us to perform''
*'''cin''' is found before clauses modifying animate nouns:
**'''cin oxosr xa bcìm''' ''the man who can pick me up''
*'''sru''' is used before clauses modifying inanimate concrete nouns:
**'''sru owotak ne''' ''the cloud that is floating''

==Comparatives==

Cednitıt circumfixes '''n(u)t- -n(i)t''' around a bare stative verb stem to form a comparative verb. It should be noted that the two individual parts of this affix fit within the general verbal template, with '''n(u)t-''' patterning with as a preverb in the -1 slot and '''-n(i)t''' in the +3 valence slot. This essentially forms a transitive verb with the two subjects being compared taking the role of subject and object, where the subject exhibits the quality in question in a greater quantity or intensity.

{{+|
{{gl|entthun|en-tthun-Ø|1s.POS-skin-NOM}}
{{gl|thıntthunan|thın-tthun-an|2s.POS-skin-ACC}}
{{gl|obantıwdint|oba-nt-ıwd-int|3s.I.PRS>3s.I-COMP-be_dark_TRANS}}
{{glend|My skin is darker than your skin.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|exnutowant|eh-nut-owa-nt|3s.A.PRS>1s-COMP-clean-TRANS}}
{{glend|She is cleaner than I am.}}
}}

Simple comparisons between two noun phrases are not necessarily limited to stative verbs. When other intransitive verbs and transitive verbs are used in comparative constructions, the meaning "more often" or "more" is implied.

{{+|
{{gl|othentotint|othe-nt-ot-int|3p.A>1p-COMP-sleep-TRANS}}
{{glend|They sleep more than we do.}}
}}

The original object of a transitive verb is moved to the oblique case, while the original subject of the verb becomes the object of comparison. The noun taking the nominative case is the one that performs the activity in question more often than the original subject.

{{+|
{{gl|enunan|en-un-an|1s.POS-brother-ACC}}
{{gl|tcotcancaw|tcotca-nca-w|berry-DEF.I.PL-OBL}}
{{gl|mantdruxent|ma-nt-druxe-nt|2s.PST>3s.A-COMP-remove-TRANS}}
{{glend|You used to pick berries more often than my brother.}}
}}

===Stative Verbs & Adjectivals===

The status of adjectivals in Cednìtit is debatable. In many situations, adjectivals function simply as stative verbs, following verbal morphology and using the same derivational affixes. However, there are also situations in which the same roots function independent of the verb template and directly modify nouns or other verbs. Most notably, these situations include but are not limited to comparative constructions and noun modifiers.

==Interrogatives==

===Yes-No Questions===
Simple yes-no questions have two forms, depending on whether the expected answer is affirmative or negative. The affirmative form uses the interrogative verb '''ca''' after a nominalized verb complex. '''ca''' is almost exclusively found in the forms '''oca''' or '''poca''' (past), which simply prefixes the third person singular inanimate prefix to the verb, which denotes the nominalized verb as subject.

*Q
{{+|
{{gl|acıdci|a-cıt-i|2s.PST-run-INCEP}}
{{gl|poca|po-ca|3si.PST-INT.AFF}}
{{glend|Did you start to run?}}
}}

*A
{{+|
{{gl|trucıdci|tru-cıt-dci|1s.PST-run-INCEP}}
{{glend|(Yes,) I started to run}}
}}

The negative equivalent to '''ca''' is '''owk''', a transitive verb with a literal meaning ''to be without''. Usage of '''owk''' is similar to that of '''ca''', but requires polypersonal agreement. The nominal subject is the same as the subject of the nominalized verb, while the action itself takes the accusative (3si). Because the expected answer is negative, the question is often associated with conveying a sarcastic or exasperated tone.

*Q
{{+|
{{gl|okmart|o-kmart|3sa.NPST-eat}}
{{gl|otowk|ota-owk|3sa.NPST>3si-INT.NEG}}
{{glend|Does he not eat?}}
}}

*A
{{+|
{{gl|okmartıxt|o-kmart-ıxt|3sa.NPST-eat-NEG}}
{{glend|(No,) he doesn't eat.}}
}}

For both '''ca''' and '''owk''', answers do not necessarily need to repeat the nominalized verb; instead, the interrogative verb can be repeated to answer ''yes'' or ''no''. Therefore, in the previous examples, '''poca''' ''(it occurred)'', and '''otowk''' ''he is without it [the act of eating]'' are also valid responses.

===Content Questions===
Questions which expect a more specific response use a series of interrogative particles to denote the type of content expected as a reponse. The most basic of these is the "what" series: '''tca''', '''tcin''', and '''tsru''' pattern with the relative clause particles '''ca''' (clauses and abstractions), '''cin''' (animates), and '''sru''' (inanimates). Following the placement of the interrogative verbs in the previous section, the "what" series directly follow the noun phrase or nominalized verb that is being modified. In all three cases, these particles are treated as verbs which take a dummy third person subject that can be either animate or inanimate, singular or plural, depending on the situation.

{{+|
{{gl|bcìm|bcìm-Ø|person-NOM}}
{{gl|otcin|o-tcin|3a.NPST-Q.A}}
{{glend|Who is (that) person? (Which person is that?)}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|kùdthec|kùdthec-Ø|drink-NOM}}
{{gl|otsru|o-tsru|3.NPST-Q.I}}
{{glend|What is that drink? (What are those drinks?)}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ùdasrıne|ùda-drı-ı-ne|2s.NPST>3si-do-IMPF-VN}}
{{gl|otca|o-tca|3si.NPST-Q}}
{{glend|What are you doing?}}
}}

The following is a non-exhaustive list of all interrogative verbs which function similarly to the ones shown above.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
|[] (animate)<br>[] (inanimate)
|whose (possessive)
|-
|'''tca''' (generic, clausal)<br>'''tcin''' (animate)<br> '''tsru''' (inanimate)
|who, what, which
|-
|'''tin'''
|which one (ordinal) ['''in''']
|-
|'''tcam'''
|when ['''camunne''']
|-
|'''tekwıt'''
|what day ['''kwıt''']
|-
|'''tecbi'''
|where ['''cbi''']
|-
|'''teca'''
|why, whither (expects a ''goal'' as response) ['''eca''']
|-
|'''tra'''
|how ['''ra''']
|-
|'''dcıcu'''
|how many, how much (coll) ['''dıcu''']
|-
|}

=Sample Text=
{{+|
{{gl|Paxıco|paxı-co-Ø|lion-DEF.A.SG-NOM}}
{{gl|ca fmùwuncumbanen|ca fmùwu-ncu-muba-ne-n|REL large_animal-DEF.A.PL-be.all-VN-ACC}}
{{gl|onctriŋ|on-c-triŋ|3sa.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule}}
{{glend|The lion rules all the beasts}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|c'odrubthık,|ca o-drubth-ık|REL 3sa.NPST-strong-INTENS}}
{{gl|ca mupundcù|ca mupu-nudcù|REL 3sa.POS-chest}}
{{gl|obùl,|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|ca trì|ca trì|REL waist}}
{{gl|okı,|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|because he is very strong, thick of chest, slim of waist}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca ocınne|ca o-cın-ne-Ø|REL 3sa-run-VN-Ø}}
{{gl|otthonethen|o-tthon-ethen|3si.NPST-POT-fast}}
{{gl|eca|eca|because}}
{{glend|and runs fast.}}
}}

<br><br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ùda|ùda|3s.NPST>3si}}
{{gl|paxıco|paxı-co|lion-DEF.A.SG}}
{{gl|ofdcomont.|o-fdco-mont|3sa.NPST-young-EVID}}
{{glend|Well, there is this young lion.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|tmennin|tmen-nin|be.morning-each}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ottanthındci|ot-tan-thın-dci|3s.A.NPST>3si.I-into-walk-INCEP}}
{{glend|He always goes out into the forest in the morning}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|fmùwınnencuw|fmùwu-ıt-ne-ncu-w|large_animal-be.another-VN-DEF.P.A-OBL}}
{{gl|ocodrubthkipric|oco-drubth-kiprı-ic|3s.A.RFX.NPST-strength-compare-INCEP}}
{{glend|and compares himself to those who are the other beasts with regards to strength.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|pithmocon|pithmo-co-n|victor-DEF.SG.A-ACC}}
{{gl|thowotıtuthu|tho-wot-ıt-uthu|3sa.NPST>3sa-PVB-become-PERF}}
{{gl|thıcoc.|thı-coc|3sa.PST-return}}
{{glend|And every day he would return the victor.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Thıpithtuthu|thı-pitht-uthu|3sa.PST-win-PERF}}
{{gl|thıcocucu|thı-coc-uthu|3sa.PST-return-PERF}}
{{gl|sroncaw,|sro-nca-w|day-DEF.P.I-OBL}}
{{gl|mupuwmım|mupu-ımım-Ø|3s.A.POS-mother-NOM}}
{{gl|thomadci|tho-mat-ci|3sa.PST>3sa-praise-INCEP}}
{{glend|Every day that he would return victorious, his mother would praise him:}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Exwım!|e-ıxwım|1s.POS-child}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Thıtrì|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist-NOM}}
{{gl|okı!|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{gl|Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|"Gaddrubthan"|Gaddrubth-an|strongman-ACC}}
{{gl|ìcowgı!|ì-cowgı|1s.NPST>2s-name}}
{{glend|"Son of mine! Thick of neck! Slim of waist! Large of chest! I name you "He-man"!}}
}}

<br><br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ùda|ùda|2s.NPST>3si}}
{{gl|srowocı,|sro-ot-ı|morning-one-IMPF}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|paxıdconeco|paxı-dco-ne-co-Ø|lion-young-VN-DEF.S.A-NOM}}
{{gl|nuftan|nuft-an|muscle-ACC}}
{{gl|thıdawotsrı,|thıda-wot-tri-ı|3sa.PST>3pi-HAB-stretch-IMPF}}
{{glend|But one day, the young lion was stretching as usual,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|thomacı:|tho-wot-mat-ı|3sa.PST>3sa-HAB-praise-IMPF}}
{{gl|"Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Bthacıpaxı|bthacı-paxı-Ø|arm.OBL-lion-NOM}}
{{gl|ùwadth!|ù-adth|3pi.NPST-powerful}}
{{gl|Thıtrì!"|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist}}
{{gl|okı|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|and she praised him as usual, "Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Lion-armed! Slim of waist!"}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Thomatuthu|tho-mat-uthu|3sa.PST>3sa-praise-PERF}}
{{gl|thıwo:|thı-o|3sa.PST-say}}
{{gl|"Fmùwathŋŋencon|fmùwu-athŋŋe-nco-n|large_animal-others-DEF.P.A-ACC}}
{{gl|ùnutdrubthint|ùn-nt-drubth-int|2s.NPST>3pa-COMP-strong-TRANS}}
{{gl|ekoŋ."|e-koŋ|1s.NPST>blindly_follow}}
{{glend|She finished praising him and said, "I truly believe that you are the strongest of all the beasts.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ottanthın|ot-tan-thın|3s.A.NPST>3s.I-into-walk}}
{{gl|ococ|o-coc|3s.A.NPST-return}}
{{glend|Every day you go out into the forest and return,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|fmùwuncun|fmùwu-ncu-n|large_animal-DEF.A.PL-ACC}}
{{gl|ùnctriŋŋe|ùn-c-triŋ-ne|2s.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule-VN}}
{{gl|ateneku|atene-ku|truth-that}}
{{gl|wewoŋ|we-oŋ|2s.NPST>1s-show}}
{{glend|and show me that you are truly king of the beasts.}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ogù,|o-gù|3s.I.NPST-contrary}}
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.S.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ùdatthon|ùda-tthon|2s.NPST>3s-POT=}}
{{gl|tanthın|tan-thın|into-go_out}}
{{gl|sroca|sro-ca-Ø|day-DEF.S.I-NOM}}
{{gl|otthon|o-tthon|3s.I-POT}}
{{gl|comfa.|com-a|occur.PROG}}
{{glend|But, a day will come when you go out into the forest,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|idca|idca|there}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|otthon|o-tthon|3s.A-POT}}
{{gl|wotthınıxt|wot-thın-ıxt|waver-walk-NEG}}
{{gl|xi|xi|nor}}
{{gl|muputrìxa|mupu-trìxa-Ø|3s.POS-head-NOM}}
{{gl|srùw|srù-w|shoulders-OBL}}
{{gl|ogıwfdutal|o-gıw-fdut-al|3s.I.NPST>3s-below-carry-PASS}}
{{gl|ocoŋ|o-coŋ|3s.A.NPST-small}}
{{gl|mìwin|mìwi-n|creature-ACC}}
{{gl|ùmosr|um-osr|2s.NPST>3s-SUBJ}}
{{gl|ınoxxu.|ınox-thu|meet-PERF}}
{{glend|and there you will meet a small creature which walks straight and carries his head above his shoulders.}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Wewıppnım,|we-wıt-pnım|2s.NPST>1s-IMP hear}}
{{gl|exwım!|e-ıxwım|1s.POS-child}}
{{gl|Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Thıtrì|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist}}
{{gl|okı!|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|Listen, Son of mine! Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Slim of waist!,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|idrnokucoŋan|idrno-ku-coŋ-an|thing-that-be.small-ACC}}
{{gl|ùmtthonınox|ùm-tthon-ınox|2s.NPST>3sa-POT-meet}}
{{gl|sro|sro|day}}
{{glend|the day you meet that little thing,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|srokun|sro-ku-n|day-that-ACC}}
{{gl|dricco|dric-co-Ø|sun-DEF.ANIM-NOM}}
{{gl|otagimfwuŋŋit,|ota-gim-fwuŋ-nit|3sa.NPST>3si-out.of-fall-TRANS}}
{{gl|ùcocowk.|ù-coc-owk|2s.NPST-return-without}}
{{glend|on that day the sun will set while you have not returned.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ocoŋ|o-coŋ|3sa.NPST-be.small}}
{{gl|idrnoku|idrno-ku|thing-that}}
{{gl|"bcìm"|bcìm-Ø|person-NOM}}
{{gl|ocowgıl.|o-cowgı-al|3sa.NPST-name-PASS}}
{{glend|The name of that little thing is called 'man'.}}
}}

{{comment|Source of the sample text: Roy S. Hagman, Nama Hottentot grammar, Bloomington/Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977.}}

[[Category:T1 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

East Yalan

2013-01-21T01:29:36Z

Rorschach: /* Sample text */ Added citation.

{{Language
| language = Jarene
| phonetic = {{IPA|[ʒaˈrənə]}}
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = southern Tuysáfa,<br /> Yalne plains
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />   Yalan<br />     '''East Yalan'''
| mor-type = agglutinative
| author = [[User:The Devilcat|the Devilcat]]
| word-or = VSO
| morphalign = accusative secundative
}}
'''East Yalan''' is an ethnolect spoken in southern [[Tuysáfa]] around 0 YP. Together with the [[West Yalan]] it forms the Yalan language family / dialect continuum.

==Background==
The term covers a group of dialects spoken in southern and southeastern Tuysáfa coast. It is also a descendant of the Old Yalan dialects spoken around -800 YP.

West Yalan is a part of the [[T1 languages|T1 language family]] created for the Second Reconstruction Relay, together with [[Cednìtıt]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], [[Hato]], [[Teyetáti]], [[Omari]], [[Cëzëdeğozin]] and [[Śetiid]].

East Yalan is known of its numerous homonyms. Frequently the meaning of a word depends on its syntactic role, inflections and sometimes on the context.

==Phonology==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! labial
! dental
! post-alv.
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
|
| {{IPA|ɲ}} ‹ny›
| {{IPA|ŋ}} ‹g›
|
|-
! plosive
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}}
|
|-
! voiceless fricative
|
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}} ‹c›
|
| {{IPA|x}}
|
|-
! voiced fricative
| {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|ʒ}} ‹j›
|
|
|rowspan=2| {{IPA|ɦ}} ‹h›
|-
! fluid
| {{IPA|(w)}}
| {{IPA|r}}
|
| {{IPA|(j)}} ‹y›
|
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Vowels
! front
! central
! back
|-
! close
| {{IPA|i}}
|
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! mid
|
| {{IPA|ə}} ‹e›
|
|-
! open
| {{IPA|ai}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|au}}
|}

Syllables of type (C)V.

The stress is placed on the last syllable if it contains diphthong, e.g. '''saxau''' {{IPA|[saˈxau̯]}} and on the next-to-last syllable otherwise, e.g. '''saxugu''' {{IPA|[saˈxuŋu]}}.

Unaccented /ai au/ are realized as {{IPA|[ɛ ɔ]}}.

/ai au i u/ followed directly by another vowel get an epenthetic glide [j w] – written as ‹'''y w'''›, e.g. '''awau''' {{IPA|[ɔwˈau̯]}}, '''xiya''' {{IPA|[ˈxija]}}.

Unaccented schwas are often elided in speech, e.g. '''akese''' {{IPA|[aˈkəsə ~ aˈkəs]}}.

==Pronouns==
The personal pronouns are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2|1.
!colspan=2|2.
!colspan=3|3.
|-
!align=center|sg
!pl
!sg
!pl
!sg an.
!sg inan.
!pl
|-
! N.
| nai
| ta
| sai
| cai
| vai
| ai
| nai
|-
! AD.
| nai'''cege'''
| ta'''cege'''
| sai'''cege'''
| cai'''cege'''
| v'''igi'''
| '''igi'''
| n'''igi'''
|-
! AI.
| nai'''cai'''
| ta'''cai'''
| sai'''cai'''
| cai'''cai'''
| vai
| ai
| nai
|-
! G.
| nai'''cehe'''
| ta'''cehe'''
| sai'''cehe'''
| cai'''cehe'''
| v'''ihi'''
| '''ihi'''
| n'''ihi'''
|-
! L.
| nai'''catai'''
| ta'''catai'''
| sai'''catai'''
| cai'''catai'''
| vai'''tai'''
| ai'''tai'''
| nai'''tai'''
|}

1sg and 3pl ''nai'' are distinguished by the verb agreement:

* '''Muxukaitai nai.'''
*: mu-xukaitai nai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-see {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see.''

* '''Nexukaitai nai.'''
*: ne-xukaitai nai
*: {{sc|pl}}-see {{sc|3pl}}
*: ''They see.''

The second one can be also omitted:

* '''Nexukaitai.'''
*: ne-xukaitai
*: {{sc|pl}}-see
*: ''They see.''

==Nouns==
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
|-
| possession
| number
| '''root'''
| case
|}

===Prefixes===
====Possessive====
:C – before consonants
:V – before vowels

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!C
!V
|-
!rowspan=3|sg
!1.
|ni-
|g- ¹
|-
!2.
|si-
|s- ¹
|-
!3.
|pu-
|p-
|-
!rowspan=3|pl
!1.
|te-
|t- ¹
|-
!2.
|ci-
|k- ¹
|-
!3.
|nu-
|n-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|autuzu, tuzu "fish"
|-
|'''g'''utuzu, '''ni'''tuzu
|-
|'''s'''utuzu, '''si'''tuzu
|-
|'''p'''autuzu, '''pu'''tuzu
|-
|'''t'''utuzu, '''te'''tuzu
|-
|'''k'''utuzu, '''ci'''tuzu
|-
|'''n'''autuzu, '''nu'''tuzu
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|akese, nekese "leg"
|-
|'''g'''ekese, '''ni'''nekese
|-
|'''s'''ekese, '''si'''nekese
|-
|'''p'''akese, '''pu'''nekese
|-
|'''t'''ekese, '''te'''nekese
|-
|'''k'''ekese, '''ci'''nekese
|-
|'''n'''akese, '''nu'''nekese
|}
|}

: ¹) initial ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

====Number====
: P – before plosives
: C – before other consonants
: V – before vowels

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!P
!C
!V
|-
!sg
!rowspan=2|anim.
| au-
| -
| -
|-
!pl
| -
| nu-
| n- ¹
|-
!sg
!rowspan=2|inan.
|colspan=2| -
| -
|-
!pl
|colspan=2| ne-
| n- ¹
|-
!colspan=2|collective
|colspan=2| ai-
| ay- ¹
|}

: ¹) initial ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

===Declension===
East Yalan has five cases:
* '''Nominative''', the default form;
* '''Accusative-Dative''' (Primative), patient or recipient; used with prepositions; in past tense can be replaced with the nominative;
* '''Accusative-Instrumental''' (Secundative), instrument or theme;
* '''Genitive''', possessions and relations, used with temporal expressions;
* '''Locative''', location or movement;

And two declensions: familiar (proximate and definite) and unfamiliar (distal or indefinite).

: 1 – words ending with ''a e i u''
: 2 – words ending with ''ai''
: 3 – words ending with ''au''

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Familiar
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! N.
| aivi "ground"
| xikai "night"
| sau "language"
|-
! AD.
| aiv'''ege'''
| xik'''igi'''
| s'''ugu'''
|-
! AI.
| aih'''au''' ¹
| xik'''au''' ¹
| s'''au''' ¹
|-
! G.
| aiv'''ehe'''
| xik'''ihi'''
| s'''uhu'''
|-
! L.
| aiv'''atau'''
| xikai'''tau'''
| sau'''tau'''
|-
! Unfamiliar
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! N.
| aivi'''kau'''
| xik'''ikau'''
| s'''ukau'''
|-
! AD.
| aivi'''kugu'''
| xik'''ikugu'''
| s'''ukugu'''
|-
! AI.
| aivi'''hau'''
| xik'''ihau'''
| s'''uhau'''
|-
! G.
| aivi'''kuhu'''
| xik'''ikuhu'''
| s'''ukuhu'''
|-
! L.
| aivi'''kautau'''
| xik'''ikautau'''
| s'''ukautau'''
|}

: ¹) non-initial ''v'' mutates to ''h''

==Verbs==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
|}

===Person-tense prefixes===
Verb prefixes mark tense, aspect and agree with animacy and number of the subject.

Where two prefixes are given, the former is used before consonants and the latter before vowels.

The definite conjugation is used when the primative object (patient or recipient) is known and definite, even if not directly mentioned.
* '''Pusuja.'''
*: pu-suja
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-put
*: ''He/she put (something).''

* '''Pausuja.'''
*: pau-suja
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-put
*: ''He/she put it.''

The definite prefixes ending with ''m'' have variants with ''n'', now dialectal, indicating plurality of the object.

: C – before consonants
: V – before vowels

''a ai au'' change to ''e i u'' after prefixes marked with an asterisk (*), namely in aorist and definite and reflexive present forms.
* There are some exceptions, though: verbs '''au''' (be located), '''aunu''' (be place of) and '''auzu''' (be there, be got) do not change.

====Aorist====
Aorist is used for complete actions with no present relevance.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| pu-
| p- *
|-
! def.
| pau-
| pum- *
|-
! refl.
| puhe-
| puh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| se-
| s- *
|-
! def.
| sa-
| sem- *
|-
! refl.
| sehe-
| seh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| xu-
| x- *
|-
! def.
| xau-
| xum- *
|-
! refl.
| xuhe-
| xuh- *
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''p'''icici
|-
| '''pum'''icici
|-
| '''puh'''icici
|-
| '''s'''icici
|-
| '''sem'''icici
|-
| '''seh'''icici
|-
| '''x'''icici
|-
| '''xum'''icici
|-
| '''xuh'''icici
|}
|}

====Imperfect====
Imperfect is used for incomplete past actions.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| pi-
| p-
|-
! def.
| pumi-
| pum-
|-
! refl.
| puhi-
| puh-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| si-
| s-
|-
! def.
| semi-
| sem-
|-
! refl.
| sehi-
| seh-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| xai-
| xuw-
|-
! def.
| xumi-
| xum-
|-
! refl.
| xuhi-
| xuh-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''p'''aicici
|-
| '''pum'''aicici
|-
| '''puh'''aicici
|-
| '''s'''aicici
|-
| '''sem'''aicici
|-
| '''seh'''aicici
|-
| '''xuw'''icici
|-
| '''xum'''aicici
|-
| '''xuh'''icici
|}
|}

====Present====
Present is used for general utterances.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mu-
| m-
|-
! def.
| mau-
| mum- *
|-
! refl.
| muhe-
| muh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| a-
| -
|-
! def.
| au-
| am- *
|-
! refl.
| ahe-
| ah- *
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| ne-
| n-
|-
! def.
| na-
| nem- *
|-
! refl.
| nehe-
| neh- *
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''m'''aicici
|-
| '''mum'''icici
|-
| '''muh'''icici
|-
| aicici
|-
| '''am'''icici
|-
| '''ah'''icici
|-
| '''n'''aicici
|-
| '''nem'''icici
|-
| '''neh'''icici
|}
|}

====Progressive====
Progressive is used for ongoing actions.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mai-
| muw-
|-
! def.
| mumi-
| mum-
|-
! refl.
| muhi-
| muh-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| ai-
| ay-
|-
! def.
| ami-
| am-
|-
! refl.
| ahi-
| ah-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| nai-
| nay-
|-
! def.
| nemi-
| nem-
|-
! refl.
| nehi-
| neh-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''muw'''aicici
|-
| '''mum'''aicici
|-
| '''muh'''aicici
|-
| '''ay'''aicici
|-
| '''am'''aicici
|-
| '''ah'''aicici
|-
| '''nay'''aicici
|-
| '''nem'''aicici
|-
| '''neh'''aicici
|}
|}

====Future====
Future tense is used for perfective actions in future.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mau-
| mat-
|-
! def.
| mumau-
| mumet-
|-
! refl.
| muhau-
| muhet-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| au-
| at-
|-
! def.
| amau-
| amet-
|-
! refl.
| ahau-
| ahet-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| nau-
| nat-
|-
! def.
| nemau-
| nemet-
|-
! refl.
| nehau-
| nehet-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''mat'''aicici
|-
| '''mumet'''aicici
|-
| '''muhet'''aicici
|-
| '''at'''aicici
|-
| '''amet'''aicici
|-
| '''ahet'''aicici
|-
| '''nat'''aicici
|-
| '''nemet'''aicici
|-
| '''nehet'''aicici
|}
|}

===Stem classes===
Verbs (and other words that are conjugated, e.g. adjectives) are divided into several groups:

* consonantal stems
*: 1 – verbs ending in ''e i u''

* regular vocalic stems
*: 2 – verbs ending in ''a'' ('''a''' stems)
*: 3 – verbs ending in ''ai'' ('''i''' stems)

* irregular (unpredictable) vocalic stems – ending in ''au'':
*: 4 – '''u''' stems
*: 5 – '''au''' stems

Regarding the consonantal stems:
* The stem is either irregular (and listed in the dictionary) or identical to the indicative form.
* The imperative is created from the indicative, not the stem.
* The last vowel/consonant of the stem is deleted before another vowel/consonant, e.g. tauku- + -au > '''taukau'''; saig- + -ka > '''saika'''.

The stem is needed to construct imperative, irrealis and optative mood. It can be formed knowing the group number, which is listed in the dictionary.

===Mood endings===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!colspan=2| 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
|-
!Indicative
| sig'''i''' "run"
| ait'''i''' "be dark"
| suj'''a''' "put"
| kak'''ai''' "live"
| tim'''au''' "eat"
| vat'''au''' "move"
|-
!Stem
| '''<span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''-
| aiti-
| suj'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''-
| kak'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''-
| tim'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''-
| vat'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''-
|-
!colspan=8|
|-
!Imperative
| sig'''a'''
| ait'''a'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">ay</span>'''a''' ¹
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">iy</span>'''a'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">uw</span>'''a'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">aw</span>'''a'''
|-
!Irrealis
| <span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''a'''
| ait'''a'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''ra'''
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''ra'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''ra'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''ra'''
|-
!Optative
| <span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''au'''
| ait'''au'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''rau'''
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''rau'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''rau'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''rau'''
|}

:¹) [j] appears there epenthetically

===Voice suffixes===
There are five voices in East Yalan:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Active
| -
|-
! Passive
| '''-unu''' ¹, '''-nu'''
|-
! Receptive
| '''-aunu''' ¹, '''-hunu''' ²
|-
! Indirective
| '''-teme''' ²
|-
! Causative
| '''-ka''' ²
|}

: ¹) group 1 verbs (in the indicative mood)
: ²) added to the stem (in the indicative mood)

The endings can be likewise combined with other moods.

The indirective voice is used for promoting a monotransitive instrument or ditransitive theme to the primary object of the verb:

* '''Pausaicai.'''
*: pau-saicai
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-give
*: ''He gave (something) to him.''

* '''Pausaiciteme.'''
*: pau-saici-teme
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-give-{{sc|ind}}
*: ''He gave it (to somebody).''

* '''Muhexukautau nai.'''
*: muhe-xukautau nai
*: {{sc|sg.an.refl}}-see {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see myself.''

* '''Muhexukaututeme nai.'''
*: muhe-xukautu-teme nai
*: {{sc|sg.an.refl}}-see-{{sc|ind}} {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see by myself.''

==Adjectives==
===Attributive===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
|-
|attributive
|'''root'''
|mood
|voice
|comparison
|}

Adjectives, numerals and verbal attributives take no possessive or number prefixes. Usually they describe another noun and have the attributive prefix '''xe-, x-'''.

* '''aukeza xexa'''
*: au-keza xe-xa
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-man {{sc|att}}-good
*: ''the good man''

===Substantive===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
! +4
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
| comparison
| case
|}

When they are used alone (substantivized), they take the verbal agreement prefixes and inflect with their own declension paradigm:

* '''muxa'''
*: mu-xa
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-good
*: ''the good one''

The inflection depends on the stem class; the endings are added to the stem:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! 1
! 2-5
|-
!N.
| mu'''tere''' "red"
| m'''axai''' "grey"
|-
!AD.
| muta'''tege'''
| maxi'''zege''' ¹
|-
!AI.
| muta'''sai'''
| maxi'''zai''' ¹
|-
!G.
| muta'''tehe'''
| maxi'''zehe''' ¹
|-
!L.
| muta'''tatai'''
| maxi'''zatai''' ¹
|}

: ¹) final ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

There are no participles in East Yalan. Attributive forms are used instead:

* '''aukeza xetimau'''
*: au-keza xe-timau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-man {{sc|att}}-eat
*: ''The eating man. / The man who eats.''

===Comparative suffix===
Comparative/superlative form is created by adding '''-tetaumai''' (group 1) / '''-zetaumai''' (groups 2-5) to the stem. So formed adjectives can take the standard argument as their primary object.

* '''muxazetaumai'''
*: mu-xa-zetaumai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-good-{{sc|comp}}
*: ''the better/best one''

==Numerals==
Numerals are inflected like other attributives.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1.
| nau
! 11.
| naneza
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| gehe
! 12.
| geheneza
! 20.
| gaka
|-
! 3.
| sa
! 13.
| saneza
! 30.
| sena
|-
! 4.
| keve
! 14.
| keveneza
! 40.
| kapa
|-
! 5.
| ha
! 15.
| haneza
! 50.
| hena
|-
! 6.
| tuku
! 16.
| tukeneza
! 60.
| tauka
|-
! 7.
| muru
! 17.
| mureneza
! 70.
| mauna
|-
! 8.
| kepahe
! 18.
| kepaheneza
! 80.
| kepaka
|-
! 9.
| aura
! 19.
| auraneza
! 90.
| aurena
|-
! 10.
| aneza
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| anezena
|}

Higher numbers are constructed by agreement (addition) and attributives (multiplication), e.g.:

* '''nanezena xaura'''
*: n-anezena x-aura
*: {{sc|pl}}-hundred {{sc|att}}-nine
*: ''nine hundred''

* '''naura nanezena''' / '''nanezena naura'''
*: n-aura n-anezena
*: {{sc|pl}}-nine {{sc|pl}}-hundred
*: ''one hundred and nine''

When a numeral describes a noun, the former word order is preferred to avoid ambiguity:

* '''tuzu xanezena xaura'''
*: ∅-tuzu x-anezena x-aura
*: {{sc|pl}}-fish {{sc|att}}-hundred {{sc|att}}-nine
*: ''nine hundred fish''

* '''tuzu xaura xanezena'''
*: ∅-tuzu x-aura x-anezena
*: {{sc|pl}}-fish {{sc|att}}-nine {{sc|att}}-hundred
*: ''one hundred and nine fish''

==Syntax==
The East Yalan is a strictly head-initial language. The adjectives are placed after nouns and nouns after verbs.

The usual word order is VSO.

In ditransitive clauses, recipients are placed before themes:

* '''Maisaicai nai saicege ai.'''
*: mau-saicai nai saic-ege ai
*: {{sc|sg.an.def}}-give {{sc|1sg}} {{sc|2sg-acc.dat}} {{sc|3sg.acc.ins}}
*: ''I give it to you.''

Subjects can appear actually everywhere in clauses, but their usual place is after the verb.

Adverbs are placed before verbs and agree in tense (but not in person) with the verbs:

* '''Sipatege pitimau hina.'''
*: si-patege pi-timau hina
*: {{sc|sg.in.ipf}}-continuous {{sc|sg.an.ipf}}-eat woman
*: ''The woman was still eating.''

===Existence===
There are three verbs equivalent to English "to be" in East Yalan.

The first one, '''pa''' is used for expressing existence of the subject:

* '''Mupa xaupexai.'''
*: mu-pa xaupexai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-exist lion
*: ''(The) lion exists.''

It inflects regularly, as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
| pupa || pipa || mupa || maipa || maupa
|-
! sg inan.
| sepa || sipa || apa || aipa || aupa
|-
! pl
| xupa || xaipa || nepa || naipa || naupa
|}

===Location===
The locational verb is '''au'''. It has only definite forms and requires the location as direct object:

* '''Pumau amenai pitigi.'''
*: pum-au amenai pit-igi
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-be.located deer forest-{{sc|acc.dat}}
*: ''The deer was in the forest.''

It inflects slightly irregularly – its initial diphthong is never reduced (the same is true also for its other forms):

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| pumau ||colspan=2| mumau || mumetau
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| semau ||colspan=2| amau || ametau
|-
! pl
|colspan=2| xumau ||colspan=2| nemau || nemetau
|}

It has also passive form '''aunu''' "to be location of":

* '''Paunu pitai amenihi.'''
*: p-au-nu pitai amen-ihi
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-be.located-{{sc|pass}} forest deer-{{sc|gen}}
*: ''The forest was location of the deer.''

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| paunu || maunu || muwaunu || mataunu
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| saunu || aunu || ayaunu || ataunu
|-
! pl
| xaunu || xuwaunu || naunu || nayaunu || nataunu
|}

===Copula===
The third verb, the copula is '''ahe'''.

It requires the predicative as its direct object:

* '''Mumehe xaurau amenigi.'''
*: mum*-ahe xaurau amen-igi
*: {{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula animal deer-{{sc|acc.dat}}
*: The animal is deer.

It is conjugated regularly. It has only definite forms, though.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
| pumehe || pumahe || mumehe || mumahe || mumetahe
|-
! sg inan.
| semehe || semahe || amehe || amahe || ametahe
|-
! pl
| xumehe || xumahe || nemehe || nemahe || nemetahe
|}

However, it is not used with adjectives and other attributive nouns – those are conjugated instead.

* '''Muxaita xaurau.'''
*: mu-xaita xaurau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-big animal
*: The animal is big.

===Possession and introduction===
There is an intransitive verb '''auzu''' expressing possession. Its subject is a noun with appropriate possessive prefix:

* '''Mauzu nivautau.'''
*: m-auzu ni-vautau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-be {{sc|1sg.poss}}-cow
*: ''I have a cow.''

Additionally, it can be used for introducing a subject – with distal inflection on the noun:

* '''Mauzu xaupexikau.'''
*: m-auzu xaupex-ikau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-be lion-{{sc|dist.nom}}
*: ''There is a lion.''

* '''Pauzu amenikau pitaitau.'''
*: p-auzu amen-ikau pitai-tau
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-be deer-{{sc|dist.nom}} forest-{{sc|loc}}
*: ''There was a deer in the forest.''

Rarely, the proximate inflection can be used.

It inflects irregularly.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| pauzu || mauzu || muwauzu || matauzu
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| sauzu || auzu || ayauzu || atauzu
|-
! pl
| xauzu || xuwauzu || nauzu || nayauzu || natauzu
|}

==Sample text==
The sample text is '''xaupehai xexukau''' ("the young lion"), the text used in comparative linguistics of the T1 language family.

{{+|
{{gl|Mumehe|mum*-ahe|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula}}
{{gl|xaupehai|xaupehai|lion}}
{{gl|caigemege|caig-em-ege|rule-er-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|pa|pa|all}}
{{gl|nuxauruhu,|nu-xaur-uhu|{{sc|pl.an}}-animal-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|The lion is the ruler of all animals,}}

{{gl|tau|tau|because}}
{{gl|acihi|a-cihi|{{sc|sg.in}}-very}}
{{gl|muheva,|mu-heva|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong}}
{{gl|apexaze|a-pexaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|puxamau,|pu-xamau|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{gl|akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|pauhu,|p-auhu|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|axukau|a-xukau|{{sc|sg.in}}-fast}}
{{gl|musigi.|mu-sigi|{{sc|sg.an}}-run}}
{{glend|because he is very strong, his chest is thick, his belly is thin and he runs fast.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Ka|ka|behold}}
{{gl|mauzu|m-auzu|{{sc|sg.an}}-be}}
{{gl|xaupexai|xaupehai|lion}}
{{gl|xexukau.|xe-xukau|{{sc|att}}-young}}
{{glend|Look, there is the young lion.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Muceje|mu-ceje|{{sc|sg.an}}-come}}
{{gl|pitaitau|pitai-tau|forest-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|aigi|aigi|every}}
{{gl|tatehe,|tat-ehe|morning-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maukupau|mau-kupau|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-compare}}
{{gl|nuhaurugu|nu-haur-ugu|{{sc|pl.an}}-animal-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|xahe|x-ahe|{{sc|att}}-other}}
{{gl|hevezau.|hevez-au|strength-{{sc|acc.ins}}}}
{{glend|He comes to the forest every morning and compares to the other animals with regard to strength.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|apautusu|a-pautusu|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|maikainau|m-aikainau|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|xepitaisici.|xe-pitaisici|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{glend|And he always returns winning.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Napame|na-pame|{{sc|pl.def}}-hear}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|nasaketai|na-saketai|{{sc|pl.def}}-know}}
{{gl|mekege:|mek-ege|news-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|maucaigi|mau-caigi|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-rule}}
{{gl|xaupehai.|xaupehai|lion}}
{{glend|All the animals hear and know the news: the lion rules them.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maikainau|m-aikainau|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|xepitaisici|xe-pitaisici|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{gl|aigi|aigi|every}}
{{gl|saxuhu,|sax-uhu|day-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maumaxeta|mau-maxeta|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-praise}}
{{gl|paimegai:|p-aimegai|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|And he returns winning every day, and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Mumehe|mum*-ahe|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula}}
{{gl|sai|sai|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|guxazege!|g*-auxaz-ege|{{sc|1sg.poss}}-child-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|Apexaze|a-pexaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|sexeke!|s*-axeke|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|suhu!|s*-auhu|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Axaita|a-xaita|{{sc|sg.in}}-big}}
{{gl|sixamau!|si-xamau|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“You are my child! Your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is big!}}

{{gl|Mauxausuka|mau-xausu-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.named-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|nai|nai|{{sc|1sg}}}}
{{gl|saicege|saic-ege|{{sc|2sg-acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|‘Muhevezau’!”|mu-heva-*zau|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong-{{sc|acc.ins}}}}
{{glend|I name you ‘The Strong One’!”}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Apate|a-pate|{{sc|sg.in}}-now}}
{{gl|apahasete|a-pahasete|{{sc|sg.in}}-repeat}}
{{gl|maucayaka|mau-caya-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-stretch-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|punekesege|pu-n*-ekes-ege|{{sc|3sg.poss-pl}}-leg-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|tatehe,|tat-ehe|morning-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maumaxeta|mau-maxeta|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-praise}}
{{gl|paimegai:|p-aimegai|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|Now he stretches his legs again this morning and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Apehaze|a-pehaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|sexeke!|s*-axeke|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|suhu!|s*-auhu|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Aheva|a-heva|{{sc|sg.in}}-strong}}
{{gl|sixamau!|si-xamau|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“Your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is strong!}}

{{gl|Mausake|mau-sake|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-own}}
{{gl|sai|sai|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|pesazege|∅-pesaz-ege|{{sc|pl}}-arm-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|xetesakaixiki|xe-tesakaixiki|{{sc|att}}-mighty}}
{{gl|xaupehihi!”|xaupeh-ihi|lion-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|You own the mighty arms of lion!”}}
}}

{{comment|Source of the sample text: Roy S. Hagman, Nama Hottentot grammar, Bloomington/Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977.}}

==Lexicon==
:''Main page: [[East Yalan/Lexicon]]''

[[Category:T1 languages|Yalan East]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

West Yalan

2013-01-21T01:28:40Z

Rorschach: /* Sample text */ Added citation.

{{Language
| language = Jaran
| phonetic = {{IPA|[jaˈran]}}
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = southern Tuysáfa,<br /> Yalne plains
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />  Yalan<br />    '''West Yalan'''
| mor-type = fusional
| author = [[User:The Devilcat|the Devilcat]]
| word-or = VSO
| morphalign = neutral/accusative
}}
'''West Yalan''', '''Jaran''' is an ethnolect spoken in southern [[Tuysáfa]] around 0 YP. Together with the [[East Yalan]] it forms the Yalan language family / dialect continuum.

==Background==
The term covers a group of dialects spoken in southern and southeastern Tuysáfa coast. It is also a descendant of the Old Yalan dialects spoken around -800 YP.

West Yalan is a part of the [[T1 languages|T1 language family]] created for the Second Reconstruction Relay, together with [[Cednìtıt]], [[Cëzëdeğozin]], [[Hato]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], [[Omari]] and [[User:Rorschach/Relay draftlang|Tejétáti]].

===Varieties===
There are three main varieties of Jaran:

====Estuary Jaran====
Estuary Jaran, ''sâ Jarenah Fosotih'', is the standard language described in this article.

/r/ is usually pronounced as [ɾ].

/a/ is realized as [æ].

====River Jaran====
River Jaran, ''sâ Jarenah Âkasetih'', RJ ''so Jeranah Okeseteh'', differs slightly from the standard:
* /a ɒ/ are raised to [e o] in open and merged to [a] in closed syllables;
* /i u/ are lowered to [e o] in closed syllables;
* some instances of the original /e o/ remain [e o] ('''ê ô''' in the scientific orthography);
* other occurrences are merged to [a] ('''e o''' in the scientific orthography);
* where standard has morphological reduction of vowels, RJ has lowering ''i u e o'' to ''e o a a''.

====Coast Jaran====
Coast Jaran, ''sâ Jarenah Pamâkotih'', CJ ''so Jarenah Pamokotih'', has some differences as well:
* /ɒ/ is raised to [o];
* some instances of the original /o/ are further merged to [u] ('''ô''' in the scientific orthography);
* /r/ is pronounced as [l] syllable-finally and [ɾ] otherwise;
* in some areas there is a pitch stress on the final open syllables (the high pitch unmarked, the low pitch marked with a grave accent in the scientific orthography).

===Rapid speech===
There are some tendencies present in the rapid speech, in all of the above varieties.

Vowel sequences are often realized as pre- or post-glided vowels, e.g. '''moać''' [mwatɕ], '''aetuk''' [ajˈtuk], '''ie''' [je].

Unstressed non-initial syllables beginning with a sonorant have the vowel elided, e.g. '''nârârena''' becoming rapid CJ [noɾolˈna] or even [nolːˈna].

==Phonology==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! colspan=2|Consonants
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! colspan=2|nasal
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| {{IPA|ɲ}} ‹ń›
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2|plosive
! fortis
| {{IPA|pʰ}} ‹ph›
| {{IPA|tʰ}} ‹th›
|
| {{IPA|kʰ}} ‹kh›
|
|-
! lenis
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
|
| {{IPA|k}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2|affricate
! fortis
|
| {{IPA|tsʰ}} ‹ch›
| {{IPA|tɕʰ}} ‹ćh›
|
|
|-
! lenis
|
| {{IPA|ts}} ‹c›
| {{IPA|tɕ}} ‹ć›
|
|
|-
! colspan=2|fricative
| {{IPA|f}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ɕ}} ‹ś›
|
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! colspan=2|fluid
|
| {{IPA|r}}
| {{IPA|j}}
|
|
|}

The lenis consonants can be voiced between vowels.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!Vowels
!front
!back
|-
!close
|{{IPA|i}}
|{{IPA|u}}
|-
!mid
|{{IPA|e}}
|{{IPA|o}}
|-
!open
|{{IPA|a}}
|{{IPA|ɒ}} ‹â›
|}

The front-back dichotomy has influence on inflection, e.g. noun stems expanded with ''e'' or ''o'' depending on the last vowel.

Syllables of type (C)V(C). Final consonant permitted only word-finally.

Word stress falls on the last syllable, e.g. '''śatite''' {{IPA|[ɕatiˈte]}} "flour".

===Morphophonology===
There are two common alternations: reduction and fronting.

====Reduction====
When a vowel is reduced, it changes to a mid vowel:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Non-reduced
| i e a || u o â
|-
! Reduced
| e || o
|}

====Fronting====
Fronting is a shift of velar to palatal and palatal to dental consonants. The two degrees can combine:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Grade 0
| k || kh || h
|-
! Grade +1
| ć || ćh || ś
|-
! Grade +2
| c || ch || s
|}

====Assibilation====
Assibilation (or lenition) is present only in some suffixes and sometimes doesn't happen regularly.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Normal
| p ph || t th || c ch || ć ćh || k kh
|-
! Mutated
| h || s || s || ś || h
|}

==Pronouns==
The personal pronouns are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! 1sg
! 2sg
!colspan=2| 3sg
! 1pl
! 2pl
!colspan=2| 3pl
|-
! N.
| nica
| fica
| i || itu
| taca
| cica
| ni || netu
|-
! O.
| nica'''ń'''
| fica'''ń'''
| i <br/> ie ¹ || itu <br/> itou ¹
| taca'''ń'''
| cica'''ń'''
| ni || netu <br/> netou ¹
|-
! G.
| nica'''ś'''
| fica'''ś'''
| i'''h''' || itu'''h'''
| taca'''ś'''
| cica'''ś'''
| ni'''h''' || netu'''h'''
|-
! L.
| nica'''tu'''
| fica'''tu'''
| i'''tu''' || itu'''tu'''
| taca'''tu'''
| cica'''tu'''
| ni'''tu''' || netu'''tu'''
|}

: ¹) used mostly for disambiguation

There are also shortened form of 1st and 2nd person pronouns, with ''-ca-'' omitted (i.e. ''ni, niń, niś …, fi, ta'' &c) in use. They are considered inferior, though.

''Itu'' and ''netu'' are the obviative forms, used when not referring to the subject of the previous sentence:

* '''Pâhokuthu śâphehi tesata. Pâtuk nica i.'''
*: pâ-hokuthu śâphehi tesat-a. pâ-tuk nica i
*: {{sc|sg.an.obj.aor}}-see lion seagull-{{sc|obl}}. {{sc|sg.an.obj.aor}}-hunt 1sg 3sg
*: ''The lion saw the seagull. I hunted it (the lion).''

* '''Pâhokuthu śâphehi tesata. Pâtuk nica itu.'''
*: pâ-hokuthu śâphehi tesat-a. pâ-tuk nica itu
*: {{sc|sg.an.obj.aor}}-see lion seagull-{{sc|obl}}. {{sc|sg.an.obj.aor}}-hunt 1sg 3sg.obv
*: ''The lion saw the seagull. I hunted it (the seagull).''

==Nouns==
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| possession
| number
| '''root'''
| deixis
| case
|}

===Prefixes===
====Possessive====
: C – before consonant
: E – before front vowel
: O – before back vowel

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!C
!E
!O
|-
!rowspan=3|sg
!1.
|ne-
|ne~ ¹
|ńo~ ¹
|-
!2.
|fe-
|fe~ ¹
|fo~ ¹
|-
!3.
|po-
|colspan=2|p-
|-
!rowspan=3|pl
!1.
|te-
|te~ ¹
|to~ ¹
|-
!2.
|ce-
|ce~ ¹
|ćo~ ¹
|-
!3.
|no-
|colspan=2|n-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|âthuf, thuf "fish"
|-
|'''ńo'''thuf, '''ne'''thuf
|-
|'''fo'''thuf, '''fe'''thuf
|-
|'''p'''âthuf, '''po'''thuf
|-
|'''to'''thuf, '''te'''thuf
|-
|'''ćo'''thuf, '''ce'''thuf
|-
|'''n'''âthuf, '''no'''thuf
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|ipe, nepe "place"
|-
|'''ne'''pe, '''ne'''nepe
|-
|'''fe'''pe, '''fe'''nepe
|-
|'''p'''ipe, '''po'''nepe
|-
|'''te'''pe, '''te'''nepe
|-
|'''ce'''pe, '''ce'''nepe
|-
|'''n'''ipe, '''no'''nepe
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|âjâ, noja "ant"
|-
|'''ńo'''jâ, '''ne'''nojâ
|-
|'''fo'''jâ, '''fe'''nojâ
|-
|'''p'''âjâ, '''po'''nojâ
|-
|'''to'''jâ, '''te'''nojâ
|-
|'''ćo'''jâ, '''ce'''nojâ
|-
|'''n'''âjâ, '''no'''nojâ
|}
|}

:¹) prefix replacing the original vowel

====Number====
:P – before plosives and affricates
:C – before other consonants
:E – before front vowel
:O – before back vowel

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!P
!C
!E
!O
|-
!rowspan=2|sg
!an.
|â-
|rowspan=2| -
|rowspan=2| -
|rowspan=2| -
|-
!inan.
| ~ ²
|-
!rowspan=2|pl
!an.
|rowspan=2| -
|no-
|rowspan=2| ne~ ¹
|rowspan=2| no~ ¹
|-
!inan.
|ne-
|-
!colspan=2|collective
|colspan=2|i-
|ie~ ¹
|io~ ¹
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|caka "duck"
|pa "sea"
|śiti "bird"
|ha "brain"
|aće "fire"
|âpo "country"
|-
|'''â'''caka
|
|rowspan=2|śiti
|rowspan=2|ha
|rowspan=2|aće
|rowspan=2|âpo
|-
|
|p'''h'''a
|-
|rowspan=2|caka
|rowspan=2|pa
|'''no'''śiti
|
|rowspan=2|'''ne'''će
|rowspan=2|'''no'''po
|-
|
|'''ne'''ha
|-
|'''i'''caka
|'''i'''pa
|'''i'''śiti
|'''i'''ha
|'''ie'''će
|'''io'''po
|}
|}

:¹) prefix replacing the original vowel
:²) aspiration of the consonant

===Declension===
West Yalan has four cases:
* '''Nominative''', the default form;
* '''Oblique''' (Accusative-Dative), objects of present tense verbs;
* '''Genitive''', possessions and relations; used with most prepositions;
* '''Locative''' (Locative-Allative), location, time or movement towards an object;

In some dialects the '''-tu''' locative suffix can be separated and preposited, e.g.:
{{+|
{{gl|ćifećatu|ćifić-*atu|house-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|~}}
{{gl|tu ćifeća|tu ćifić-*a|{{sc|loc}} house-{{sc|prep}}}}
{{glend|in/to a house}}
}}

The noun form having the '''-tu''' subtracted is also called '''prepositive''', this is the form to which two other prepositions are added: '''fań''' "near" and '''ja''' "above".

There are also three declensions: indefinite, proximate and distal.

The words are divided into four inflectional groups:
: I – words ending with a consonant
: II – words ending with ''e o''
: III – words ending with ''i a u â''
: IV – some words ending with ''i a'', inpredictable

====Indefinite====
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! I
! II
! III
! IV
|-
!N.
|thuf "fish"
|ipe "ground"
|âjâ "ant"
|fa "plain"
|-
!O.
|thof'''a''' ¹
|ip'''a'''
|âjâ
|fa'''ń'''
|-
!G.
|thof'''ah''' ¹
|ip'''ah'''
|âjâ'''h'''
|fa'''ś'''
|-
!L.
|thof'''atu''' ¹
|ip'''atu'''
|âjâ'''tu'''
|fa'''tu'''
|}
: ¹) last vowel of the stem reduced to ''e o''

====Proximate====
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! I
! II
! III
! IV
|-
!N.
|thofo'''ti''' ¹
|ipe'''ti'''
|âjo'''ti''' ²
|fe'''ti''' ²
|-
!O.
|thofo'''teu''' ¹
|ipe'''teu'''
|âjo'''teu''' ²
|fe'''teu''' ²
|-
!G.
|thofo'''tih''' ¹
|ipe'''tih'''
|âjo'''tih''' ²
|fe'''tih''' ²
|-
!L.
|thofo'''titu''' ¹
|ipe'''titu'''
|âjo'''titu''' ²
|fe'''titu''' ²
|}
: ¹) last vowel of the stem reduced to ''e o'' and echo vowel introduced
: ²) final vowel reduced to ''e o''

====Distal====
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! I
! II
! III
! IV
|-
!N.
|thofo'''khâ''' ¹
|ipe'''khâ'''
|âjo'''khâ''' ²
|fe'''khâ''' ²
|-
!O.
|thofo'''hu''' ¹
|ipe'''hu'''
|âjo'''hu''' ²
|fe'''hu''' ²
|-
!G.
|thofo'''khâh''' ¹
|ipe'''khâh'''
|âjo'''khâh''' ²
|fe'''khâh''' ²
|-
!L.
|thofo'''khâtu''' ¹
|ipe'''khâtu'''
|âjo'''khâtu''' ²
|fe'''khâtu''' ²
|}
: ¹) last vowel of the stem reduced to ''e o'' and echo vowel introduced
: ²) final vowel reduced to ''e o''

==Verbs==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
|}

===Person-tense prefixes===
Verb prefixes mark tense, aspect and also animacy and number of the subject and the object.

Where two prefixes are given, the former is used before consonants and the latter before vowels.

When a prefix marked with the asterisk (*) is attached, the first vowel is reduced to ''e o''.

The reflexive prefixes have the consonant alternation between ''k'', ''ć(h)'' and ''c'' – the consonant is fronted once in singular subject prefixes and then again in imperfect and progressive tense.

====Aorist====
Aorist is used for complete actions with no present relevance.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Object
!colspan=6| Subject
|-
!colspan=2 align=center| sg anim.
!colspan=2| sg inan.
!colspan=2| pl
|-
! -
| po- || p- *
| se- || s- *
| ho- || h-
|-
! sg
| pâ- || pom- *
| su- || sem- *
| rowspan=2| hâ- || hom- *
|-
! pl
| pa- || pon- *
| sa- || sen- *
| hon- *
|-
! refl
| poće- || poć- *
| śeće- || śeć- *
| hoke- || hok- *
|}

====Imperfect====
Imperfect is used for incomplete past actions.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Object
!colspan=6| Subject
|-
!colspan=2 align=center| sg anim.
!colspan=2| sg inan.
!colspan=2| pl
|-
! -
| pe- || p-
| se- || s-
| hi- || ho-
|-
! sg
| pome- || pom-
| seme- || sem-
| home- || hom-
|-
! pl
| pone- || pon-
| sene- || sen-
| hone- || hon-
|-
! refl
| poce- || poc-
| sece- || sec-
| hoće- || hoć-
|}

====Present====
Present is used for general utterances.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Object
!colspan=6| Subject
|-
!colspan=2 align=center| sg anim.
!colspan=2| sg inan.
!colspan=2| pl
|-
! -
| mo- || m-
| a- || -
| ne- || n-
|-
! sg
|rowspan=2| mu- || mom- *
|rowspan=2| u- || am- *
|rowspan=2| na- || nem- *
|-
! pl
| mon- *
| an- *
| nen- *
|-
! refl
| moće- || moć- *
| aćhe- || aćh- *
| neke- || nek- *
|}

====Progressive====
Progressive is used for ongoing actions that will be presumably completed in future.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Object
!colspan=6| Subject
|-
!colspan=2 align=center| sg anim.
!colspan=2| sg inan.
!colspan=2| pl
|-
! -
| mi- || mo-
| ae- || a- aj- ¹
| ni- || ne-
|-
! sg
| mome- || mom-
| ame- || am-
| neme- || nem-
|-
! pl
| mone- || mon-
| ane- || an-
| nene- || nen-
|-
! refl
| moce- || moc-
| ache- || ach-
| neće- || neć-
|}

: ¹) ''a-'' before close vowels, ''aj-'' before mid and open vowels

===Mood endings===
:I – verbs ending with a consonant
:II – verbs ending with ''e o''
:III – verbs ending with ''i a u â''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! I
! II
! III
|-
!Indicative
|tuk "hunt"
|jape "pull"
|śi "try"
|-
!Energetic
|tok'''ak''' ¹
|jap'''ak'''
|śi'''k'''
|-
!Imperative
|toć'''a''' ¹ ²
|jap'''a'''
|śe'''a''' ¹
|-
!Desiderative
|tok'''u''' ¹
|jap'''u'''
|śe'''ru''' ¹
|-
!Conditional
|tuko'''thi''' ³
|jape'''thi'''
|śi'''thi'''
|-
!Potential
|tuko'''pa''' ³
|jape'''pa'''
|śi'''pa'''
|}

: ¹) the last vowel of the stem is reduced to ''e o''
: ²) the final consonant is fronted: ''k kh h ć ćh ś'' change to ''ć ćh ś c ch s''
: ³) an epenthetic vowel (''e'' or ''o'') is added

===Voice suffixes===
There are several grammatical voices in West Yalan.

The voice suffixes can be added to verbs in other moods, so they don't necessarily depend on the verb group.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!Active
| '''-'''
|
|-
!rowspan=2|Passive
| '''-un''' ¹, '''-no''' ²
| monotransitive verbs
|-
| '''-hun''' ³
| ditransitive verbs
|-
!rowspan=2|Causative
| '''-ka''' ³
| intransitive verbs
|-
| '''-ih''' ¹, '''-h''' ²
| transitive verbs
|}

: ¹) after a consonant or replacing final ''e o''
: ²) after ''i a u â''
: ³) an epenthetic ''e'' or ''o'' added after a consonant

==Adjectives==
Adjectives, numerals and verbs acting as participles behave in their own way.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
|-
|attributive
|'''root'''
|mood
|voice
|comparison
|}

When they describe another noun, they take the attributive prefix '''he-''', '''h-'''.

Relative clauses are created the same way.

* '''ćhifić heśâ'''
*: ć‹h›ifić he-śâ
*: ‹{{sc|sg.an}}›house {{sc|att}}-small
*: ''the small house''

* '''śâphehi hetuk'''
*: śâphehi he-tuk
*: lion {{sc|att}}-hunt
*: ''the hunting lion / the lion, which hunts''

{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
! +4
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
| comparison
| case
|}

When they are substantivized – used alone as independent arguments, they take verbal prefixes and use their own declension type.

* '''aśâ'''
*: a-śâ
*: {{sc|sg.in}}-small
*: ''the small thing''

* '''motuk'''
*: mo-tuk
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-hunt
*: ''the hunting one''

===Comparison===
There is one degree used for comparison. It is created with the suffix '''-tetumi''' ('''-tetume-''' when declined).

After consonants, the last vowel of the stem is reduced and added as the echo vowel.

* '''aśâtetumi'''
*: a-śâ-tetumi
*: {{sc|sg.in}}-small-{{sc|comp}}
*: ''the smaller / smallest thing''

* '''śâphehi hetokotetumi'''
*: śâphehi he-tuk-tetumi
*: lion {{sc|att}}-hunt-{{sc|comp}}
*: ''the lion, which hunts more / the most''

The standard argument behaves as the object:

* '''uśâtetumi ćhifeća'''
*: u-śâ-tetumi ć‹h›ifić-*a
*: {{sc|sg.in.sg.o}}-small-{{sc|comp}} ‹{{sc|sg.in}}›-house-{{sc|obl}}
*: ''smaller than house''

===Case endings===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!N.
|thar "red"
|śâ "small"
|-
!O.
|there'''ta''' ¹
|śâ'''ta'''
|-
!G.
|there'''tah''' ¹
|śâ'''tah'''
|-
!L.
|there'''tatu''' ¹
|śâ'''tatu'''
|}
: ¹) last vowel of the stem reduced to ''e o'' and echo vowel introduced

==Numerals==
Numerals have properties of other attributive nouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1.
| nâ
! 11.
| naneta
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| ńać
! 12.
| ńećeneta
! 20.
| ńaća
|-
! 3.
| sa
! 13.
| saneta
! 30.
| sena
|-
! 4.
| ćap
! 14.
| ćepeneta
! 40.
| ćapa
|-
! 5.
| śa
! 15.
| śaneta
! 50.
| śena
|-
! 6.
| tâkh
! 16.
| tokheneta
! 60.
| tâkha
|-
! 7.
| mur
! 17.
| moreneta ¹
! 70.
| muna
|-
! 8.
| ćapać
! 18.
| ćapećeneta
! 80.
| ćapaća
|-
! 9.
| âra
! 19.
| âraneta
! 90.
| ârena
|-
! 10.
| aneta
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| anetena
|}

: ¹) alternative form ''muneta'' can be also encountered by analogy

The changed forms from 11-19 can be also prefixed to other numerals, e.g.

* '''netokheńaća'''
*: ne-tokhe-ńaća
*: {{sc|pl}}-four-twenty
*: ''twenty-four''

Full n-ties (10-90) behave similarly, up to 199:

* '''nârârenanetena'''
*: n-âr-âren-anetena
*: {{sc|pl}}-nine-ninety-hundred
*: ''one hundred and ninety-nine''

Higher numbers are done analytically, with a conjunction ''śi'':

* '''nanetena hârârena śi nârârena'''
*: n-anetena h-âr-ârena śi n-âr-ârena
*: {{sc|pl}}-houndred {{sc|att}}-nine-ninety and {{sc|pl}}-nine-ninety
*: ''nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine'' (lit. ''ninety-nine houndred ninety-nine'')

==Sample text==
The sample text is '''śâphehiti hehoćâ''' ("this young lion"), the text used in comparative linguistics of the T1 language family.

{{+|
{{gl|Momeće|mom*-aće|{{sc|sg.an.sg.o}}-be}}
{{gl|śâphehi|śâphehi|lion}}
{{gl|cińemań|cińe-ma-ń|rule-er-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|pa|pa|all}}
{{gl|nohâruh,|no-hâru-h|{{sc|pl.an}}-animal-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|The lion is the ruler of all animals,}}

{{gl|thâ|thâ|because}}
{{gl|mośepak,|mo-śepa-k|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|apehafak|a-pehafe-ak|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|pośamâ,|po-śamâ|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{gl|akhik|a-khi-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|puho,|p-uho|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|ahokâk|a-hokâ-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-fast-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|mofiń.|mo-fiń|{{sc|sg.an}}-run}}
{{glend|because, certainly, he is strong, his chest is thick, his stomach is thin and he runs fast.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Ća|ća|behold}}
{{gl|mopa|mo-pa|{{sc|sg.an}}-be}}
{{gl|śâphehiti|śâphehi-ti|lion-{{sc|prox}}}}
{{gl|hehoćâ.|he-hoćâ|{{sc|att}}-young}}
{{glend|Look, there is this young lion.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Mosas|mo-sas|{{sc|sg.an}}-go}}
{{gl|phethitu|ph‹h›ethi-tu|‹{{sc|sg.in}}›forest-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|ińe|ińe|every}}
{{gl|thatatu,|th‹h›ata-tu|‹{{sc|sg.in}}›morning-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|mukhophâ|mu-khophâ|{{sc|sg.an.obj}}-compare}}
{{gl|nohâru|no-hâru-∅|{{sc|pl}}-animal-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|haćaf|h-aćaf|{{sc|att}}-other}}
{{gl|śepeta.|śepeta|strength}}
{{glend|He goes to the forest every morning and compares to the other animals with regard to strength.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Si|si|and}}
{{gl|aputus|a-putus|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|mićinu|m-ićinu|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|hepetific.|he-petific|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{glend|And he always returns winning.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Naphame|na-phame|{{sc|pl.o}}-hear}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|nasaćeti|na-saćeti|{{sc|pl.o}}-know}}
{{gl|pa|pa|all}}
{{gl|nohâru|no-hâru|{{sc|pl}}-animal}}
{{gl|mećheteu:|maćh-teu|news-{{sc|prox.obl}}}}
{{gl|mucińe|mu-cińe|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-rule}}
{{gl|śâphehiti.|śâphehi-ti|lion-{{sc|prox}}}}
{{glend|All the animals hear and know this news: this lion rules them.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Si|si|and}}
{{gl|mićinu|m-ićinu|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|hepetific|he-petific|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{gl|ińe|ińe|every}}
{{gl|faśâtu,|faśâ-tu|day-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|mumaheta|mu-maheta|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-praise}}
{{gl|pimeńu:|p-imeńu|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|And he returns winning every day, and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Momeće|mom*-aće|{{sc|sg.an.sg.o}}-be}}
{{gl|fica|fica|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|ńohata!|ńo-uhata|{{sc|1sg.poss}}-child}}
{{gl|Apehafak|a-pehafe-ak|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|fehak!|fe-ahak|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akhik|a-khi-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|foho!|fo-uho|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Ahitak|a-hita-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-big-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|feśamâ!|fe-śamâ|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“You are my child! Indeed, your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is big!}}

{{gl|Muśâfoka|mu-śâf-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.named-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|nica|nica|{{sc|1sg}}}}
{{gl|ficań|fica-ń|{{sc|2sg-obl}}}}
{{gl|‘Mośepata’!”|mo-śepa-ta|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{glend|I name you ‘The Strong One’!”}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Apate|a-pate|{{sc|sg.in}}-now}}
{{gl|apakafat|a-pakafat|{{sc|sg.in}}-repeat}}
{{gl|muchiaka|mu-chia-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-stretch-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|ponećesa|po-ne-aćas-*a|{{sc|3sg.poss-pl}}-leg-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|thatetitu,|thata-*ti-tu|morning-{{sc|prox-loc}}}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|mumaheta|mu-maheta|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-praise}}
{{gl|pimeńu:|p-imeńu|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|Now he stretches his legs again this morning and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Apehafak|a-pehafe-ak|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|fehak!|fe-ahak|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akhik|a-khi-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|foho!|fo-uho|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Aśepak|a-śepa-k|{{sc|sg.in}}-strong-{{sc|ene}}}}
{{gl|feśamâ!|fe-śamâ|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“Indeed, your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is strong!}}

{{gl|Musaće|mu-saće|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-own}}
{{gl|fica|fica|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|pefesa|∅-pefas-*a|{{sc|pl}}-arm-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|hetesakhihik|he-tesakhihik|{{sc|att}}-mighty}}
{{gl|śâphehih!”|śâphehi-h|lion-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|You own the mighty arms of a lion!”}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|A|a|but}}
{{gl|amohuth|a-mohuth|{{sc|sg.in}}-follow}}
{{gl|mukhothâo|mu-khothâo|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-end}}
{{gl|mumahetata,|maheta-ta|praise-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|monofotiâ|mon*-âfotiâ|{{sc|sg.an.o.pl}}-say}}
{{gl|nooteu:|no~ââ-*teu|{{sc|pl}}-word-{{sc|prox.obl}}}}
{{glend|But then she finishes praising him and says these words:}}

{{gl|“Achić,|a-chić|{{sc|sg.in}}-indeed}}
{{gl|mukotâo|mu-kotâo|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-believe}}
{{gl|nica.|nica|{{sc|1sg}}}}
{{glend|“Indeed, I believe it.}}

{{gl|Muśepatetumi|mu-śepa-tetumi|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-strong-{{sc|comp}}}}
{{gl|fica|fica|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|pa|pa|all}}
{{gl|nohâru|no-hâru-∅|{{sc|pl}}-animal-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|haćaf|h-aćaf|{{sc|att}}-other}}
{{glend|You are stronger than all other beasts.}}

{{gl|Aputus|a-putus|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|mosas|mo-sas|{{sc|sg.an}}-go}}
{{gl|fica|fica|2sg}}
{{gl|phethitu,|ph‹h›ethi-tu|‹{{sc|sg.in}}›forest-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|si|si|and}}
{{gl|aputus|a-putus|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|mićinu|m-ićinu|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|hepetific.|he-petific|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{glend|You always go into the forest and always return victorious.}}

{{gl|Si|si|and}}
{{gl|aputus|a-putus|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|momepâśi|mom*-ipâśi|{{sc|sg.an.o.sg}}-show}}
{{gl|fica|fica|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|nicań,|nica-ń|{{sc|1sg-obl}}}}
{{gl|mucińeketa|mu-cińe-ak-*ta|{{sc|sg.an.o}}-rule-{{sc|ene}}-{{sc|obl}}}}
{{gl|nohâroteu.|no-hâru-*teu|{{sc|pl}}-animal-{{sc|prox.obl}}}}
{{glend|And you always show me that you truly rule the beasts.}}
}}
{{comment|Source of the sample text: Roy S. Hagman, Nama Hottentot grammar, Bloomington/Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977.}}

==Lexicon==
: ''Main page: [[West Yalan/Lexicon]]''

[[Category:T1 languages|Yalan West]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Hkətl’ohnim

2012-12-09T10:40:32Z

Rorschach:

{{Language
| language = Hkətl’ohnim
| phonetic = {{IPA|[ʰkə.ˈt͡ɬ’o̞.ʰɲ̥im]}}
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = eastern Tuysáfa
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />  '''Hkətl’ohnim'''
| word-or = verb-initial
| mor-type = polysynthetic; agglutinating w/ some fusion
| morphalign = split-ergative
| author = [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
'''Hkətl’ohnim''' is a language spoken in eastern [[Tuysáfa]] around 0 YP. It is part of the [[T1 languages|T1 language family]], and thus related to [[Cednìtıt]], [[East Yalan|East]] and [[West Yalan]], [[Omari]], [[Teyetáti]], and [[Cëzëdeğozin]].

The name literally means "we language-talk together".

=Phonology=
==Phoneme inventory==
===Consonants===

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! !! labial !! dental !! lateral !! alveolar !! palatal !! velar !! labio-v. !! uvular !! labio-uv. !! pharyng. !! glottal
|-
! plosive
| p || t || tɬ || ts || tʃ || k || kʷ || q || qʷ || ||
|-
! ejective
| p’ || t’ || tɬ’ || ts’ || tʃ’ || k’ || kʷ’ || q’ || qʷ’ || ||
|-
! fricative
| || || ɬ || s || ʃ || || || || || ħ || h
|-
! approximant
| || || l || ɹ || j || || w || || || ||
|-
! nasal
| m || n || || || ɲ || || || || || ||
|-
|}

* All consonants are written as in IPA, except that /tɬ tɬ’ ɬ tʃ tʃ’ ʃ ɹ j ɲ/ are represented by '''tl tl’ ł č č’ š r y ny'''.
* [ɲ] could probably be analysed as underlying /n/ or /nj/ in all positions, but it is much more common than any other Cj sequence, maybe even more frequent than /j/ on its own, and it definitely occurs more often than some other consonants which are clearly phonemic. What is more, there is a class of words where word-final [n] alternates with [ɲ] when a vowel follows, so for both distributional and morphophonological reasons the palatal nasal will be treated as an independent segment in this document.

===Vowels===
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! !! front !! central !! back
|-
! close
| i ‧ iː || || u ‧ uː
|-
! mid
| e ‧ eː || ə || o ‧ oː
|-
! open
| || a ‧ aː ||
|-
|}

* All short vowels are written as in IPA.
* Long vowels take a macron diacritic: '''ī ē ā ō ū'''.

==Prosody==
Hkətl’ohnim has a dynamic stress accent, which is typically located on the last long vowel in a word, or else on the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable contains the reduced vowel /ə/ and the antepenultimate syllable contains a full vowel, the antepenultimate syllable is accented.

In words with irregular accent placement, the stressed vowel is marked with an acute if short ('''í é á ó ú'''), and with a circumflex if long ('''î ê â ô û''').

==Phonetic detail and distribution==
* The maximal syllable structure of Hkətl’ohnim is roughly '''(F)C(j,w)V((C)C)'''.
* Any non-fricative onset consonant may be preceded by one of /s h ħ/ (although the latter only occurs before /q qʷ/). However, this forms a complex onset only word-initially; otherwise the fricative is reanalysed as a coda consonant.
* Any non-approximant onset consonant other than /ħ/ may be followed by one of /j w/.
* /h ħ/ may not appear immediately after another consonant.
* Three-consonant onsets only appear when the second of these consonants is a plosive, and only in word-initial position.
* All consonants except /j w/ may appear in coda position word-finally.
* Word-medially, coda consonants are limited to the coronal fricatives /ɬ s ʃ/ (can occur before nasals and plain or ejective plosives), to the laryngeal fricatives /h ħ/ (the former can occur before resonants and plain plosives, the latter only before /q qʷ/), to the resonants /n ɹ l/ (can occur before almost any non-identical consonant; note that the nasal |n| represents a neutralisation of /m n ɲ/ in this position, being realised at the same POA as the following consonant), and to the ejectives /p’ t’ k’ q’/ (can only occur before nasals).
* Coda clusters appear almost exclusively in word-final position. They are limited in shape to /ɬ s ʃ h ħ n l/ followed by a (plain or ejective) plosive or affricate; again, /ħ/ appears only before /q qʷ/, and |n| assimilates in POA to the following consonant.
* /h/ is typically realised as preaspiration before another consonant, often with some frication at the latter's POA so that e.g. /hp ht hk/ may variously be heard as [ʰp ʰt ʰk] ~ [ɸp θt xk]. Resonants immediately preceded by /h/ become voiceless, which leads to a merger of |hl| into /ɬ/ in this position. /hɹ hj hw/ vary between [θ ç ɸ] and [ʃ ʃ xʷ] rather freely.
* /h ħ/ are only distinguished when not adjacent to a consonant. Neither sound occurs in cluster-final position; /ħ/ is found in clusters only before /q qʷ/; /h/ may appear before all other non-fricative consonants. Illegal combinations are resolved by POA assimilation of the fricative to the following consonant.
* /ħ/ may not occur adjacent to the vowels /i iː ə u uː/. Where this would occur, the vowels are lowered to '''e ē a o ō''' respectively. Underlying |ə| is also lowered to '''a''' when adjacent to an uvular plosive or ejective.
* The affricates /tɬ ts tʃ/ are reduced to fricatives /ɬ s ʃ/ whenever they occur before plosives, ejectives, or non-lengthening nasals. This is reflected in the transcription by using the graphemes '''ł s š'''. If the preceding vowel is short and stressed, it will undergo {{sc|lengthening}}.
* Labialisation on dorsal obstruents is distinguished (and written) only before the vowels /i iː e eː a aː/ and word-finally. All velar and uvular stops are pronounced as labialised when followed by a rounded vowel.
* Underlying |ə| merges into /u/ after labialised consonants, and into /i/ after /tʃ’ tʃ ʃ ɲ/. The underlying sequences |wə jə| also surface as /u i/ when not preceded by a vowel.
* Underlying consonant clusters /ts’j k’j/, /tsj kj/, and /sj/ are generally neutralized to /tʃ’/, /tʃ/, and /ʃ/ respectively, unless preceded by a fricative other than /h/. The same obstruent mergers are observed before /i iː/. Since both changes have phonemic status, they are reflected in the transcription by using '''č’ č š''' for the resulting sounds (so that e.g. |kjə| → '''či''').
* Underlying /nj/ similarly collapses into [ɲ]; /n/ is also pronounced as [ɲ] before /i iː/. The sequence [ɲi] will be transcribed as '''ni''' in this document, regardless whether it represents underlying |ni|, |njə|, |ɲi|, or |ɲə|.
* The lateral obstruents /tɬ’ tɬ ɬ/ are often de-lateralised before the high vowels /i iː u uː/, especially in unstressed positions. The resulting sounds are typically dental [tθ’ tθ θ], but may be assibilated to [ts’ ts s] before /i iː/.
* The coronal fricatives /ɬ s ʃ/ are typically pronounced as voiced [ɮ~ð z ʒ] when immediately preceded by a nasal. For some speakers, a voiced stop may be inserted into these clusters, yielding [ndɮ~ndð ndz ndʒ]. De-lateralisation of /ɬ/ to a central dental fricative or affricate is quite common in this environment before vowels of any quality, thereby preventing a merger of underlying /nɬ nl/.
* A sizeable proportion of speakers pronounces /ɹ/ as [ɾ] in prevocalic position, often strengthening it to [r] word-initially or if the following vowel is stressed. The sound still patterns as an approximant though.
* Non-ejective plosives are often lightly aspirated in stressed syllables.
* Ejectives may sometimes be realised as preglottalised voiced plosives in unstressed intervocalic positions or when followed by a nasal. In the latter environment, they may even lose all independent POA information by reducing to [ʔ], especially if the nasal is homoorganic.
* Word-final stressed vowels in content words must always be long. In case a stressed short vowel ends up in word-final position, it will be lengthened; this is reflected in the orthography.

==Morphophonology==
There are a few morphophonological alternations which may occur at morpheme boundaries. Most of these are morphologically conditioned, i.e. they only occur with specific word stems or affixes.

===Nasal mutation===
Nasal mutation is triggered by many (but not all) stems which end in a nasal consonant. It affects single morpheme-initial plosives and some instances of single morpheme-initial fricatives. ''Word''-initial /w/ may be affected as well (but note that this can only occur in nominal stems). Word stems which do not belong to one of the ''nasalisable'' stem classes are generally not affected.

Nasal mutation is indicated by marking the triggering morpheme boundary with a tilde ‹'''~'''›.

{| {{softtable|l}}
|-
| '''p kʷ qʷ w sm šm''' || → || '''ːm'''
|-
| '''t s sn šn''' || → || '''ːn'''
|-
| '''k q sny šny''' || → || '''ːny'''
|-
| '''š ħ''' || → || '''ːm / ːny'''
|-
| '''h''' || → || '''hm / hny / ːm'''
|-
|}

The triggering nasal consonant itself will be deleted. ‹'''ː'''› indicates that a preceding short vowel undergoes {{sc|lengthening}}. In some morphemes (notably the 3rd person object verbal prefixes), the quality of the preceding lengthened vowel is not phonologically predictable and must thus be given explicitly; the presence of the spurious morpheme-final nasal will be indicated in these cases by using ‹'''~ɴ'''› instead of a plain tilde.

The variant outcomes for /ʃ ħ h/ are determined on a lexical basis, and thus treated as separate capital stem classes.

If a single morpheme triggers both nasal mutation and {{sc|labialisation}}, labialisation will apply first.

===Glottalic mutation===
Glottalic mutation is triggered by most stems which end in a plain plosive (optionally preceded by a consonant other than /h ħ/) and by some stems which end in a nasal. It affects single prevocalic plosives and affricates, and additionally those single stem-initial fricatives which are also susceptible to {{sc|nasal mutation}}.

Morpheme boundaries which trigger glottalic mutation are marked with the symbol ‹'''ˀ'''›.

{| {{softtable|l}}
|-
| '''p t tɬ ts tʃ k kʷ q qʷ''' || → || '''p’ t’ tl’ ts’ č’ k’ kʷ’ q’ qʷ’'''
|-
| '''s ħ h''' || → || '''t’ q’ p’'''
|-
| '''š''' || → || '''č’ / k’'''
|-
|}

If the triggering morpheme ends in a plosive, the plosive will be deleted. In case the mutated consonant was a fricative originally, this will go along with {{sc|lengthening}} of a preceding short vowel and de-glottalisation of the ejective, so that the actual outcomes will be '''ːp ːt ːč ːk ːq''' instead of ''*p’ t’ č’ k’ q’''.

If the triggering morpheme ends in a nasal, the vowel before this nasal will be shortened, usually with a change in quality which is the reverse of the quality change associated with {{sc|lengthening}}. Since this is not entirely predictable, the mutated form of nasal-final glottalising morphemes will have to be learned separately.

The variant outcomes for /ʃ/ are determined as follows: In n-stems the outcome will be '''č’''' ~ '''ːč''', and in ny-stems the outcome will be '''k’''' ~ '''ːk'''.

If a single morpheme triggers both glottalic mutation and {{sc|labialisation}}, glottalic mutation will apply first.

When preceded by a glottalising morpheme, prevocalic instances of the fricatives /ɬ s ʃ/ which are immune to glottalic mutation will instead be fortified to the affricates '''tl ts č'''. If the triggering morpheme ends in a nasal, vowel shortening will also occur; if it ends in a plosive, the plosive will be deleted.

===Hard mutation===
Hard mutation is triggered by most stems which end in a single fricative or affricate. It affects those single stem-initial fricatives which may also undergo nasalisation, and those single stem-initial nasals which always trigger {{sc|lengthening}} of a preceding short vowel (indicated in the lexicon by a preposed ‹'''ː'''›).

Since hard mutation (for stems which are susceptible to this process) is the default behavior after morpheme-final fricatives, hardening environments will not be marked explicitly. 

{| {{softtable|l}}
|-
| '''s ħ h''' || → || '''t q p'''
|-
| '''š''' || → || '''č / k'''
|-
| '''ːn''' || → || '''t'''
|-
| '''ːny''' || → || '''k / q'''
|-
| '''ːm''' || → || '''p / kʷ / qʷ'''
|-
|}

/ʃ/ becomes '''č''' after /h ħ/, and '''k''' after /ɬ s ʃ/.

The variant outcomes for /ːɲ ːm/ are determined on a lexical basis, and thus treated as separate capital stem classes.

===Labialisation===
Labialisation is triggered by stems of various different shapes, and may be combined with most other types of mutations. Labialising stems often contain a rounded vowel, but this is by no means a rule. The process regularly affects morpheme-initial /k k’ q q’/, even when preceded by another consonant; a few instances of /ɲ/ in suffixes also exhibit labialisation (since this is exceptional, the corresponding suffix allomorph will be listed separately). If the labialising morpheme ends in an unrounded vowel, following vowel-initial morphemes will also be affected.

Labialising morpheme boundaries are marked with the symbol ‹'''ʷ'''›.

{| {{softtable|l}}
|-
| '''k q''' || → || '''kʷ qʷ'''
|-
| '''k’ q’''' || → || '''kʷ’ qʷ’'''
|-
| '''ny''' || → || '''m'''
|-
| V || → || '''w'''V
|-
|}

Where labialisation co-occurs with other morphophonological processes, the order of evaluation will be (1) {{sc|glottalic mutation}} > (2) {{sc|labialisation}} > (3) {{sc|nasal mutation}}.

===Vowel syncope / epenthesis===
Unstressed short vowels before a morpheme boundary will often be deleted when another morpheme follows, especially when the following morpheme itself begins with a vowel other than /ə/ (in this case, stem-final /u o/ preceded by a dorsal plosive or ejective are usually contracted into consonant labialisation). If the following morpheme begins with a consonant, stem-final vowels will only be syncopated if they belong to a stem of the ''consonantal'' caudal stem class ''and'' if regular morphophonological processes can create a legal consonant cluster across the morpheme boundary. Vowels at the end of an incorporated noun stem may be syncopated only when followed by a vowel.

Conversely, an epenthetic /ə/ will be inserted at all morpheme boundaries where the resulting consonant cluster would be illegal. It should be noted that the epenthetic vowel will surface as '''a''' after non-labialised /q’ q ħ/ or before /ħ/, as '''u''' after labialised consonants, as '''i''' after /tʃ’ tʃ ʃ ɲ/, and as '''ə''' elsewhere.

===Vowel lengthening===
The term "vowel lengthening" in the context of Hkətl’ohnim grammar may refer to two different phenomena. The first of these is the purely phonological requirement that any stressed word-final vowel must be long, so whenever a stressed short vowel ends up in word-final position, it will be lengthened with no change in quality. This is reflected in the orthography; however, in the lexicon such stems will always be cited with a short vowel.

When referring to the second, more complex phenomenon, the term is usually written in small caps ({{sc|lengthening}}). This second phenomenon is a morphophonological process that is triggered in various contexts, most importantly before a number of morphemes beginning with a nasal consonant, as a side-effect of {{sc|nasal mutation}} and {{sc|glottalic mutation}} in some circumstances, and for all stressed vowels which are immediately followed by a prevocalic resonant /m n ɲ l ɹ/. The resulting vowel will always be long if it ends up in stressed position (hence the name), but this will usually go along with a change in quality, and vowels in unstressed positions may be shortened again so that the modified vowel quality may in fact be the only surface realisation of {{sc|lengthening}}.

{{sc|lengthening}} is indicated with the symbol ‹'''ː'''›. The regular outcome of this process is as follows:

{| {{softtable|l}}
|-
| '''i''' || → || '''ē'''
|-
| '''e''' || → || '''ī'''
|-
| '''a''' || → || '''ē / ā'''
|-
| '''o''' || → || '''ū'''
|-
| '''u''' || → || '''ō'''
|-
|}

Various irregular outcomes are possible; these typically involve lengthening with no change in quality (this is reasonably common for /a/ → '''ā''', and rare for all other vowel qualities). Vowels adjacent to a lexically stressed syllable within the same morpheme do not undergo lengthening at all. Otherwise, {{sc|lengthened}} vowels will become short again (but retain their new quality) when they end up immediately before a stressed syllable or before a syllable containing another long vowel, starting at the end of the word.

=Nominal morphology=
==Nouns==
===Person and number===
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="3"| singular !! rowspan="5"| !! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 b"
| _V || _C || _CC || _V || _C || _CC
|-
! 1st person
| t- || tə- || tə- || s- || əs- || sə-
|-
! 2nd person
| l- || əl- || lə- || ny- || ni- || ni-
|-
! 3rd person
| colspan="3"| Ø- || n- || (nə-) || nə-
|-
|}

* The "prevocalic" variants of the prefixes are used not only before vowels, but also before /j w/. If the {{sc|2sg}} prefix is followed by one of these semivowels plus a vowel other than /ə/, the _CC variant of the prefix will be used instead.
* Many nouns have irregular plural stems, which are typically marked by a mutated stem-initial consonant, and sometimes also a different first vowel in the stem. If the plural stem begins with a single nasal, these nouns do not take the normal 3pl prefix '''nə-'''. Examples: '''wahə''' ‘lion’ → {{sc|3pl}} '''mahə''' (plural stem '''-mahə-'''); '''sqēmi''' ‘river’ → {{sc|3pl}} '''nəħēmi''' (plural stem '''-ħēmi-'''). A few of these nouns use the plural stem for all forms except for the 3rd person singular; an example is '''rāna''' ‘woman’ → {{sc|3pl}} '''nōna''', whose stem is '''-ōna-''' in all non-{{sc|3sg}} forms. Stem alternations will be indicated in the lexicon.
* Sometimes a separate mutation takes place in the 1st person plural and 2nd person singular; for instance, the {{sc|2sg}} of '''wahə''' ‘lion’ is '''əlpahə'''.

===Case===
Nouns in Hkətl’ohnim inflect for a total of five cases, which are marked with suffixes. Case marking follows a split-ergative, dechticaetiative pattern ({{sc|dir-acc}} in the nonpast tense, {{sc|erg-dir}} in the past tense; see [[#Morphosyntactic alignment|here]] for details).

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! !! V_ !! C_
|-
! direct
| colspan="2"| -Ø
|-
! ergative
| -ł || -əł
|-
! accusative
| -n || -ən
|-
! instrumental
| colspan="2"| -u
|-
! genitive
| colspan="2"| -a
|-
|}
* The ergative suffix coalesces with stem-final /t ts tʃ/ into /tɬ/, and with stem-final /t’ ts’ tʃ’/ into /tɬ’/ (e.g. '''qat''' ‘man’ → {{sc|erg}} '''qatl''').
* The instrumental and genitive suffixes delete any preceding short vowel, and the instrumental suffix additionally causes lenition of preceding intervocalic /t/ to '''-s-''', and of preceding intervocalic /p k kʷ q qʷ/ to '''-h-''' (cf. '''qat''' ‘man’ → {{sc|instr}} '''qasu'''; '''wiq''' ‘pattern, decoration’ → {{sc|instr}} '''wihu'''). Nouns ending in a stressed vowel typically add an epenthetic glide before the instrumental and genitive suffixes (usually '''-w-''' after /u uː/ ({{sc|gen}} only) and /o oː/, '''-y-''' after /i iː e eː/, and '''-h-''' otherwise, cf. '''skəłō''' ‘owl’ → {{sc|instr}} '''skəłōhu''', {{sc|gen}} '''skəłōwa'''). Irregular formations of the instrumental case are fairly common; a few irregular genitives also exist.
* Some words have a separate oblique stem, which is used for all non-direct cases (e.g. '''tlir''' ‘cliff’ → {{sc|erg}} '''tlērəł''', {{sc|acc}} '''tlērən''', {{sc|instr}} '''tlēru''', {{sc|gen}} '''tlēra''').

===Deixis===
All nouns come in three different "deictic stems", which can be interpreted as fusional combinations of the noun stem with a demonstrative affix. The ''non-deictic'' stem (the citation form) is used for indefinite and unfocused definite instances of the noun; the ''proximal deictic'' stem is used for focused definite instances within reach or at their expected position; and the ''distal deictic'' stem is used for focused definite instances further away or at unexpected positions as well as for "obviative" (4th person) usage.

Nouns can be divided into three major and several minor groups according to how they form their deictic stems. The group labels are derived from the shape of the distal suffix.

{{ilist|
# '''H nouns (H)''', which form their distal stem with the suffix '''-(a)ħ-'''. There are three subgroups:
## ''Vocalic H nouns'' '''(H)''', whose basic stem ends in a vowel or a plosive. For these nouns (the most common class, and the default for new loanwords), the proximal stem is formed with the suffix '''-(ə)t-'''. <br>{{comment|'''ēyə''' ‘shoe’ → {{sc|prox}} '''ēyət-''', {{sc|dist}} '''ēyaħ-''' <br>'''kēri''' ‘girl, unmarried woman’ → {{sc|prox}} '''kērit-''', {{sc|dist}} '''kēriħ-''' <br>'''nyap''' ‘string, cord, sinew’ → {{sc|prox}} '''nyapət-''', {{sc|dist}} '''nyapaħ-'''}}
## ''Nasal H nouns'' '''(HN)''', whose basic stem ends in a single nasal consonant (optionally followed by an unstressed vowel), or in a sequence /jV/. For these nouns, the proximal stem is formed by syncopating the final vowel (if there is any) and replacing the nasal or glide with the suffix '''-nti-'''. <br>{{comment|'''rāna''' ('''-ōna-''') ‘woman’ → {{sc|prox}} '''rānti-''' ('''-ōnti-'''), {{sc|dist}} '''rānaħ-''' ('''-ōnaħ-''') <br>'''mīyu''' ‘mother’ → {{sc|prox}} '''mīnti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''mīyaħ-'''}}
## ''Dental H nouns'' '''(HT)''', whose basic stem ends in /t/ or /tV/. For these nouns, the proximal stem is formed by replacing this ending with '''-t’i-'''. <br>{{comment|'''qat''' ‘man’ → {{sc|prox}} '''qat’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''qataħ-''' <br>'''hołta''' ‘rowboat, canoe’ → {{sc|prox}} '''hołt’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''hołtaħ-'''}}
# '''Q nouns (Q)''', which form their distal stem with a suffix '''-qʷ-''' or similar. There are four subgroups, which are fully predictable from the shape of the stem and will thus be labeled identically in the lexicon:
## ''Simple Q nouns'', whose basic stems end in a fricative, affricate, or liquid (optionally followed by an unstressed vowel). For these nouns, the proximal stem is formed with the suffix '''-ti-''' and the distal stem is formed with the suffix '''-qʷ-'''. If the basic stem ends in a vowel, this vowel is deleted. If the last consonant in the basic stem is one of the affricates /tɬ ts tʃ/, it is reduced to the corresponding fricative (i.e. one of /ɬ s ʃ/) in both deictic stems. <br>{{comment|'''htoš''' ‘hat, cap’ → {{sc|prox}} '''htošti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''htošqʷ-''' <br>'''wahə''' ‘lion’ → {{sc|prox}} '''wahti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''waħqʷ-''' <br>'''čīlə''' ‘scorpion’ → {{sc|prox}} '''čīlti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''čīlqʷ-'''}}
## ''Glottalising Q nouns'', whose basic stem ends in a plosive. For these nouns, the proximal stem is formed by replacing the stem-final consonant with the suffix '''-t’i-''', and the distal stem is formed by deleting the stem-final consonant, {{sc|lengthening}} a preceding stressed vowel, and adding '''-qʷ-'''; note that this subclass of distal stems has an irregular instrumental case in '''-ħo'''. <br>{{comment|'''əráq''' ‘knife’ → {{sc|prox}} '''ərat’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''ərēqʷ-''', {{sc|dist.instr}} '''ərēħo''' <br>'''ulkət''' ‘evil spirit’ → {{sc|prox}} '''ulkət’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''ulkaqʷ-''', {{sc|dist.instr}} '''úlkaħo'''}}
## ''Nasal Q nouns'', whose basic stem ends in a nasal (optionally followed by an unstressed vowel). For these nouns, both deictic stems are formed by shortening the vowel before the nasal (with an accompanying change in quality of /iː eː aː oː uː/ to '''e i a u o''' and of any short vowel to {{!}}ə{{!}} (note that this may surface as '''ə a i u''' depending on the surrounding consonants), and adding '''-t’i-''' for the proximal stem and '''-qʷ’-''' for the distal stem. <br>{{comment|'''hūm''' ‘tooth, edge, peak’ → {{sc|prox}} '''hont’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''honqʷ’-''' <br>'''skuhōmu''' ‘prisoner, slave’ → {{sc|prox}} '''skuhunt’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''skuhúnqʷ-'''}}
## ''Cluster-final Q nouns'', whose basic stem ends in a cluster of a fricative and a plosive. For these nouns, the proximal stem is formed by replacing the final plosive with '''-t’i-''', and the distal stem is formed by replacing the final plosive with '''-qʷ’-'''. <br>{{comment|'''sułt''' ‘coat, poncho’ → {{sc|prox}} '''sułt’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''sułqʷ’-'''}}
# '''M nouns (M)''', whose basic stems end in a nasal consonant. They form both deictic stems by {{sc|lengthening}} a preceding stressed vowel and replacing the stem-final nasal with '''-ni-''' for the proximal stem and '''-mu-''' for the distal stem. <br>{{comment|'''lōn''' ‘lake’ → {{sc|prox}} '''lūni-''', {{sc|dist}} '''lūmu-''' <br>'''mōšin''' ‘body, skeleton, frame’ → {{sc|prox}} '''mōšini-''', {{sc|dist}} '''mōšimu-'''}}
}}

Some nouns do not neatly fit into these groups, mostly because they exhibit unexpected stem alternations. Two prominent examples are '''tset''' ‘bird’ → {{sc|prox}} '''čīti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''čīqʷ-''' and '''sast''' ‘corner, joint’ → {{sc|prox}} '''sašit-''', {{sc|dist}} '''sašiqʷ-'''. Irregular deictic noun stems will be mentioned in the lexicon.

==Pronouns==
===Personal pronouns===
Personal pronouns are very similar in form to the nominal person/number prefixes. There are some irregularities in the case paradigm, especially in the genitive.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| 1st person !! rowspan="7"| !! colspan="2"| 2nd person !! rowspan="7"| !! colspan="2"| 3rd person
|- class="bg2 context"
| singular || plural
| singular || plural
| singular || plural
|-
! direct
| tu || sa
| la || nya
| u || na
|-
! ergative
| tuł || sał
| lał || nił
| uł || nał
|-
! accusative
| tūn || sān
| lān || nīn
| ūn || nān
|-
! instrumental
| tō || sō
| lō || nyō
| ō || nō
|-
! genitive
| nē || tā
| łā || kā
| mō || nō
|-
|}
* Forms with short vowels may be lenghtened when the pronoun is emphasized.

===Demonstratives===
The basic personal pronouns do not have deictic stems of their own; instead, a separate set of demonstratives is used for deictic purposes. In the 3rd person, these pronouns exhibit an additional distinction between human, nonhuman, locative, and temporal referents; note that the latter can also be used for sentential arguments and as a pro-adverb. All demonstratives inflect for case more or less like regular nouns, so only the direct case forms will be listed here.

Singular:
* {{sc|1sg}} '''nyū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''nyūt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''nyūħ-'''
* {{sc|2sg}} '''čū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''čūt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''čūħ-'''
* {{sc|3sg}} human '''nū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''nuti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''nuħ-'''
* {{sc|3sg}} nonhuman '''ā''' → {{sc|prox}} '''āt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''āħ-'''
* {{sc|3sg}} locative '''ān''' → {{sc|prox}} '''ēni-''', {{sc|dist}} '''ēmu-'''
* {{sc|3sg}} temp./adv. '''yū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''yuhti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''yuħqʷ-'''
Plural:
* {{sc|1pl}} '''tənī''' → {{sc|prox}} '''tənīt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''təneħ-'''
* {{sc|2pl}} '''kənī''' → {{sc|prox}} '''kənīt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''kəneħ-'''
* {{sc|3pl}} human '''mē''' → {{sc|prox}} '''meti-''', {{sc|dist}} '''meħ-'''
* {{sc|3pl}} nonhuman '''ē''' → {{sc|prox}} '''ēt-''', {{sc|dist}} '''ēħ-'''
* {{sc|3pl}} locative '''nān''' → {{sc|prox}} '''nēni-''', {{sc|dist}} '''nēmu-'''
* {{sc|3pl}} temp./adv. '''hmū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''hmut-''', {{sc|dist}} '''hmuħ-'''

===Interrogative pronouns===
Hkətl’ohnim has four series of interrogative pronouns, which line up with the distinctions made in 3rd person demonstratives. They do not inflect for number. The direct case forms are as follows:

* human (‘who’): '''tīn''' → {{sc|prox}} '''tēni-''', {{sc|dist}} '''tēmu-'''
* nonhuman (‘what’): '''łū''' → {{sc|prox}} '''łut-''', {{sc|dist}} '''łuħ-'''
* locative (‘where’): '''etən''' → {{sc|prox}} '''et’ni-''', {{sc|dist}} '''et’mu-'''
* temp./adv. (‘when/how’): '''et''' → {{sc|prox}} '''et’i-''', {{sc|dist}} '''īqʷ-'''

=Verbal morphology=
==Overview==
The general structure of the Hkətl’ohnim verb can be summarised as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="bg2 b"
| -4 || -3 || -2 || -1 || 0 || +1 || +2
|-
| participant marking; <br>tense || {{sc|<target>}} || ''(pre-stem)'' || {{sc|<theme>}} || '''STEM''' || ''(adverbials)'' || ''(valence; role)''
|-
|}

The only obligatory elements are the verb stem itself (which is usually a monomorphemic root, but it may also be formed by compounding or by adding a derivational suffix) and a fusional prefix for participant marking and tense. Most of the other morphemes operate semi-derivationally; while some of them are required in certain situations, they tend to provide additional semantic information rather than having purely grammatical significance.

The '''pre-stem''' or ''preverb'' is a lexical stem extension found in a significant percentage of verbs. It precedes the main stem and may be separated from it when a noun in the role of instrument or theme is incorporated. Most pre-stems are built from a closed inventory of morphemes indicating certain types of location, direction, manner, or purpose, but the semantics of these elements are often rather hazy. The most common and straightforward pre-stems can be used productively to form new verbs (sometimes with valence-increasing effects), but others are fairly rare and mostly unproductive, especially if their meaning is not immediately obvious.

Following the verb stem, there is an agglutinative layer of '''adverbial suffixes''' with a wide array of meanings: Some of them can be described as modals, some as evidentials, some as aspects or aktionsarten, and yet others specify the manner or circumstance of the action. Adverbials are generally optional; they are typically not used if the notion they express is irrelevant or clear from context, but will be present when the speaker wants to stress a particular semantic configuration. Verbs may also contain more than one adverbial suffix.

A number of '''valence- and role-adjusting suffixes''' may appear at the very end of the verb. They include e.g. a causative, a non-causative transitiviser, a detransitiviser, a mediopassive, an action nominaliser, a state nominaliser, and the imperative. Some of these morphemes may be combined with each other.

Another prominent feature of Hkətl’ohnim verbal morphosyntax is '''noun incorporation''', which is done by integrating a bare noun stem (unmarked for person or case, but optionally marked for deixis) into the verb, between pronominal prefix and stem. There are two different types of incorporation, which may sometimes co-occur in a single verb:
* ''Target incorporation'' involves an argument corresponding to the primary object of the verb (typically in the semantic role of patient, experiencer, goal, recipient, or beneficiary) and generally reduces the valence by one, which requires the use of an appropriate preverb or transitivising suffix if the verb stem is lexically intransitive.
* ''Theme incorporation'' involves an oblique argument (typically in the semantic role of theme, instrument, source, manner, or cause); it does not affect the valence of intransitive verbs, may or may not reduce that of transitives, and will reduce the valence of ditransitive stems to monotransitive.
If a preverb is present, an incorporated target will precede the preverb while an incorporated theme will follow it.

==Stem classes==
Verb stems can be grouped into several different classes according to their morphophonological behaviour when affixes are attached. There are two largely independent parameters determining the class of each individual stem - the ''capital stem class'' which describes interaction with prefixes and incorporated noun stems, and the ''caudal stem class'' which describes interaction with suffixes.

Stem classes are assigned purely according to the behavior of the stem itself. Individual stems may also trigger certain types of morphophonological alternations in adjacent morphemes, which is indicated with diacritics (see [[#Morphophonology|above]] for details).

===Capital stem classes===
{{ilist|
# '''Vocalic stems (V)''', which begin with a vowel. These stems acquire an epenthetic glide when they appear after another vowel (typically '''-w-''' after labialising prefixes and after /u uː o oː/, '''-y-''' after /i iː e eː/, and '''-h-''' otherwise; a small subgroup of vocalic stems (cited with initial ‹'''ʰ'''›) always inserts '''-h-'''). If the stem itself begins with /ə/, this segment will coalesce with preceding morpheme-final /ə/ into a single '''ə''', and with a vowel of a different quality into a {{sc|lengthened}} version of the latter.
# '''Consonantal stems (C)''', which begin with a consonant or consonant cluster. Their initial boundary may undergo {{sc|labialisation}} and/or {{sc|glottalic mutation}}, and an epenthetic /ə/ may be added to prevent illegal consonant clusters, but they are immune to the nasal and hard mutations.
# '''Nasalisable stems''', whose initial boundary undergoes {{sc|nasal mutation}} when preceded by a nasalising morpheme. In other environments they behave like consonantal stems. There are two major and five minor subgroups:
## ''Aspirating nasalisable stems'' <br>Most stems beginning with /h/ fall into this class, which has two subtypes:
### '''hm-stems (hm)''', whose initial consonant mutates to '''-hm-''' under nasalisation. <br>{{comment|'''-hit’əň~''' ‘chew’ → {{sc|1sg>3.np}} '''nə<u>hmit’ən</u>''' ‘I am chewing it’}}
### '''hny-stems (hny)''', whose initial consonant mutates to '''-hny-''' under nasalisation. If the regular stem vowel is /e eː/, this vowel will be raised so that the stem-initial syllable comes out as '''-hni(ː)-'''. <br>{{comment|'''-hastə-ʷ''' ‘promise, vow’ → {{sc|2sg>3.pst}} '''i<u>hnyastə</u>''' ‘you promised him/her/them sth.’ <br>'''-hēnqa-''' ‘use up, exhaust’ → {{sc|1pl>3.pst}} '''so<u>hnīnqa</u>''' ‘I have used all of it’}}
## ''Lengthening nasalisable stems'' <br>All other nasalisable stems, including a few starting with /h/. When preceded by a nasalising morpheme, they will cause the final vowel of the preceding morpheme to undergo {{sc|lengthening}}. This stem class has four subtypes:
### '''m-stems (m)''', whose initial consonant mutates to '''-ːm-''' under nasalisation. If the regular stem begins with prevocalic /ʃ ħ h/, the stem will also be subject to {{sc|hard mutation}}. <br>{{comment|'''-pīnkun~ʸ''' ‘be allied with’ → {{sc|1pl>3.np}} '''he<u>mīnkun</u>''' ‘we are allied with them’; {{sc|1pl>2.np}} '''həł<u>pīnkun</u>''' ‘we are allied with you’<br>'''-hoha-''' ‘interrupt, disturb’ → {{sc|1sg>3.pst}} '''so<u>moha</u>''' ‘I have interrupted him/her/them’; {{sc|2sg>1pl.np}} '''rəs<u>poha</u>''' ‘you are disturbing us’}}
### '''n-stems (n)''', whose initial consonant mutates to '''-ːn-''' under nasalisation. If the regular stem begins with prevocalic /s ʃ/, the stem will also be subject to {{sc|hard mutation}}. <br>{{comment|'''-tēmu-ʷ''' ‘be an enemy of’ → {{sc|1pl>3.np}} '''he<u>nēmu</u>''' ‘we are their enemies’; {{sc|1pl>2.np}} '''həł<u>tēmu</u>''' ‘we are your enemies’<br>'''-sōn~''' ‘help’ → {{sc|1sg>3.pst}} '''so<u>nōn</u>''' ‘I have helped him/her/them’; {{sc|2sg>1pl.np}} '''rəs<u>tōn</u>''' ‘you are helping us’}}
### '''ny-stems (ny)''', whose initial consonant mutates to '''-ːny-''' under nasalisation. If the regular stem begins with prevocalic /ʃ ħ/, the stem will also be subject to {{sc|hard mutation}}. Note that ny-stems beginning with the sequences /-kə- -ke(ː)- -qe(ː)- -ħe(ː)- -je(ː)-/ exhibit vowel raising, so that the nasally mutated stem will start with '''-ːni(ː)-'''. <br>{{comment|'''-kahku-ʷ''' ‘seek, look for’ → {{sc|1sg>3.pst}} '''so<u>nyahku</u>''' ‘I was looking for him/her/them’; {{sc|1sg>2.pst}} '''səł<u>kahku</u>''' ‘I was looking for you’<br>'''-ħet-ˀ''' ‘be a sibling of one's parent’ → {{sc|1sg>3.np}} '''ne<u>nit</u>''' ‘I am him/her aunt/uncle’; {{sc|2sg>1pl.np}} '''rəs<u>qet</u>''' ‘you are our aunt/uncle’ {{--}} ‘we are your nieces/nephews’}}
# '''Fortifiable stems''', which begin with a nasal consonant and go along with mandatory {{sc|lengthening}} of a preceding morpheme-final vowel. They will undergo {{sc|hard mutation}} of the stem-initial consonant when preceded by a morpheme-final fricative, and they may optionally undergo {{sc|labialisation}} as well, but they are immune to other types of morphophonological alternations. Since the result of hard mutation is not entirely predictable, fortifiable stems are subdivided into four groups:
## '''ːm/p stems (ːN/p)''', whose initial consonant fortifies to '''-p-''' after a fricative. <br>{{comment|'''-ːmenqʷa-''' ‘destroy, defeat’ → {{sc|3sg>1pl.np}} '''həs<u>penqʷa</u>''' ‘he is defeating us’}}
## '''ːn/t stems (ːN/t)''', whose initial consonant fortifies to '''-t-''' after a fricative. <br>{{comment|'''-ːnōmi-''' ‘exceed, surpass’ → {{sc|1pl>2.pst}} '''uł<u>tōmi</u>''' ‘we surpassed you’}}
## '''ːny/k''' and '''ːm/k stems (ːN/k)''', whose initial consonant fortifies to '''-k<sup>(</sup>ʷ<sup>)</sup>-''' after a fricative. <br>{{comment|'''-ːnyots-ʷ''' ‘scratch’ → {{sc|1sg>3:deictic.pst}} '''səh<u>kots</u>''' ‘I scratched that thing’}}
## '''ːny/q''' and '''ːm/q stems (ːN/q)''', whose initial consonant fortifies to '''-q<sup>(</sup>ʷ<sup>)</sup>-''' after a fricative. <br>{{comment|'''-ːmōmun~ʸ''' ‘irrigate’ → {{sc|1sg>3:deictic.np}} '''naħ<u>qōmun</u>''' ‘I am watering these (plants)’}}
# '''Rhotic stems''', which begin with /r/ in their citation form. When preceded by a fricative, the resulting cluster collapses into '''-š-''', with a following /e(ː)/ raising to '''-i(ː)-'''. After all other consonants (including the spurious morpheme-final nasal of nasalising prefixes), the /r/ is deleted and the following vowel (now in stem-initial position) undergoes a change in quality. There are two subgroups of rhotic stems, which are distinguished by the resulting vowel in the stem-initial syllable:
## '''r/o-stems (r/o)''', which begin with '''-o(ː)-''' when preceded by a consonant. <br>{{comment|'''-rūłaq-''' ‘split, divide’ → {{sc|1pl:refl.pst}} '''uk<u>ōłaq</u>''' ‘we parted (from each other)’; {{sc|3pl>1pl.pst}} '''sə<u>šūłaq</u>''' ‘they have divided us’}}
## '''r/u-stems (r/u)''', which begin with '''-u(ː)-''' when preceded by a consonant. <br>{{comment|'''-rihə-''' ‘be a sister of’ → {{sc|3sg>3sg.np}} '''həm<u>ūhə</u>''' ‘she is his/her sister’; {{sc|3sg>1pl.np}} '''hə<u>šihə</u>''' ‘she is our sister’}}
}}

===Caudal stem classes===
{{ilist|
# ''Vocalic stems'', which end in a vowel that is always present. When followed by another vowel, the stem will be extended by an epenthetic glide (typically '''-w-''' after labialising stems and after /u uː o oː/, '''-y-''' after /i iː e eː/, and '''-h-''' otherwise). There are two subclasses:
## '''Plain vocalic stems (V)''', which do not exhibit internal change. <br>{{comment|'''-tsumō-''' ‘be experienced’ → {{sc|+intensive}} '''-<u>tsumōw</u>aq-ˀ''' ‘be highly experienced’ <br>'''-masni-''' ‘be sick’ → {{sc|+intensive}} '''-<u>másniy</u>aq-ˀ''' ‘be seriously ill’ <br>'''-ahmē-ʷ''' ‘flirt with so.’ → {{sc|+intensive}} '''-<u>ahmēw</u>aq-ˀ''' ‘be very obviously determined to seduce so.’}}
## '''Ablauting vocalic stems (V+)''', which consist of only a single syllable with a short vowel. The vowel will become long (without a change in quality) when appearing in word-final position, and undergo {{sc|lengthening}} (usually with a change in quality) before a prevocalic resonant; note that epenthetic glides do not trigger lengthening. <br>{{comment|'''-int’e-''' ‘be worried about sth.’ → {{sc|3sg>3sg.np}} '''hm<u>int’ē</u>''' ‘he/she is worried about it’; {{sc|+potential}} '''hm<u>int’ī</u>ma''' ‘he/she might be worried about it’ <br>'''-ntla-''' ‘dye, paint’ → {{sc|1sg>3.pst}} '''so<u>ntlā</u>''' ‘I painted it’; {{sc|+inchoative}} '''so<u>ntlā</u>yə''' ‘I was starting to paint it’}}
# ''Consonantal stems'', which end in a consonant or consonant cluster, optionally followed by an unstressed short vowel that may be syncopated before vowels and certain consonants. There are three subclasses of consonantal stems; all of them may additionally trigger {{sc|labialisation}} and/or {{sc|hard mutation}}.
## '''Plain consonantal stems (C)''', which end in a consonant. When followed by a consonant-initial morpheme with which the stem cannot form a legal medial cluster, an epenthetic '''-ə-''' is inserted; note that this vowel surfaces as '''-a-''' after non-labialised /q’ q ħ/ or before /ħ/, as '''-u-''' after labialised consonants, and as '''-i-''' after /tʃ’ tʃ ʃ ɲ/. If the last consonant in the stem is an affricate, it will be reduced to the corresponding fricative before morphemes beginning with a single plosive or non-lengthening nasal; a preceding stressed short vowel will undergo compensatory {{sc|lengthening}} in this situation. In a few stems, final /n/ shifts to '''-ny-''' before a vowel; these instances of /n/ are transcribed as '''ň''' in the lexicon. <br>{{comment|'''-əltōn-''' ‘grow’ → {{sc|3sg.pst}} '''u<u>ltōn</u>''' ‘it grew’; {{sc|+potential}} '''u<u>ltōnə</u>ma''' ‘it might have grown’; {{sc|+accidental}} '''u<u>ltōn</u>tərə''' ‘it grew as a side effect’ <br>'''-saht-''' ‘be hard, be solid’ → {{sc|3sg.np}} '''hə<u>saht</u>''' ‘it is solid’; {{sc|+intentional}} '''hə<u>saht</u>lu''' ‘it is meant to be solid’; {{sc|+accidental}} '''hə<u>sahtə</u>tērə''' ‘it has become solid by accident’ <br>'''-šokʷ-''' ‘spread out, distribute’ → {{sc|1sg>3.np}} '''nən<u>šokʷ</u>''' ‘I am distributing it’; {{sc|+intentional}} '''nən<u>šóku</u>lu''' ‘I am distributing it intentionally’; {{sc|+sceptical}} '''nən<u>šóku</u>hmo''' ‘I am distributing it reluctantly’}}
## '''Syncopating consonantal stems (Cə)''', which end in a short vowel. The stem-final vowel is deleted before another vowel or when a legal consonant cluster can be formed, and reduced to '''-ə-''' before non-nasal consonants otherwise unless colored to '''-i- -a- -u-''' by the preceding consonant; note that a deleted or reduced /u/ causes labialisation of prevocalic dorsal plosives, and that a deleted /i/ turns preceding /n/ into '''-ny-'''. A few syncopating stems ending in /jV/ change this to '''n''' when followed by a non-ejective plosive or affricate or by a sibilant; this is indicated in the lexicon by a ‹'''+'''› symbol at the morpheme boundary. <br>{{comment|'''-ōma-''' ‘accidentally prevent sth.’ → {{sc|1sg>3:deictic.pst}} '''səh<u>ōma</u>''' ‘I accidentally prevented that’; {{sc|+potential}} '''səh<u>ōma</u>ma''' ‘I may have accidentally prevented that’; {{sc|+repentant}} '''səh<u>ōm</u>um''' ‘I was stupid enough to accidentally prevent that’ <br>'''-espi-''' ‘fail to understand’ → {{sc|1sg>3sg.np}} '''nəm<u>espi</u>''' ‘I don't understand it’; {{sc|+immediate}} '''nəm<u>esp</u>en''' ‘I'm not understanding it yet’; {{sc|+attenuative}} '''nəm<u>éspi</u>nim''' ‘I don't understand all of it (but I understand something)’ <br>'''-pāyu+ʷ''' ‘think, suppose’ → {{sc|3pl>3:deictic.pst}} '''səh<u>pāyu</u>''' ‘they were thinking so’; {{sc|+prospective}} '''səh<u>pāyə</u>hkʷ''' ‘they would soon come to think so’; {{sc|+traditional}} '''səh<u>pām</u>pəhni''' ‘they were traditionally thinking so’}}
## '''Leniting consonantal stems (C+)''', which end in a plosive that will undergo lenition when followed by a vowel (including epenthetic ones), a plosive, or a nasal. The observed alternations are /p t k<sup>(</sup>ʷ<sup>)</sup> q<sup>(</sup>ʷ<sup>)</sup>/ → '''hw s š ħ'''; note that /hw/ simplifies to /h/ before /u uː o oː/ or a consonant. <br>{{comment|'''-nop-''' ‘curse, wish bad luck upon’ → {{sc|1sg>2.np}} '''nəł<u>nop</u>''' ‘I curse you’; {{sc|+intensive}} '''nəł<u>nohw</u>aq''' ‘I curse you severely’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''nəł<u>noħ</u>qałt''' ‘I curse you again’ <br>'''-tsak-''' ‘trap’ → {{sc|3sg>3.pst}} '''un<u>tsák</u>''' ‘he/she laid out a trap for him/her’; {{sc|+resultative}} '''un<u>tsaš</u>im''' ‘he/she successfully trapped him/her’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''un<u>tsaš</u>qałt''' ‘he/she laid out a trap for him/her again’}}
# ''Glottalic stems'', which end in a non-ejective plosive or in a nasal. They behave like plain consonantal stems in most situations, but they trigger {{sc|glottalic mutation}} when followed by a prevocalic plosive or affricate. There are two subclasses:
## '''Plain glottalic stems (ʔ)''', which end in a plosive that will be deleted when a following consonant undergoes glottalic mutation. If the stem ends in one of /kʷ qʷ/ and the following consonant is underlyingly one of /k q/, the resulting dorsal ejective will be labialised. <br>{{comment|'''-tsəskāqʷ-ˀ''' ‘improve sth.’ → {{sc|3sg>3.np}} '''hən<u>tsəskāqʷ</u>''' ‘he/she is improving it’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''hən<u>tsəskā</u>qʷ’ałt''' ‘he/she is improving it step by step’ <br>'''-mālt-ˀ''' ‘be interesting’ → {{sc|2sg.np}} '''rə<u>mālt</u>''' ‘you are an interesting person’; {{sc|+durative}} '''rə<u>māl</u>č’i''' ‘you are fascinating all the time’}}
## '''Ablauting glottalic stems (ʔ+)''', which end in a nasal. When they trigger glottalic mutation, the vowel before the stem-final nasal consonant will be shortened with an accompanying change in quality of /iː eː aː oː uː/ to '''e i a u o''' and of any short vowel to {{!}}ə{{!}} (note that this may surface as '''ə a i u''' depending on the surrounding consonants). Exceptions will be marked in the lexicon. <br>{{comment|'''-łēm-ˀ''' ‘get, obtain, receive’ → {{sc|2sg>3.pst}} '''in<u>łēm</u>''' ‘you received it’; {{sc|+dubitative}} '''in<u>łin</u>ts’ə''' ‘you probably didn't receive it’ <br>'''-qałč’ūn-ˀʷ''' ‘settle down’ → {{sc|3pl.pst}} '''tə<u>qałč’ūn</u>''' ‘they settled down’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''tə<u>qałč’on</u>qʷ’ałt''' ‘they settled down again’}}
# ''Nasalising stems'', which end in a nasal and trigger {{sc|nasal mutation}} of following obstruents. The stem-final nasal will typically be deleted in the process, or else assimilate in POA to a following consonant. A subset of nasalising stems changes their stem-final nasal to '''-y-''' when followed by a vowel (with a preceding unstressed /i/ reducing to '''-ə-'''); this is indicated with the diacritic ‹'''ʸ'''›. Apart from this minor variation, nasalising stems can be divided into two subclasses:
## '''Plain nasalising stems (N)''', which do not exhibit further changes. <br>{{comment|'''-hnām~''' ‘hear’ → {{sc|1sg>2.pst}} '''tl<u>əhnām</u>''' ‘I heard you’; {{sc|+accidental}} '''tl<u>əhnā</u>nərə''' ‘I overheard you accidentally’; {{sc|+durative}} '''tl<u>əhnān</u>či''' ‘I listened to you (for a while)’ <br>'''-sāk’ən~ʸ''' ‘block, oppose’ → {{sc|1pl>3.pst}} '''un<u>sāk’ən</u>''' ‘we resisted them’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''un<u>sāk’ə</u>niłt''' ‘we held them up several times’; {{sc|+intensive}} '''un<u>sāk’əy</u>aq''' ‘we resisted them fiercely’}}
## '''Ablauting nasalising stems (N+)''', which exhibit vowel {{sc|lengthening}} when not appearing in word-final position. Note that most of these stems have a long vowel in their word-final allomorph already, so often the vowel is actually modified only in quality, not in length. Many ablauting nasalising stems also exhibit an alternation between /n/ (word-final) and '''-ny-''' (before a vowel); this is indicated in the lexicon by transcribing the stem-final consonant as '''ň'''. <br>{{comment|'''-tlastōň~''' ‘wash’ → {{sc|1sg:refl.np}} '''nə<u>tl’astōn</u>''' ‘I wash myself’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''nə<u>tl’astū</u>niłt''' ‘I wash myself regularly’ <br>'''-p’āň~''' ‘punch, hit’ → {{sc|3sg>1sg.pst}} '''wi<u>p’ān</u>''' ‘he/she hit me’; {{sc|+iterative}} '''wi<u>p’ā</u>niłt''' ‘he/she hit me several times’; {{sc|+prospective}} '''wi<u>p’ēni</u>hk''' ‘he/she is about to hit me’}}
}}

Some of the above caudal stem classes have a few members with irregular behavior, involving e.g. deletion of a medial vowel in prevocalic position, an unexpected shift in vowel quality, or an alternation between palatal and non-palatal consonants. Such irregularities will be indicated in the lexicon.

==Pronominal prefixes==
Hkətl’ohnim verbs are mandatorily marked for their subject, and also for their object if they are transitive. This is done with two sets of slightly fusional prefixes; the choice of the prefix set signals the tense of the verb. Unlike case marking on nouns, verbal person marking is aligned in a straightforward nominative-accusative pattern; i.e. the subject markers refer to the direct case argument in intransitive clauses and in nonpast tense transitive clauses, and to the ergative case argument in past tense transitive clauses.

There is a considerable amount of syncretism in the paradigm; for instance, the {{sc|1sg}} subject forms are always identical to the {{sc|3pl}} subject forms, and the {{sc|3sg}} subject forms are identical to the {{sc|1pl}} subject forms. Also, 2nd person objects do not distinguish number at all, and 3rd person objects do so only when the object is non-deictic and the morpheme following the pronominal prefix begins with a vowel other than open-syllable '''ə'''. (But note that 3rd person objects distinguish whether their referent is deictic or not, and that there is a separate reflexive inflection for verbs where subject and object refer to the same participant.)

{| {{softtable|c}}
| colspan="11"| '''Non-past tense'''
|- class="t"
! colspan="2"| object →
! rowspan="2"| none !! rowspan="8"|
! colspan="2"| 1st person !! rowspan="2"| 2nd person !! colspan="3"| 3rd person
! rowspan="2"| reflexive
|-
! colspan="2"| subject ↓
| class="bg2 context"|   singular   || class="bg2 context"|     plural    
| class="bg2 context"|   singular   || class="bg2 context"|     plural     || class="bg2 context"|     deictic    
|-
! rowspan="2"| 1st person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| n-/nə-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.) || nəs-
| nəł-
| nəm-/ne~ɴ || nən-/ne~ɴ || nəh-
| nək-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| h-/hə-
| həy-/he- || class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| həł-
| hm-/he~ɴ || hn-/he~ɴ || həh-
| hk-/hək-ˀ
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| r-/rə-
| rəy-/ri- || rəs-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| rəm-/ra~ɴ || rən-/ra~ɴ || rəh-
| rək-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| ny-/ni-
| ny-/ni- || nis-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| nim-/ni~ɴ || nin-/ni~ɴ || nih-
| nik-ˀ
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| h-/hə-
| həy-/he- || həs-
| həł-
| hm-/he~ɴ || hn-/he~ɴ || həh-
| hk-/hək-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| n-/nə-
| ny-/ni- || nəs-
| nəł-
| nəm-/ne~ɴ || nən-/ne~ɴ || nəh-
| nək-ˀ
|-
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
| colspan="11"| '''Past tense'''
|- class="t"
! colspan="2"| object →
! rowspan="2"| none !! rowspan="8"|
! colspan="2"| 1st person !! rowspan="2"| 2nd person !! colspan="3"| 3rd person
! rowspan="2"| reflexive
|-
! colspan="2"| subject ↓
| class="bg2 context"|   singular   || class="bg2 context"|     plural    
| class="bg2 context"|   singular   || class="bg2 context"|     plural     || class="bg2 context"|     deictic    
|-
! rowspan="2"| 1st person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| t-/tə-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.) || ts-/səs-
| tl-/səł-
| sm-/so~ɴ || sn-/so~ɴ || səh-
| skʷ-/səkʷ-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| w-/u-
| uy-/wi- || class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| uł-
| um-/o~ɴ || un-/o~ɴ || uh-
| ukʷ-ˀ
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| y-/i-
| əy-/e- || is-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| im-/i~ɴ || in-/i~ɴ || ih-
| ikʷ-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| kʷ-/ku-
| kuy-/kʷi- || kus-
| class="bg2 context"| (refl.)
| kum-/ko~ɴ || kun-/ko~ɴ || kuh-
| kukʷ-ˀ
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd person
| class="bg2 context"| singular
| w-/u-
| uy-/wi- || us-
| uł-
| um-/o~ɴ || un-/o~ɴ || uh-
| ukʷ-ˀ
|-
| class="bg2 context"| plural
| t-/tə-
| səy-/ši- || ts-/səs-
| tl-/səł-
| sm-/so~ɴ || sn-/so~ɴ || səh-
| skʷ-/səkʷ-ˀ
|-
|}

* Where two variants of a prefix are given, the first form appears before vowels and the second form before consonants.
* Prefixes marked with ‹'''~ɴ'''› cause {{sc|nasal mutation}} of single '''p kʷ qʷ w''' into '''m'''; of single '''t''' into '''n'''; and of single '''k q''' into '''ny'''. Before a single ejective or one of '''l ł s š''', the prefix will come out with a final homoorganic nasal (i.e. identical in form to the prevocalic allomorph unless the latter doesn't have any vowel, in which case an epenthetic '''ə''' will appear before the nasal).
* The final '''k<sup>(</sup>ʷ<sup>)</sup>''' of the reflexive prefixes will cause {{sc|glottalic mutation}} of any following plosive or affricate into an ejective, and combine with following single '''l ł s š''' into '''tl tl ts č'''. It will become an ejective when followed by a nasal, and it will coalesce with '''ħ h''' into '''ħ š''' (with the preceding vowel acquiring the quality listed for the nasalising 3rd person object forms). Labialisation in the past tense is preserved only on resulting prevocalic dorsal stops.

==Preverbs==
Some of the most common preverbs in Hkətl’ohnim are listed below, with approximate meanings.

All instances of /ə/ at the edge of a preverb will be deleted when adjacent to another vowel, and may be colored to /i a u/ depending on the surrounding consonants. Where the preverb begins or ends with a consonant, epenthetic vowels may be added to prevent illegal consonant clusters.

<div class="dl dln">
; -əl-, -əltə-
: {{sc|telic}}, {{sc|perfective}}, with a purpose, intended to have a predictable result

; -sə-
: {{sc|benefactive}}, for the sake of, exchanging sth.

; -stə-
: into a container

; -se-/-səy-
: into a bounded area <small>''('''-se-''' before consonants; '''-səy-''' before vowels; '''-ːne-/-ːnəy-''' after nasalising morphemes; '''-te-/-təy-''' after fricatives)''</small>

; -əłtə-
: out of a container

; -qan-
: out of a bounded area <small>''('''-ːnin-''' after nasalising morphemes)''</small>

; -mə-
: to, towards, in the direction of

; -əlmə-
: up to, reaching

; -im-
: around, regarding, dealing with, taking time for

; -hə-
: across, beyond, through, straightforwardly

; -ōnə-
: in circles, back and forth, here and there, on and off, this and that

; -ēq-
: there, at the aforementioned location

; -ših-
: upwards, towards the deictic center, with increasing importance

; -sqa-
: downwards, away from the deictic center, with decreasing importance
</div><div class="dlend"></div>

==Adverbial suffixes==
Any verb may appear with zero, one, or more adverbial suffixes (however, more than three such morphemes in a single verb are very rare). If a verb contains several adverbials, morphemes referring to the manner of the action itself tend to appear closest to the verb stem, followed by morphemes referring to the temporal structure of the event, followed by morphemes referring to the attitude of a participant or of the speaker, followed by morphemes referring to the epistemic status of the proposition, followed by morphemes referring to external factors. It seems that the order of elements is somewhat variable though, and that some suffixes may be interpreted differently depending on where in the adverbial complex they appear; further analysis is required here.

A list of some common adverbial suffixes follows, roughly ordered by relative position. Note that adverbials will typically receive stress if they end up in the penultimate syllable of the word unless adjacent to a lexical long vowel or immediately preceded by a monosyllabic verb root, and that most adverbial suffixes have different stressed and unstressed allomorphs. Since the stressed variants are more distinctive, they will be used as the citation forms.

{{dl|
; -q’al-
: in a single motion; as a one-off event; quickly; instantly; suddenly {{comment|('''-aq’al-''' after a plosive or a consonant cluster)}}

; -čī-
: ongoing for an extended period of time; prolonged up to a certain point in time; repeated over and over {{comment|('''-či-''' when unstressed; combines with a preceding fricative into '''-hčī-/-hči-''')}}

; -īmə-
: fully; completely; having finished successfully; having resulted in a new state {{comment|('''-im-''' when unstressed)}}

; -šim-
: having passed (according to a natural sequence of events); having been useful; to the full extent; exhaustively {{comment|('''-šēm-''' when stressed before a consonant)}}

; -ːtōn-ʷ
: having stopped (without the implication of success); being in the process of stopping {{comment|('''-ːtūm-''' before a vowel; '''-t’ōn-ʷ/-t’ūm-''' after a consonant; '''-ːtən-ʷ/-ːtəm-/-t’ən-ʷ/-t’əm-''' when unstressed; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -ihk-
: soon; being about to begin; being about to show noticeable consequences {{comment|('''-(ə)hk-''' when unstressed)}}

; -nī-
: having started; being in the process of starting {{comment|('''-yē-''' after a vowel; '''-ni-/-yə-''' when unstressed)}}

; -ots-
: normally; typically; according to general knowledge; as expected {{comment|('''-os-ʷ''' before a consonant; '''-(ə)ts-/-(ə)s-ʷ''' when unstressed; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -ēn-ˀ
: now; currently; immediately; directly {{comment|('''-en-ˀ''' when unstressed; causes glottalic mutation of a following plosive)}}

; -qałt-ˀ
: frequently; regularly; repeatedly; being independently performed by several different agents; affecting multiple objects of the same type; affecting the same object several times {{comment|('''-ːniłt-ˀ''' after nasalising stems; causes glottalic mutation of a following plosive)}}

; -su-
: later on; next; as a result or goal; presumably {{comment|('''-s-''' between a vowel and an obstruent; '''-tu-''' after non-plosive consonants; combines with a preceding plosive into '''-tsu-''')}}

; -tsā-
: speculatively; probably not; judged unlikely; known through an unreliable source {{comment|('''-s-''' when unstressed between a vowel and an obstruent; '''-ts(ə)-''' when unstressed otherwise)}}

; -ːma-
: maybe; possibly; judged likely {{comment|('''-pa-''' after a non-nasal consonant; '''-ːm(ə)-/-pə-''' when unstressed)}}

; -ːmōr-ʷ
: clearly; obviously; assumed from context; with plenty of reliable evidence {{comment|('''-ːmōru-''' word-finally when not immediately preceded by a stressed syllable; '''-ːmur-''' when unstressed before a vowel; '''-ːmu-ʷ''' when unstressed otherwise; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -lu-ʷ
: on purpose; being planned; being hoped for; being the favoured option {{comment|('''-ːlu-''' word-finally after a stressed vowel; '''-l-ʷ''' between a vowel and an obstruent; combines with a preceding fricative into '''-łu-ʷ''' and with a preceding plosive or affricate into '''-tlu-ʷ'''; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -tēr-
: by chance; accidentally; involuntarily; as a side effect {{comment|('''-tērə-''' word-finally when not immediately preceded by a stressed syllable; '''-ːnēr(ə)'''- after nasalising stems; '''-tər(ə)-/-ːnər(ə)-''' when unstressed)}}

; -ːnas-
: necessarily; without viable alternatives; under moral or social obligation {{comment|('''-ːnəs-''' when unstressed; '''-ːns-''' before a stressed vowel)}}

; -hmo-
: reluctantly; with scepticism; being warned against; deviating from socially accepted norms {{comment|('''-hmə-''' when unstressed)}}

; -pəhni-
: customarily; according to tradition; in a morally appropriate way {{comment|('''-pəhn-''' before a vowel; '''-pəh-''' before a nasal; '''-ːməh(n(i))-''' after nasalising stems)}}

; -īm-ˀ
: focusedly; in a tailored way; extraordinarily well-adapted to the situation {{comment|('''-yēm-ˀ''' after a vowel; '''-im-ˀ/-yəm-ˀ''' when unstressed; causes glottalic mutation of a following plosive)}}

; -sēyə-ʷ
: enough; sufficiently; successfully (but only barely so) {{comment|('''-sēyu-''' word-finally when not immediately preceded by a stressed syllable; '''-sēy-''' before a vowel; '''-səyu''' word-finally when unstressed; '''-səy(ə)-ʷ''' when unstressed otherwise; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -ispi-
: unsuitably; insufficiently; failing to succeed {{comment|('''-isp-''' before a vowel; '''-spi-''' after a vowel; '''-spē-''' between a vowel and a nasal; '''-(ə)sp(ə)-''' when unstressed)}}

; -aht-
: unfortunately; unwanted; to the detriment of someone {{comment|('''-ahtə-''' before a non-fricative consonant; '''-ːht-''' after a vowel; '''-(ə)ht(ə)-''' when unstressed)}}

; -ōm-ʷ
: stupidly; excessively; with devastating consequences; to one's own detriment {{comment|('''-ōmu-''' word-finally when not immediately preceded by a stressed syllable; '''-hōm(u)-ʷ''' after a vowel; '''-(h)um-ʷ''' when unstressed; causes labialisation of a following dorsal plosive)}}

; -ra-
: against the rules; unfairly; in an unacceptable way; mischievously; defiantly {{comment|('''-əra-''' after a consonant; '''-ːrə-''' word-finally after a stressed vowel; '''-(ə)rə-''' when unstressed otherwise)}}

; -nim-
: together; towards each other; reciprocally; with low intensity {{comment|('''-nīm-''' when stressed before a consonant; '''-ːnim-''' word-finally after a stressed vowel)}}

; -aq-ˀ
: strongly; forcefully; with great impact; with extraordinary determination; to a remarkable extent {{comment|('''-ːq-''' after a stressed vowel; '''-q-''' after an unstressed vowel; causes glottalic mutation of a following plosive)}}

; -aħqʷ-
: unexpectedly; unusually; disruptively; in contrast to something else {{comment|('''-ħqʷ-''' after a vowel)}}
|dln}}

==Valence/role suffixes==
Hkətl’ohnim verb stems are generally associated with a very specific argument structure. In order to add or remove a core argument, a number of valence-adjusting suffixes can be added to the end of the verb. A few other suffixes with miscellaneous meanings may also appear in verb-final position; because some of these may combine with valence suffixes in a fusional manner, they are also discussed here.

{{dl|
; -qa-
: {{sc|causative}}: Increases valence by adding a new subject; the original subject is demoted to primary object. {{comment|('''-q-''' after a vowel; '''-ːnya-''' after nasalising stems)}}

; -ːnin-
: {{sc|non-causative transitiviser}}: Increases valence by adding a primary object to an otherwise intransitive verb. {{comment|('''-ːmun-''' after labialising stems that end in a vowel; '''-kən-''' after a fricative)}}

; -əł-
: {{sc|detransitiviser}}: Decreases valence by removing the primary object from a transitive verb. {{comment|('''-uł-''' after a labialised consonant; '''-ł-''' after a vowel)}}

; -ən-
: {{sc|mediopassive}}: Decreases valence by promoting an original primary object to subject; the original subject is removed but may optionally appear in the genitive case. When added to a ditransitive verb, the original theme is promoted to primary object. {{comment|('''-un-''' after a labialised consonant; coalesces with a preceding unstressed vowel to stressed '''-ōn-'''; always '''-šin-''' if the verb stem was originally ditransitive)}}

; -səm-
: {{sc|inverse of ditransitive}}: Exchanges the syntactic positions of theme and recipient of a ditransitive verb with no change in valence. It may also increase the valence of a monotransitive verb by adding a new primary object and demoting the original primary object to a theme (marked with the instrumental case). {{comment|('''-təm-''' after a liquid or fricative; '''-ːnəm-''' after nasalising stems)}}

; -ta-
: {{sc|action nominaliser}}: Turns the inflected verb into a noun referring to a single, specific instance of the action involving precisely those participants marked in the pronominal prefix. Participants may also be overt; an overt subject of a nominalised verb takes the genitive case. The nominalised verb itself will also inflect for case according to its role in the matrix clause. {{comment|('''-t-''' after a vowel; '''-ːna-''' after nasalising stems; combines with the causative ''-qa-'' into '''-(ə)tsa-''', with the mediopassive ''-ən-/-šin-'' into '''-(š)ōna-''', and with the inverse ''-səm-'' into '''-sēna-''')}}

; -ːmu-
: {{sc|state nominaliser}}: Turns the inflected verb into a noun referring to a stative, generalised (or generalisable) situation associated with the action, typically with a durative meaning for atelic verbs and a resultative meaning for telic verbs. This state is interpreted to apply to the primary object if the verb is transitive and the object is deictic, or otherwise to apply to the subject. Arguments may be overt; an overt primary object will always appear in the direct case (even in the non-past tense), and an overt subject will take the ergative case if the object is deictic, and the genitive case otherwise. The nominalised verb itself is also inflected for case. {{comment|('''-ku-''' after a single obstruent; '''-īmu''' after a consonant cluster; combines with the transitiviser ''-ːnin-'' into '''-ːnīnku-''', with the detransitiviser ''-(ə)ł-'' into '''-(ə)łki-''', with the mediopassive ''-ən-/-šin-'' into '''-(š)ōnku-''', and with the inverse ''-səm-'' into '''-sēnku-''')}}

; -ê-
: {{sc|imperative}}: Marks the verb as a command or request, which is directed at the subject. This suffix is always stressed and always the final morpheme in the word; it can co-occur with the valence suffixes, but not with the nominalisers ''-ta-'' and ''-ːmu-''. {{comment|('''-hê-''' after a long vowel, which gets shortened in turn; any immediately preceding original short vowel is deleted)}}
|dln}}

=Derivation=
Some productive derivational affixes are listed below.

====Nominalising affixes====
{{dl|
;-(ə)skə
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: instrument used for the action denoted by the base (if the base is verbal), or having some kind of property associated with the base (if the base is nominal). Nouns derived with this suffix have an irregular instrumental case in '''-ːšu'''.

;-su
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: location associated with the base

;-(ə)m(ə)
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: person associated with the base

;-un
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: domesticated animal related to the base

;-(a)ħo
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: small object related to the base

;-šin
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: large object related to the base

;-yələ/-ilə
: {{sc|n/v → n}}
: person, animal, location, or object having the base as a characteristic feature or property
|dln}}

====Verbalising affixes====
{{dl|
;-(h)u-
: {{sc|n → v}}
: action carried out with the base as an instrument

;-rən~/-on~
: {{sc|n/v → v}}
: motion verb with the base as a target or theme (if the base is nominal), or with the base describing the manner of motion (if the base is verbal)

;-yən-ʷ/-in-ʷ
: {{sc|n/v → v}}
: all-purpose verbaliser, describes a specialised action related to the base
|dln}}

=Syntax and usage=
Hkətl’ohnim is, in general, a head-initial and right-branching language. The verb is typically the first element in a clause, followed by its arguments, and the noun is typically the first element in a noun phrase, followed by most of its modifiers. The basic constituent order is '''verb-subject (VS)''' in intransitive clauses, '''verb-patient-agent (VOS)''' in transitive clauses, and '''verb-recipient-donor-theme (VOSX)''' in ditransitive clauses. However, this is freed up considerably by case marking on the nouns and polypersonal agreement on the verbs. In practice, the constituents of a sentence may appear in a wide range of possible orderings, which are chosen on the basis of pragmatic considerations. Also, if the amount of syncretism in the agreement morphemes on the verb permits, core arguments are frequently dropped so that it's not uncommon for only focused constituents to appear overtly.

==Morphosyntactic alignment==
Hkətl’ohnim displays a split-ergative, dechticaetiative morphosyntactic alignment with regard to case marking, which can be summarised as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2" style="min-width:7em;"| !! style="min-width:7em;"| intransitive
! rowspan="4"| !! colspan="2"| transitive
! rowspan="4"| !! colspan="3"| ditransitive
|- class="bg2 b"
| style="min-width:3.5em;"| S
| style="min-width:3.5em;"| A || style="min-width:3.5em;"| P
| style="min-width:3.5em;"| D || style="min-width:3.5em;"| T || style="min-width:3.5em;"| R
|-
! nonpast
| {{sc|dir}}
| {{sc|dir}} || {{sc|acc}}
| {{sc|dir}} || {{sc|instr}} || {{sc|acc}}
|-
! past
| {{sc|dir}}
| {{sc|erg}} || {{sc|dir}}
| {{sc|erg}} || {{sc|instr}} || {{sc|dir}}
|-
|}

Intransitive clauses have only one core argument, which generally takes the unmarked direct case {{sc|(dir)}}. (There are a few intransitive verbs that lexically require their subjects to be marked with one of the other cases, but this is sufficiently rare and unsystematic to be treated as an irregularity, rather than labeling the language as "split-S".)

Case marking in mono- and ditransitive clauses exhibits split-ergativity based on the tense of the verb. Note that verbal agreement does not participate in split-ergativity, treating all subjects alike and thus following a nominative-accusative pattern.
<ul>
<li>
In the nonpast tense, case marking is nominative-accusative: The ''subject'' (typically in the semantic role of agent, causer, force, or donor) appears in the direct case {{sc|(dir)}}, and the ''primary object'' (typically in the semantic role of patient, experiencer, goal, recipient, or beneficiary) appears in the accusative case {{sc|(acc)}}.
</li>
<li>
In the past tense, case marking is ergative-absolutive: The subject is marked with the ergative case {{sc|(erg)}}, while the primary object appears in the direct case.
</li>
</ul>

Ditransitive clauses are aligned dechticaetiatively, which means that the primary object is linked to the target role, not to the theme role. The recipient or beneficiary thus appears in the accusative or direct case depending on the tense of the clause, while the ''secondary object'' (typically in the semantic role of theme, instrument, manner, or cause) is marked with the instrumental case {{sc|(instr)}}.

==Noun phrases==
===Quantifiers===
====Numerals====
Hkətl’ohnim uses a base-10 number system:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! width=13%| 1.
| width=20%| nō
! width=13%| 11.
| width=20%| nūntə
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| yak
! 12.
| nīntə
! width=13%| 20.
| width=20%| yahna
|-
! 3.
| sā
! 13.
| sēntə
! 30.
| sēna
|-
! 4.
| qep
! 14.
| qāntə
! 40.
| qehna
|-
! 5.
| rē
! 15.
| rīntə
! 50.
| rīna
|-
! 6.
| toqʷ
! 16.
| tóħantə
! 60.
| tohna
|-
! 7.
| mul
! 17.
| muləntə
! 70.
| mulna
|-
! 8.
| hē
! 18.
| hīntə
! 80.
| hīna
|-
! 9.
| ūla
! 19.
| ūləntə
! 90.
| ūlna
|-
! 10.
| ēntə
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| ēntəna
|}

The numbers 110, 120, (...), 190 are formed by suffixing the decimal multiplier morpheme '''-na''' to the words for 11, 12, (...), 19.
: 110 '''nūntəna'''
: 170 '''múləntəna'''

More complex numerals up to 199 can be formed by compounding, with the single digit coming first. Note the following special combining forms: 1 '''no-''' ('''noy-''' before a vowel); 2 '''yah-''' before a voiced consonant or /h/; 3 '''sa-''' ('''sey-''' before a vowel); 4 '''qeh-''' before a voiced consonant or /h/; 5 '''re-''' ('''rey-''' before a vowel); 6 '''toħ-'''; 8 '''he-''' ('''hey-''' before a vowel); 9 '''ūl-''' ('''ūlə-''' before /r/); 50 '''-šīna''' after a consonant; 150 '''-šīntəna''' after a consonant.
: 21 '''noyahna'''
: 47 '''mulqehna'''
: 56 '''točīna'''
: 64 '''qet’ohna'''
: 115 '''renūntəna'''
: 133 '''sasēntəna'''

Multiples of 100 are built with the special form '''-qēntəna''' by prefixing the appropriate multiplier. 1000 is '''łēn'''; multiples of 1000 are built with '''-qałēn'''.
: 300 '''saqēntəna'''
: 6000 '''toqʷ’ałēn'''

Numbers higher than 200 which are not multiples of 100 are formed analytically using the conjunction '''ši'''.
: 219 '''yaq’ēntəna ši ūləntə'''
: 483 '''qepēntəna ši sahīna'''
: 1140 '''łēn ši qāntəna'''
: 9522 '''ūlqałēn ši reyēntəna ši yačahna'''

====Indefinite quantifiers====
The most important indefinite quantifiers are:
* '''išin''' ‘some, a few, a group of’
* '''tsu''' ‘many’
* '''ma''' ‘all, every’
* '''īn''' ‘each one’
* '''kən''' ‘a certain number of’
* '''k’nyusēn''' ‘no, none of’

====Quantifier usage====
Hkətl’ohnim quantifiers are mostly verbal in nature. When they are used as the main verb of a clause, the meaning is existential if the referent is non-deictic, and predicative if the referent is deictic.
{{g4|Nəsā mahə.|nə-sā n-wahə-Ø|3PL.NP-three 3PL-lion-DIR|There are three lions.}}
{{g4|Nəsā maħqʷ.|nə-sā n-waħqʷ-Ø|3PL.NP-three 3PL-lion.DIST-DIR|Those lions, there are three of them.}}

An ordinal meaning can be achieved by using singular agreement.
{{g4|Həsā wahə.|hə-sā Ø-wahə-Ø|3SG.NP-three 3SG-lion-DIR|He is the third lion.}}

When the referent is non-deictic, it can be backgrounded by being incorporated into the numeral. Because quantifier verbs are normally intransitive, they must take a causative suffix when used in this construction.
{{g4|Nəwahəsāq.|nə-<wahə>-sā-q|3PL.NP-<lion>-three-CAUS|There are three (lions).}}

The following example shows how the full range of verbal morphology can be used to expand the meaning of numerals:
{{g4|Tēqəsāqałtəht mahə.|t-ēq-sā-qałt-əht n-wahə-Ø|3PL.PST-there-three-ITER-ADVERS 3PL-lion-DIR|Unfortunately, there were often three lions at that place.}}

=Lexicon=
* [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lexicon]]

[[Category:T1 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Omari

2012-12-09T10:39:50Z

Rorschach:

{{Language
| language = Omari<br>bųgieta ke-nómaru
| phonetic = {{IPA|[bũˌᵑɡjɛ.ta kɛˈnɔ.ma.ɾu]}}
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = Wohata plain
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />  '''Omari'''
| word-or = VOS
| mor-type = polysynthetic; agglutinating w/ some fusion
| morphalign = mostly NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
'''Omari''' is a language spoken in the Wohata plain in eastern [[Tuysáfa]] around 0 YP. It is part of the [[T1 languages|T1 language family]], and thus related to [[Cednìtıt]], [[East Yalan|East]] and [[West Yalan]], [[Teyetáti]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], and [[Cëzëdeğozin]].

Strictly speaking, "Omari" is primarily an ethnonym; a native term more specifically referring to the language is '''bųgieta ke-nómaru''', translating to ‘speech of the Omari’. In this document, "Omari" will be used as a name for both the language and the people who speak it.

=Phonology=
==Phoneme inventory==
===Consonants===
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! dorsal !! glottal
|-
! plosive
| p ‧ b || t ‧ d || || k ‧ ɡ ||
|-
! affricate
| || {{gray|ts}} || {{gray|tʃ}} || ||
|-
! fricative
| f {{gray|‧ v}} || s ‧ z || ʃ ‧ ʒ || || h
|-
! nasal
| m || n || || ||
|-
! liquid/approximant
| w || ɾ || j || ʁ ||
|-
|}

* The phonemic status of [ts tʃ v] is debated. The affricates are probably best treated as clusters (with the exception of dialects where the distinctions [ps :: ts :: ks] and [pʃ :: tʃ :: kʃ] have been lost), and the voiced labial fricative is most likely an allophone of /f/.
* Most instances of [z ʒ ʁ] could probably be analysed as allophones of /s ʃ h/, but unlike [f] :: [v] they are fully contrastive at least in word-initial position.
* With the exception of [ts], all the consonants listed in the above table are written with separate single graphemes.
** [tʃ ʃ ʒ ʁ] are written '''č š j x'''.
** The semivowels [w j] are written '''w y''' word-initially and between vowels. Adjacent to a consonant, they are normally analysed as part of a diphthong, and accordingly written with vowel graphemes.
** All other consonants are written as in IPA (or with the text equivalent of their IPA representation).

===Vowels===
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! !! front !! central !! back
|-
! close
| i ‧ ĩ || || u ‧ ũ
|-
! mid
| e ‧ ẽ || || o ‧ õ
|-
! open
| || a ‧ ã ||
|-
|}

There are also numerous diphthongs, which are often treated as single phonemes rather than sequences of a vowel and a semivowel. As with the monophthongs, all diphthongs may be nasalised.

* /ie ei ea eo iu ui oe oa ou uo/
* /ĩẽ ẽĩ ẽã ẽõ ĩũ ũĩ õẽ õã õũ ũõ/

All vowels and diphthongs are written as in IPA, except that nasalisation is indicated with an ogonek instead of a tilde: '''į ę ą ǫ ų įę ęį ęą''' etc.

The diphthongs /eo oe ẽõ õẽ/ are written as '''io ue įǫ ųę''' in positions where they are pronounced as [jɔ wɛ jɔ̃ wɛ̃] (i.e. with a nonsyllabic onglide); note that these alternate graphemes reflect a purely allophonic change.

In order to simplify the description of Omari morphophonology, it makes sense to posit three additional vowel archiphonemes |I E A| and two additional diphthongs |IE EI|, which are traditionally transcribed as ‹'''î ê â iê êi'''› (‹'''ĩ ẽ ã iẽ ẽi'''› when nasalised). They are not distinct from regular /i e a ie ei/ on the surface, but they behave differently when they come into contact with morpheme boundaries that trigger certain morphophonological alternations.

==Distribution and phonotactics==
* The general syllable structure is '''C(C)V(C)'''.
* All consonants except for the non-phonemic [v] can appear word-initially before a vowel.
* All consonants can appear word-medially between vowels, although voiced fricatives cannot follow a single oral vowel, and voiceless fricatives other than /h/ cannot follow a nasalised vowel or a diphthong.
* Word-final consonants are relatively rare, and limited to /p t k s ʃ m n/ and the clusters /ps ts ks/.
* Word-initial consonant clusters are limited to:
** /ps ts ks pʃ tʃ kʃ/
** /sp st sk ʃp ʃt ʃk/
** /bɾ ɡɾ bʁ dʁ/
* Word-medially, the following clusters are also permitted:
** /ɾb ɾd ɾɡ/
** /ɾm ɾn/
** /pp tt kk ff ss ʃʃ/
** /pps tts kks ppʃ ttʃ kkʃ/
** /bb dd ɡɡ mm nn ɾɾ/
** /bbɾ ɡɡɾ bbʁ ddʁ/
* In addition to the above, all single consonants except /w j/ and all consonant clusters that do not end in /s ʃ ɾ ʁ/ may be followed by the semivowels [w j]. However, the latter are generally analysed as part of a diphthongal syllable nucleus in such positions.

==Phonetic detail==
* /p t k/ are lightly aspirated before a vowel, except when preceded by /s ʃ/.
* Geminate /pp tt kk/ may be realised as ejectives [p’ t’ k’], especially before a stressed vowel.
* /ɾ/ is realised as a trill [r] word-initially and when geminated.
* /h/ is palatalised to [ç] before /i e ĩ ẽ/ (including the onglide of diphthongs). Before other vowels, it may be realised as [x].
* For some speakers, the clusters /ps ks pʃ kʃ/ merge into [ts ts tʃ tʃ] (and similarly for their long counterparts).
* Some speakers pronounce intervocalic /ʁ/ as [ɣ] after oral vowels, and as [ŋ] after nasalised vowels.
* The voiced plosives /b d ɡ/ are typically pronounced as prenasalised [mb nd ŋɡ] after nasalised vowels. In some dialects, they even become full-blown nasal consonants [m n ŋ] in this environment.
* /b d ɡ/ may lenite to [β ð ɣ] or zero when preceded by an oral vowel and followed by [w j], especially in unstressed positions. In some dialects, lenited /d/ is lateralised to [l].
* Vowel nasalisation is not contrastive, and therefore not written, before nasal consonants. Phonetically, nasalised and non-nasalised realisations of vowels in such positions are in free variation for most speakers.
* The mid vowels /e o ẽ õ/ are usually realised as mid-open vowels {{IPA|[ɛ ɔ ɛ̃ ɔ̃]}}.
* Many diphthongs alternate between rising and falling based on syllable shape. When preceded by a complex onset not ending in a plosive, /ie ea eo iu/ are pronounced {{IPA|[iɛ̯ eɐ̯ ɛw iw]}}, and /uo oa oe ui/ are pronounced {{IPA|[uɔ̯ oɐ̯ ɔj uj]}}. Otherwise, /ie ea eo iu/ are typically pronounced [jɛ ja jɔ ju], and /uo oa oe ui/ are pronounced [wɔ wa wɛ wi]. In stressed or word-final open syllables, /eo ea oa oe/ may still be rendered as {{IPA|[ɛw eɐ̯ oɐ̯ ɔj]}} though. (The same quality alternations apply for nasalised diphthongs.)

==Stress==
Omari has a dynamic stress accent, which is determined by a combination of lexical and positional factors according to the following rules:

* Each content morpheme (i.e. verb or noun root) has an inherent accent location, which is usually the only syllable of monosyllabic morphemes, the final syllable of morphemes ending in a consonant, and the penultimate syllable in morphemes of two or more syllables which end in a vowel. Lexical entries formed through compounding or by addition of a so-called ''core suffix'' are treated as monomorphemic for the purposes of lexical accent, i.e. they have a single accent on the vowel before the last consonant.
* Certain word stems (mostly recent loans) have an irregular lexical accent, which is marked in the lexicon with an acute diacritic on the accented vowel. (A prominent example is the name of the language: '''ómari'''). Irregularly accented syllables attract positional stress from any other syllables in the same morpheme or from any syllable directly adjacent to the irregularly accented syllable, and cannot become fully unstressed.
* Regular lexically accented syllables become fully unstressed when immediately preceded by a positionally accented syllable, or when immediately followed by a syllable which carries both lexical and positional stress. Otherwise, they almost always carry at least secondary stress.
* In words whose final syllable is lexically accented, positional stress falls on the final syllable.
* In words that end in a vowel, positional stress otherwise falls on the penultimate syllable.
* In words that end in a consonant, positional stress otherwise falls on the antepenultimate syllable, with the final syllable receiving a secondary accent.
* However, syllables whose nucleus is part of a pronominal prefix can never be stressed. If the above rules would result in positional stress falling on a pronominal prefix, the lexically accented syllable of the content morpheme (typically word-final in this situation) receives stress instead.
* The primary accent of the word is placed on the positionally accented syllable.
* Every other remaining syllable receives a secondary accent, unless it is immediately adjacent to a lexically or positionally accented syllable, or if its nucleus belongs to a pronominal prefix.

If the primary accent does not predictably fall on the penultimate syllable (for vowel-final words) or on the antepenultimate syllable (for consonant-final words), it will be indicated with an acute accent in this document.

=Morphophonology=
There are several prominent morphophonological alternations in Omari which affect the surface form of stems and/or affixes when they come into contact with each other. All of these alternations are to some extent predictable from the phonological environment, but there are numerous idiosyncrasies and irregularities.

A number of diacritics will be used in this document to mark exceptional morphophonological characteristics:

{| {{softtable|l t}}
|-
!    
! description
! example
|-
! ː
| preceding single vowel undergoes {{sc|breaking}}
| te- + -ːna- → tiena
|-
! ~
| preceding vowel undergoes {{sc|nasalisation}}
| te- + ~da- → tęda
|-
! ˤ
| preceding or following vowel undergoes {{sc|flattening}}
| ti- + -ˤka- → teka
|-
! °
| preceding or following vowel undergoes {{sc|rounding}}
| ta- + -°ma- → toma
|-
! ‘
| preceding or following consonant undergoes {{sc|softening}}
| tekˤ- + -‘ųǫ- → tegǫą
|-
! .
| preceding or following consonant resists {{sc|softening}}
| tekˤ.- + -‘ųǫ- → tekǫą
|-
! +
| preceding or following consonant undergoes {{sc|lenition}}
| tekˤ- + +u- → teho
|-
! ,
| morpheme behaves irregularly under {{sc|lenition}} <br>(details given in morpheme list or lexicon)
| teš- + +u- → teru <br>teš,- + +u- → toeyu
|-
|}

==Phonologically conditioned alternations==
The following alternations are synchronically productive and occur automatically in the relevant environments, typically after all morphologically conditioned morphophonological rules have been applied:

===Consonant sandhi===
* Single /f s ʃ/ become voiced after diphthongs and nasalised vowels, and are written '''v z j''' in these positions.
* Conversely, /z ʒ/ become voiceless when they come into contact with a voiceless obstruent, and are then written '''s š'''.
* Fricatives assimilate completely into a following fricative other than /h/, forming a voiceless geminated version of the second fricative. /h/ becomes '''k''' after /s ʃ/, and assimilates completely into any adjacent fricative otherwise.
* Plosives assimilate completely into a following plosive, forming a geminated plosive, which will be voiced (a) if both of the original plosives are voiced, or (b) if the resulting geminate stands adjacent to a nasalised vowel or underlying /ɾ ʁ/. If neither of these conditions is met, the resulting geminate will be voiceless. There is one major exception to plosive assimilation: Instances of coda /t/ which are immune to {{sc|softening}} will surface as '''s''' instead when followed by a labial or velar plosive, which in turn becomes voiceless.
* The voiced plosives /b d ɡ/ become voiceless when adjacent to /s ʃ/.
* At the end of a word or when sandwiched between two nasalised vowels, /b d ɡ/ turn into the nasals '''m n n'''. In the latter position, voiceless plosives which are not immune to {{sc|softening}} are also affected.
* Nasals assimilate in POA to a following nasal, forming geminate '''mm nn'''.
* Underlying /dɾ ɡʁ/ surface as '''rr gg''' medially, and as '''di g''' word-initially.
* /ɾ/ assimilates completely into preceding /s ʃ/, forming geminated fricatives '''ss šš'''. After instances of /p t k/ which are immune to {{sc|softening}}, /ɾ/ also becomes '''š''', and after consonant clusters ending in /p t k/ it surfaces as '''i'''.
* Coda /ɾ/ is deleted word-finally or before consonants other than single /b d ɡ m n ɾ/, with compensatory {{sc|breaking}} of the preceding vowel if the syllable in question does not meet the conditions for {{sc|diphthong reduction}}. When preceded by a nasalised vowel and followed by one of /m n/, coda /ɾ/ assimilates completely into the nasal, yielding geminate '''mm nn'''. Underlying /ɾd/ surfaces as '''rr''' after a nasalised vowel.

===Vowel synaeresis===
When two vowels come into contact at morpheme boundaries, they combine into a diphthong according to the table below. Note that the vowel archiphonemes ‹'''î ê â'''› behave differently than other instances of /i e a/.

{| {{softtable|lightbluebg c}}
|-
| width="11%"|
| width="11%"| '''i'''
| width="11%"| '''î'''
| width="11%"| '''e'''
| width="11%"| '''ê'''
| width="11%"| '''a'''
| width="11%"| '''â'''
| width="11%"| '''o'''
| width="11%"| '''u'''
|-
| '''i'''
| class="redbg3"| ei¹ || class="redbg3"| ei¹ || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="graybg3"| eo || class="graybg2"| iu
|-
| '''î'''
| class="redbg3"| ei¹ || class="redbg4"| êi³ || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg4"| êi³ || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg4"| ou²
|-
| '''e'''
| class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="graybg3"| eo || class="graybg3"| eo
|-
| '''ê'''
| class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg2"| ie || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg3"| uo
|-
| '''a'''
| class="redbg2"| ie || class="redbg4"| êi³ || class="redbg2"| ie || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg3"| uo
|-
| '''â'''
| class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg2"| ea || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="bluebg3"| oa
|-
| '''o'''
| class="graybg3"| oe || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="graybg3"| oe || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg3"| uo
|-
| '''u'''
| class="graybg2"| ui || class="greenbg4"| ou² || class="graybg3"| oe || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="bluebg3"| oa || class="greenbg3"| uo || class="greenbg4"| ou²
|-
|}

:¹) '''ei''' in open syllables, '''ie''' otherwise
:²) '''ou''' in open syllables, '''uo''' otherwise
:³) '''ou/uo''' adjacent to a labial consonant; '''ei/ie''' otherwise. Rules ¹/² also apply.

All instances of '''ea''' resulting from vowel synaeresis become '''oa''' when adjacent to a labial consonant.

Nasalised vowels combine in the same way as oral vowels. When two vowels of different nasality combine, the resulting diphthong will be nasalised. Also note that the top-left to bottom-right diagonal in this table is identical to the outcome of the morphologically conditioned process of {{sc|vowel breaking}}.

When an existing diphthong comes into contact with another vowel, the diphthong undergoes {{sc|reduction}} first, and the resulting vowel sequence is then resolved according to the above table.

===Diphthong raising===
A fairly minor, but regular process is diphthong raising, which produces the following alternations:

* '''uo oa''' → '''ou''' (before intervocalic '''p b m v w''', with the latter fortifying to '''v''')
* '''ie ea ęą''' → '''ei''' (before intervocalic '''k g j y''', with the latter fortifying to '''j''')
* '''oa''' → '''uo''' (before geminated '''pp bb mm ff''')
* '''ea''' → '''ie''' (before '''š č''' and geminated '''kk gg''')

The same alternations apply for nasalised vowels.
Diphthong raising is blocked before morpheme boundaries which trigger {{sc|flattening}}.

===Diphthong reduction===
In unstressed syllables adjacent to a syllable with primary or secondary stress, underlying diphthongs are reduced to monophthongs if at least one of the following conditions is met:

* the unstressed syllable in question contains coda /ɾ/
* the unstressed syllable in question has a complex onset and is followed by a consonant other than a voiced fricative
* an immediately following stressed syllable has a complex onset, and the unstressed syllable in question contains a falling diphthong
* the adjacent stressed syllable is closed, and the unstressed syllable in question contains a falling diphthong
* the adjacent stressed syllable contains both a diphthong and a coda consonant
* the adjacent stressed syllable contains a diphthong of the same orientation (rising or falling) as the nucleus of the unstressed syllable in question

This process affects even diphthongs which are composed of two separate vowel phonemes across a morpheme boundary; however, diphthongs in lexically accented syllables of a content morpheme (including the roots of incorporated nouns) do not undergo reduction. The following alternations are observed:

* '''ei''' → '''i'''
* '''ou''' → '''u'''
* '''ie ea''' → '''e'''
* '''uo oa''' → '''o'''
* '''ui êi iu''' → '''î''' (resolves to '''u''' when adjacent to a labial consonant, and to '''i''' otherwise)
* '''oe iê eo''' → '''ê''' (resolves to '''o''' when adjacent to a labial consonant, and to '''e''' otherwise)

Nasalised diphthongs are reduced in the same way as oral diphthongs.

If the above rules would result in a voiced fricative following an oral monophthong, the original diphthong is not reduced, but instead shifts from rising to falling or vice versa. (For diphthongs involving close and mid vowels, this results in a phonemic change; the relevant correspondence is '''ei êi ou''' <> '''ie iê uo'''.)

==Morphologically conditioned alternations==
===Vowel breaking===
Under certain morphologically conditioned circumstances, vowels before a morpheme boundary may break into diphthongs. This process is highly sensitive to prosody: It occurs consistently in syllables with primary or secondary stress, but is usually blocked in unstressed syllables, especially when an adjacent syllable both carries a primary or secondary accent ''and'' has a diphthongal nucleus. Morpheme boundaries which may trigger vowel breaking are marked with the diacritic ‹ː› (reflecting the fact that the process appears to have originated as an alternation in vowel length, considering that its outcome is identical to the top-left to bottom-right diagonal of the vowel synaeresis table).

* '''i''' → '''ei''' in open syllables, '''ie''' otherwise
* '''î''' → '''êi''' in open syllables, '''iê''' otherwise
* '''e''' → '''ie'''
* '''ê''' → '''ea'''
* '''a''' → '''ea'''
* '''â''' → '''oa'''
* '''o''' → '''uo'''
* '''u''' → '''ou''' in open syllables, '''uo''' otherwise

The same alternations apply for nasalised vowels.
If a diphthongising morpheme boundary also triggers {{sc|rounding}} and/or {{sc|flattening}}, diphthongisation is applied first (i.e. the resulting diphthong functions as the input of the other process).

===Vowel rounding===
Vowel rounding typically occurs in the vicinity of labial consonants, but it occasionally happens in other situations as well. Rounding environments will be indicated with the diacritic ‹°›.
* '''î''' → '''u''' ('''o''' if {{sc|flattening}} also applies)
* '''ê''' → '''a''' (only when not adjacent to a coronal or palatal consonant)
* '''a''' → '''o'''
* '''êi''' → '''ou'''
* '''iê''' → '''uo'''
* '''ea''' → '''oa'''
The same alternations apply for nasalised vowels.

===Vowel flattening===
"Flattening" is the traditional label for a process that produces a more open vowel quality than usual. This process affects vowels adjacent to '''x''', adjacent to some instances of '''k g h''', and exceptionally in a few other situations. Flattening environments will be marked with the diacritic ‹ˤ›.
* '''i''' → '''e'''
* '''î''' → '''a''' ('''o''' if {{sc|rounding}} also applies)
* '''ê''' → '''a'''
* '''u''' → '''o'''
* '''uo''' → '''oa'''
* '''ea''' → '''oa'''
* '''ie iê''' → '''ea'''
The same alternations apply for nasalised vowels.

===Vowel nasalisation===
Nasalisation simply changes an oral vowel or diphthong to its nasalised counterpart. Nasalising environments are indicated by the diacritic ‹~›. Where this process operates progressively (i.e. a morpheme triggers nasalisation of the following vowel), an immediately following single fricative becomes voiced as a result. Note also that single plosives which are not immune to {{sc|softening}} will turn into nasals when surrounded by nasalised vowels on both sides, rendering nasalisation on the first vowel non-distinctive.
* '''i e a o u''' → '''į ę ą ǫ ų'''
* '''ie ei ea eo iu ui oe oa ou uo''' → '''įę ęį ęą ęǫ įų ųį ǫę ǫą ǫų ųǫ'''

===Consonant softening===
Consonant softening is typically triggered by nasalised vowels (but any given nasalised vowel will be specified to soften either a preceding or a following consonant); voiceless plosives and single voiceless fricatives usually also undergo softening when adjacent to '''r x'''. Softening environments are marked with the diacritic ‹‘›. It should be noted that the outcome of this process is dependent on the precise ordering of segments, and that a sizeable number of morphemes are immune to softening (the latter is marked with a period ‹.› at the relevant morpheme boundary).
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! width="14%"| environment
! width="14%"| #‘_V
! width="14%"| Ṽ‘_V
! width="14%"| V_‘Ṽ
! width="14%"| Vr‘_V
! width="14%"| V_‘rV
! width="14%"| V_‘xṼ
|-
! p t k
| b d g || b d g || b d g || rb rd rg || br rr gr || bx dx gg
|-
! f s š
| w z y || mm nn nn || {{gray|f s š}} || ːv ːz ːj || ur {{gray|ss}} ir || ųx h h
|-
! h
| x || x || {{gray|h}} || {{gray|ːh}} || ːr || {{gray|h}}
|-
! pp tt kk
| {{gray|<small>''(does not occur)''</small>}} || bb dd gg || bb dd gg || ːbb ːdd ːgg || bbr ddi ggr || bbx ddx gg
|-
! ps pš ks kš
| br br gr gr || br br gr gr || {{gray|ps pš ks kš}} || {{gray|ːps ːpš ːks ːkš}} || {{gray|ps pš ks kš}} || {{gray|ps pš ks kš}}
|-
|}

Single plosives which become voiced through softening will further change into nasals if they are surrounded by nasalised vowels on both sides.

===Consonant lenition===
Consonant lenition is another type of consonant mutation which occurs at specific morpheme boundaries. Leniting environments are marked with the symbol ‹+›.

The outcome of lenition is sometimes highly irregular; the following table therefore lists only the most common alternations. Note that [+plosive][+sibilant] clusters are affected only when preceded by a leniting morpheme, not when followed by one. Irregular lenited allomorphs will be given separately on a morpheme-by-morpheme basis.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! environment
! width="35%"| V+_V
! width="35%"| V_+V
|-
! p t k kˤ
| f s š hˤ
| f s š hˤ
|-
! b d g gˤ
| m n n ~xˤ
| m n n ~xˤ
|-
! f s š
| w r r
| w r r
|-
! ts č
| ss šš
| {{gray|ts č}}
|-
! ps ks ˤks
| uz iz ˤz
| {{gray|ps ks ˤks}}
|-
! pš kš ˤkš
| uj ij ˤj
| {{gray|pš kš ˤkš}}
|-
|}

=Nominal morphology=
Nominal words in Omari fall in three morphologically distinct classes: ''pronouns'', ''true nouns'', and ''descriptives''.

==True nouns==
True nouns can be divided in several subgroups with slightly different morphological characteristics. This is done along the lines of ''animacy'' (animate vs. inanimate), ''number'' (count nouns vs. collective nouns vs. singulative nouns), and ''possession'' (independent nouns vs. inherently possessed nouns).

===Number and animacy===
Number and animacy are indicated with fusional prefixes. Animacy is often not immediately obvious and will become apparent only in verbal subject agreement, but number marking is always fairly transparent. Count nouns can appear in the ''singular'' or in the ''plural''; collective nouns can appear in the ''collective'' (refers to the collection as a single whole), in the ''distributive'' (refers to the members of the collection individually, but all at the same time), and in the ''plural'' (refers to a plurality of collections). Nouns referring to a single member of a collection can be derived from collectives by adding a ''singulative'' prefix; these nouns behave like normal count nouns with regard to number agreement, but their plurals are formed with a special fusional prefix.

<div class="fl">
{| {{softtable|c fl}}
|+ '''count nouns'''
! !! singular !! plural
|-
! animate
| w°-/o-/Ø- || n-/‘-/nu+
|-
! inanimate
| h-/Ø- || n-/‘-/na+
|-
|}
<div class="fl padded"> </div>
</div>
<div class="fl">
{| {{softtable|c fl}}
|+ '''collective nouns'''
! !! collective !! distributive !! plural
|-
! animate
| m°-/‘-/mo+ || em°-/ę‘-/emo+ || čum°-/čų‘-/čų+
|-
! inanimate
| y-/i- || ęx-/ę‘- || čuy-/ču-
|-
|}
<div class="fl padded"> </div>
</div>
{| {{softtable|c}}
|+ '''singulative nouns'''
! !! singular !! plural
|-
! animate
| nogǫ-/nogę‘-/nogǫą+ || čonǫ-/čonę‘-/čonǫą+
|-
! inanimate
| noge- || čǫge-
|-
|}

* The animate singular prefix for count nouns is '''w°-''' before vowels (zero when preceded by a cliticised preposition), and either '''o-''' or zero before consonants. As it is not fully predictable which nouns take '''o-''' and which ones don't, the prefixed form will be given in the lexicon.
* The inanimate singular prefix for count nouns is '''h-''' before vowels and zero before consonants. Some words irregularly display an initial consonant mutation.
* The count noun plural prefixes are '''n-''' before vowels, zero with consonant {{sc|softening}} before single voiceless obstruents, and '''nu+/na+''' with consonant {{sc|lenition}} elsewhere. When preceded by another prefix or proclitic (e.g. a possessive marker or a preposition), the '''nu+/na+''' forms reduce to nasalisation of the preceding vowel plus lenition of the following stem-initial consonant, i.e. the resulting affix shape is '''~_+'''.
* Of the animate prefixes for collective and singulative nouns, the first form is used before vowels, the second form (with {{sc|softening}}) before labial obstruents, and the third form (with {{sc|lenition}}) before other consonants.
* Of the inanimate prefixes for collective nouns, the first form is used before vowels, and the second form before consonants.

===Possession===
Omari has a closed class of ''inherently possessed nouns'', which mandatorily take an additional prefix agreeing with their possessor. The most typical members of this class are body part terms, but some other words referring to parts of a larger whole are also treated as inherently possessed. All inherently possessed nouns are count nouns.

The basic forms of the possessive prefixes, which appear immediately before the number/animacy markers, are '''t(e)-''' for 1st person possession, '''k(i)-''' for 2nd person possession, and '''b(u)-''' for 3rd person possession. However, possessive and number/animacy prefixes are fused to a considerable degree. The combined forms are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="5"| singular
! rowspan="5"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2"
| _V || _C¹ || _C² || _C || _R³
| _V || _C⁴ || _C
|-
! {{sc|1.poss}}
| t- || t- || to- || te- || d-³
| dį- || tę‘- || tę+
|-
! {{sc|2.poss}}
| k- || k- || ko- || ki- || g-³
| gr~ || kį‘- || kį+
|-
! {{sc|3.poss}}
| b°- || p- || bo- || bu- || b-³
| br~ || bų‘- || bų+
|-
|}

:¹) Before single /s ʃ/.
:²) Before animate consonant-initial stems that take the singular prefix '''o-'''.
:³) When attached directly to a singular noun stem beginning with one of the resonants /m n r ʁ/, the 1st person possessive prefix combines with the stem-initial consonant as '''dų- dį- di- dx~''' respectively, the 2nd person possessive prefix combines with the stem-initial consonant as '''gų- gr~ gr- g~''', and the 3rd person possessive prefix combines with the stem-initial consonant as '''bų- br~ br- bx~'''.
:⁴) Before single obstruents.

Independent nouns (i.e. nouns which are not inherently possessed) do not take possessive prefixes.

===Case===
True nouns inflect for case in a simple direct-oblique system. The ''direct case'' is the unmarked citation form; the ''oblique case'' is formed with the suffix '''+u''', which replaces any final vowel and causes {{sc|lenition}} of the preceding consonant where applicable. Some words display stem alternations in the oblique case; such irregularities are indicated in the lexicon.

Case usage is fairly straightforward: The oblique case is used for the objects of many prepositions, for overt possessors of inherently possessed nouns, in partitive constructions, and in absolute constructions which portray the noun as an adverbial adjunct to the clause as a whole. The direct case is used everywhere else.

==Pronouns==
Because the core participants of a clause are mandatorily marked on the verb, Omari does not use free pronouns very often. They are mostly employed for emphasis, for tracking several different third person participants, or for assigning an oblique role to a participant that has already been mentioned.

There are two major subtypes of pronouns in the language: ''Personal pronouns'', which exist only for speech act participants (i.e. 1st and 2nd person), and ''demonstratives'', which are used for 3rd person referents. All pronouns inflect for case.

===Personal pronouns===
Personal pronouns inflect for number, case, and politeness. Among the polite pronouns there is also an additional distinction between physical and mental pronouns; the former are used with verbs of action and in statements about physical properties of the referent, and the latter are used with verbs of communication or mental activity and in statements about the emotional state of the referent.

{| {{softtable|c fl}} style="min-width:37em; margin:0 1em 1em 0;"
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''1st person (speaker)'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| width="14%"| informal
| width="14%"| polite <br>physical
| width="14%"| polite <br>mental
| width="14%"| informal
| width="14%"| polite <br>physical
| width="14%"| polite <br>mental
|-
! direct
| toe || niu || nįdu
| si || dįų || tędu
|-
! oblique
| tou || nįęzu || nįtsu
| su || dįųzu || tętsu
|-
|}

{| {{softtable|c fl}} style="min-width:37em"
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''2nd person (listener)'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| width="14%"| informal
| width="14%"| polite <br>physical
| width="14%"| polite <br>mental
| width="14%"| informal
| width="14%"| polite <br>physical
| width="14%"| polite <br>mental
|-
! direct
| ri || sįų || sįdu
| gi || gįų || kįdu
|-
! oblique
| ru || sįųzu || sįtsu
| gu || gįųzu || kįtsu
|-
|}
<div class="visualClear"></div>

===Demonstratives===
Omari has distinct demonstrative pronouns for referents of different animacy, shape, and size, constituting what appears to be a fairly elaborate noun class system. However, the "classes" represented by these classifying demonstratives are not fixed. A given referent may be referred to with any semantically appropriate demonstrative (provided it has the correct animacy value); the assignment of pronouns may vary from speaker to speaker, from conversation to conversation for the same speaker, or even within the same discourse, depending on which aspect of the referent the speaker considers salient.

Demonstrative pronouns distinguish number, case, and three degrees of deixis. Their inflection is somewhat fusional; all the relevant forms are given in the table below.

<div class="fl" style="min-width:37em; margin-right:1em">
====Animate demonstratives====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''male adult human'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| width="14%"| proximal
| width="14%"| medial
| width="14%"| distal
| width="14%"| proximal
| width="14%"| medial
| width="14%"| distal
|-
! direct
| katti || kasko || kotoe
| gatti || gasko || gotoe
|-
! oblique
| katsu || kato || kotu
| gatsu || gato || gotu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''female adult human'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| rįdi || rąko || rumme
| dįdi || dęąko || diumme
|-
! oblique
| rįzu || rąxo || rinu
| dįzu || dęąxo || dinu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''child'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| šǫdi || šǫko || šomme
| yǫdi || yǫko || yomme
|-
! oblique
| šǫzu || šǫxo || šomu
| yǫzu || yǫxo || yomu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''large animal'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| fųǫrri || fǫąko || fǫųve
| numorri || numoako || numouve
|-
! oblique
| fųǫzu || fǫąho || fuonu
| numouzu || numoaho || numouru
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''small animal'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| bradi || brako || brofe
| nuradi || nurako || nurofe
|-
! oblique
| brasu || braho || brou
| nurasu || nuraho || nuróu
|-
|}
</div>
<div class="fl" style="min-width:37em;">
====Inanimate demonstratives====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''large or bulky object'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| width="14%"| proximal
| width="14%"| medial
| width="14%"| distal
| width="14%"| proximal
| width="14%"| medial
| width="14%"| distal
|-
! direct
| šinį || šękǫ || šummę
| nerinį || nerąkǫ || nerummę
|-
! oblique
| šįzu || šęxo || šinu
| nerįzu || nerąxo || nerinu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''small object'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| skuedį || skoakǫ || skuevę
| neskuedį || neskoakǫ || neskuevę
|-
! oblique
| skuezu || skoaho || skuevu
| neskuezu || neskoaho || neskuevu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''long object'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| psidį || psekǫ || psifę
| niotidį || niotekǫ || niotifę
|-
! oblique
| psisu || pseho || psiu
| niotisu || nioteho || niotíu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''flat object'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| wenį || wąkǫ || wammę
| nuonį || nǫąkǫ || nuommę
|-
! oblique
| węzu || wąxo || wenu
| nųǫzu || nǫąxo || nuonu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''soft object'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| hiotį || hiokǫ || heffę
| niotį || niokǫ || neffę
|-
! oblique
| hessu || hioho || hefu
| nessu || nioho || nefu
|-
! colspan="8"|
|-
| || colspan="7"| '''hollow container'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular
! rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3"| plural
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| gronį || grǫkǫ || grommę
| neronį || nerǫkǫ || nerommę
|-
! oblique
| grǫzu || grǫxo || grǫvu
| nerǫzu || nerǫxo || nerǫvu
|-
|}

{| {{softtable|c fl}} style="min-width:18em; margin:0 1em 1em 0;"
|-
| || colspan="3"| '''liquid'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| collective
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| wittį || wekkǫ || wikkǫę
|-
! oblique
| wiču || weko || wigu
|-
|}
{| {{softtable|c fl}} style="min-width:18em;"
|-
| || colspan="3"| '''granular mass'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| collective
|- class="bg2 context"
| proximal || medial || distal
|-
! direct
| hadį || hakǫ || hofę
|-
! oblique
| hasu || hako || huo
|-
|}
</div>
<div class="visualClear"></div>
The inanimate demonstratives for liquids and granular masses refer to collective inanimate nouns. Plurals and singulatives for these can be formed simply by adding the appropriate nominal number/animacy prefixes.

Animate collective nouns, as well as inanimate collective nouns whose referents do not belong to the two aforementioned categories, do not have demonstrative pronouns of their own. Instead, they are referred to with plural forms of the semantically appropriate countable pronoun.

==Descriptives==
A peculiarity of noun phrases in Omari is the frequent use of ''descriptives'', which are not really "nominals" in the traditional sense, but rather inflected verbs that are used syntactically not as a clause, but as an argument of another verb. (Unlike complement clauses, they do not denote the event or state which they describe, but stand in referentially for their subject.) The meaning of descriptives is often highly conventionalized and idiomatic; established descriptives are therefore included as separate nominal entries in the lexicon. This word class is very productive; in fact, coining new descriptives is one of the major word-forming strategies.

Since the morphology of descriptives is essentially the same as that of verbs, most of it will be discussed in the section about verbal morphology. The only specifically nominal morphology that descriptives may take is the oblique case suffix '''-u''' (which does ''not'' trigger {{sc|lenition}} when used with descriptives). It is found in slightly more restricted circumstances compared to true nouns, being added to descriptives only when they are used (a) in apposition to a pronoun which is also marked for the oblique case, or (b) in adverbial absolute constructions.

==Prepositions==
Prepositions in Omari are proclitics, which are phonologically bound to the first word in their complement noun phrase. Prepositions generally require the head noun or pronoun of their complement to appear in a specific case (direct or oblique). Some prepositions can appear with either case, typically with a different meaning.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! citation form !! _V !! _C !! _CC !! case !! class="l"| meaning
|-
! ke=
| kˤ- || k-/ke-¹ || ke- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| of, belonging to
|-
! dį=
| dų- || dį- || dį- || {{sc|dir, obl}} || class="l"| on, at (locative with {{sc|dir}}, temporal with {{sc|obl}})
|-
! wę=
| weni- || wę‘- || wę‘- || {{sc|dir, obl}} || class="l"| near, close to (locative with {{sc|dir}}, temporal with {{sc|obl}})
|-
! koge=
| kogˤ- || kok- || koge- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| within view distance of
|-
! tsǫge=
| tsǫgˤ- || tsǫg‘- || tsǫge- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| touching; outside of
|-
! ye=
| y- || ye- || ye- || {{sc|dir}} || class="l"| above, on top of
|-
! tu=
| tu- || t-/tu-² || tu- || {{sc|dir}} || class="l"| towards, in the direction of, on the way to
|-
! še=
| š- || š-/še-³ || še- || {{sc|dir, obl}} || class="l"| as, under the name of (with {{sc|dir}}); behind, beyond (with {{sc|obl}})
|-
! yekke=
| yekkˤ- || yekke- || yekke- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| after (temporal)
|-
! brųge=
| brųgˤ- || brųg‘- || brųge- || {{sc|dir, obl}} || class="l"| before (locative with {{sc|dir}}, temporal with {{sc|obl}})
|-
! spo=
| sp°- || spo- || spo- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| throughout, among, all around
|-
! ouge=
| ougˤ- || ouk- || ouge- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| inside of
|-
! suske=
| suskˤ- || suske- || suske- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| relevant to, associated with
|-
! dioge=
| diogˤ- || diok- || dioge- || {{sc|obl}} || class="l"| with regard to, for the purpose of
|-
|}

:¹) '''k-''' before prevocalic /s ʃ/; combines with prevocalic /m n r ʁ/ into '''gų- gr~ gr- g~'''; otherwise '''ke-'''.
:²) '''t-''' before prevocalic /s ʃ/; combines with prevocalic /m n r ʁ/ into '''dų- dį- di- dx~'''; otherwise '''tu-'''.
:³) '''š-''' before prevocalic /p t k/; '''še-''' otherwise.

It should be noted that prepositions are not used as often as they would be in other languages, because many spatial relations (especially orientation and movement) are preferrably expressed via directional preverbs on the main verb in a sentence.

=Verbal morphology=
The central element of Omari morphosyntax is the polysynthetic verb, which exhibits mandatory pronominal marking for up to three arguments, optional prefixes for aspect, optional prefixes specifying direction, optional modal suffixes, optional suffixes for pluractionality, and noun incorporation. The structure of the verb is mostly agglutinative; a number of verbal affixes also exhibit a small degree of fusional behavior. The Omari verb can be summarized as follows:

{| {{softtable|c t}}
|- class="bg2 b"
| -6 || -5 || -4 || -3 || -2 || -1 || 0 || +1 || +2
|-
| negation || subject/object/tense || aspect || ''(secondary object)'' || {{sc|<noun>}} || ''(direction)'' || '''STEM''' || ''(modality)'' || ''(pluractionality)''
|-
|}

==Negation==
The first slot in the verb can only contain a single morpheme, the negative marker '''de-'''. This prefix becomes '''d-''' before vowels, '''t-''' before a following prevocalic /s/, and combines with a following prevocalic /ʃ/ into '''č-'''.

==Pronominal prefixes==
The second slot contains pronominal prefixes that encode the person and number of the subject, and in transitive verbs also the person of the object. In the 3rd person singular, animacy of the subject is distinguished as well. (In ditransitive verbs, the "object" part of these prefixes refers to the ''primary object'', which typically corresponds to the semantic role of patient, experiencer, goal, recipient, or beneficiary.)

There are two different sets of pronominal prefixes, the choice of which indicates the tense of the verb. The basic forms of these prefixes are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
| colspan="15"| '''non-past tense'''
|-
! object →
! colspan="2"| none
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 1st person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 2nd person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 3rd person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| reflexive
|- class="bg2"
! width="15%"| subject ↓
| width="8%"| _V || width="8%"| _C
| width="8%"| _V/C¹ || width="8%"| _C²
| width="8%"| _V/C¹ || width="8%"| _C²
| width="8%"| _V/N || width="8%"| _C
| width="8%"| _V || width="8%"| _C
|-
! 1sg
| colspan="2"| ni-
| nis.- || nei-³
| niš.- || nei-³
| nin- || nį‘-
| colspan="2"| nik-
|-
! 1pl
| š- || še-
| šes.- || šie-
| šeš.- || šie-
| šen- || šę‘-
| colspan="2"| šek-
|-
! 2sg
| r- || rî-
| ris.- || riê-
| riš.- || riê-
| rin- || rĩ‘-
| colspan="2"| rik-
|-
! 2pl
| g-⁴ || gi-
| gis.- || gei-³
| giš.- || gei-³
| gin- || gį‘-
| colspan="2"| gek-
|-
! 3sg.i
| h- || e-
| es.- || ye-
| eš.- || ye-
| en- || ę‘-
| colspan="2"| ek-
|-
! 3sg.a
| m°- || mu-
| mus.- || mou-³
| muš.- || mou-³
| mun- || mų‘-
| colspan="2"| muk-
|-
! 3pl
| n- || nê-
| nes.- || nea-
| neš.- || nea-
| nen- || nẽ‘-
| colspan="2"| nak-
|-
! colspan="15"|
|-
! {{sc|rel}}
| f°- || fê-
| fes.- || fea-
| feš.- || fea-
| fen- || fẽ‘-
| colspan="2"| fek-
|-
|}

:¹) Before vowels, before single voiceless obstruents, and before single resonants. Stem-initial single nasals and /r/ assimilate completely into the sibilants, forming geminate '''ss''' or '''šš''', with original nasals causing compensatory {{sc|nasalisation}} of the following vowel, and original /m/ additionally causing insertion of |u| before a following stressed vowel. Stem-initial /f h ʁ/ mutate to '''p k k''' instead when preceded by a sibilant-final prefix allomorph.
:²) Before single voiced obstruents, before single /j w/, and before consonant clusters. When the following syllable receives stress, the diphthong may be subject to {{sc|reduction}}. Also note that these forms do not distinguish whether the object is 1st or 2nd person.
:³) '''nei- gei- mou-''' before single consonants, '''nie- gie- muo-''' before consonant clusters, '''ni- gi- mu-''' under {{sc|reduction}}.
:⁴) '''g-''' before unstressed vowels, '''gi-''' before stressed vowels.

Single stem-initial voiced obstruents trigger {{sc|nasalisation}} of any prefix-final vowel.

{| {{softtable|c}}
| colspan="15"| '''past tense'''
|-
! object →
! colspan="2"| none
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 1st person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 2nd person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 3rd person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| reflexive
|- class="bg2"
! width="15%"| subject ↓
| width="8%"| _V || width="8%"| _C
| width="8%"| _V/C¹ || width="8%"| _C²
| width="8%"| _V/C¹ || width="8%"| _C²
| width="8%"| _V/N || width="8%"| _C
| width="8%"| _V || width="8%"| _C
|-
! 1sg
| t- || tî-⁷
| šus.- || šou-³
| šuš.- || šou-³
| šun- || šų‘-
| colspan="2"| šuk-
|-
! 1pl
| w°- || u-
| us.- || ou-³
| uš.- || ou-³
| un- || ų‘-
| colspan="2"| ok-
|-
! 2sg
| y- || yê-
| yes.- || yê-
| yeš.- || yê-
| in- || yẽ‘-
| colspan="2"| yêk-
|-
! 2pl
| k-⁴ || ku-⁷
| kus.- || kou³-
| kuš.- || kou³-
| kun- || kų‘-
| colspan="2"| kok-
|-
! 3sg.i
| s- || sa-
| sas.- || sea-
| seš.- || sea-
| san- || są‘-
| šk-⁴ || ški-
|-
! 3sg.a
| p°- || po-⁷
| colspan="2"| bįę-⁵
| colspan="2"| pši-⁵
| br~⁶ || brẽ‘-
| colspan="2"| pok-
|-
! 3pl
| hˤ- || ho-
| hos.- || hoa-
| hoš.- || hoa-
| hon- || hǫ‘-
| colspan="2"| hok-
|-
! colspan="15"|
|-
! {{sc|rel}}
| f°- || fê-
| fes.- || fea-
| feš.- || fea-
| fen- || fẽ‘-
| colspan="2"| fek-
|-
|}

:¹) Before vowels, before single voiceless obstruents, and before single resonants. Stem-initial single nasals and /r/ assimilate completely into the sibilants, forming geminate '''ss''' or '''šš''', with original nasals causing compensatory {{sc|nasalisation}} of the following vowel, and original /m/ additionally causing insertion of |u| before a following stressed vowel. Stem-initial /f h ʁ/ mutate to '''p k k''' instead when preceded by a sibilant-final prefix allomorph.
:²) Before single voiced obstruents, before single /j w/, and before consonant clusters. When the following syllable receives stress, the diphthong may be subject to {{sc|reduction}}. Also note that these forms do not distinguish whether the object is 1st or 2nd person.
:³) '''šou- ou- kou-''' before single consonants, '''šuo- wo- muo-''' before consonant clusters, '''šu- u- ku-''' under {{sc|reduction}}.
:⁴) '''k- šk-''' before unstressed vowels, '''ki- ški-''' before stressed vowels.
:⁵) '''bį- pš-''' before vowels, '''bįę- pši-''' before consonants.
:⁶) Before vowels only.
:⁷) The {{sc|1sg, 2pl,}} and {{sc|3sg.a}} intransitive prefixes |tî- ku- po-| fuse with stem-initial resonants and fricatives as follows: /m/ > '''dų- gų- bų-'''; /n/ > '''dį- gr~ br~'''; /r/ > '''di- gr- br-'''; /ʁ/ > '''dx~ g~ bx~'''; /s/ > '''ts- ks- ps-'''; /ʃ/ > '''č- kš- pš-'''; /f/ > '''tu- ku- ku-'''; /h/ > '''t- k- p°-'''.

Single stem-initial voiced obstruents trigger {{sc|nasalisation}} of any prefix-final vowel.

==Aspect and secondary object marking==
The third slot in the verb can hold one of three aspect markers (''imperfective'', ''perfective'', and ''resultative''), and the fourth slot will contain a marker for the person of the ''secondary object'' (typically in the semantic role of instrument or theme) if the verb is ditransitive. Since these markers are fused to some extent, they will be described together.

Each verb stem is either perfective/dynamic or imperfective/stative by default (i.e. in the absence of an overt aspect marker). Only inherently perfective verbs can be overtly marked as imperfective, and only inherently imperfective verbs can be overtly marked as imperfective. Both types of verbs may be marked as resultative.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! secondary object →
! colspan="2"| none
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 1st person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 2nd person
! rowspan="12"|
! colspan="2"| 3rd person
|- class="bg2"
! aspect ↓
| width="10%"| _V || width="10%"| _C
| width="9%"| _V/C¹ || width="9%"| _C²
| width="9%"| _V/C¹ || width="9%"| _C²
| width="9%"| _V/N || width="9%"| _C
|-
! (default)
| colspan="2"| -Ø-
| -s.- || -se-³
| -š.- || -ši-³
| -n- || -nê-³
|-
! imperfective
| -ih- || -i-
| -is.- || -ise-
| -iš.- || -iši-
| -in- || -į‘-
|-
! perfective
| -erd- || -er-/-eo-⁴
| -iets- || -ietse-
| -ieč- || -ieči-
| -err~⁵ || -ęǫ‘-
|-
! resultative
| colspan="2"| -tsu-
| -tsus.- || -tsuse-
| -tsuš.- || -tsuši-
| -tsun- || -tsų‘-
|-
|}

:¹) Before vowels, before single voiceless obstruents, and before single resonants. Stem-initial single nasals and /r/ assimilate completely into the sibilants, forming geminate '''ss''' or '''šš''', with original nasals causing compensatory {{sc|nasalisation}} of the following vowel, and original /m/ additionally causing insertion of |u| before a following stressed vowel. Stem-initial /f h ʁ/ mutate to '''p k k''' instead when preceded by a sibilant-final prefix allomorph.
:²) Before single voiced obstruents, before single /j w/, and before consonant clusters.
:³) These allomorphs are also used when the primary subject/object/tense prefix ends in a consonant. '''-nê-''' becomes '''-‘rẽ-''' after a reflexive prefix; note the special combined {{sc|3sg.i.past.refl>3}} form '''sagrẽ-'''.
:⁴) '''-er-''' before nasals, '''-eo-''' before all other consonants.
:⁵) '''-err~''' before vowels, '''-errẽ-''' before nasals.

Single stem-initial voiced obstruents trigger {{sc|nasalisation}} of any prefix-final vowel.

==Noun incorporation==
The fifth slot in the verb can be used for incorporating a noun stem, which marks its referent as backgrounded (indefinite, conventional, or established-as-a-topic-but-temporarily-out-of-focus). When a directional prefix follows, noun incorporation has no effect on valency, and the semantic role of the incorporated noun is determined by the directional prefix (typically that of goal, source, or ground). If no directional prefix is present, noun incorporation will reduce the valency of transitive verbs by one, and the incorporated noun will usually be in the semantic role of patient, experiencer, or theme.

It should be noted that Omari has a closed class of bound nominal stems which cannot be used on their own, but only in compounds or incorporated into a verb. These stems mostly have a fairly general meaning, and their usage resembles a classifier system in certain ways, all the more so since some of these stems are remarkably similar to the classificatory demonstrative pronouns.

==Directional prefixes==
The sixth slot in the verb can host several prefixes with directional meaning. They may sometimes function like applicatives in that they increase the valency of the verb by adding a location, target, or source as a core argument, but they may also be used to simply add a general directional shade of meaning with no effect on argument structure. When the verb contains both an incorporated noun and a directional prefix, the incorporated noun will be interpreted as the complement of the directional morpheme.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="bg2 b"
| _V || _C
| class="l"| meaning
| class="l"| complement role
|-
| -°m°-/-‘ų-¹ || -°mo-/-‘ųǫ-¹
| class="l"| towards
| class="l"| goal
|-
| -skˤ- || -skâ-
| class="l"| away from
| class="l"| source
|-
| -st- || -sta-
| class="l"| into a vessel or movable container
| class="l"| goal
|-
| -.teni- || -.tę‘-
| class="l"| into a building or area
| class="l"| goal
|-
| colspan="2"| -ːti+/-oti+²
| class="l"| out of a vessel or movable container
| class="l"| source
|-
| -ˤgem°- || -ˤgę‘-
| class="l"| out of a building or area
| class="l"| source
|-
| -šahˤ- || -šoa-
| class="l"| upwards
| class="l"| ground
|-
| -ˤgˤ- || -ˤga+
| class="l"| downwards
| class="l"| ground
|-
| colspan="2"| -‘ru-/-nu-/-iu-³
| class="l"| up onto high ground
| class="l"| goal
|-
| -ˤgaskˤ- || -ˤgaskâ-
| class="l"| down from high ground
| class="l"| source
|-
| -ien-⁴ || -įę‘-⁴
| class="l"| over, across, beyond
| class="l"| ground
|-
| -erm°-⁵ || -ermo-⁵
| class="l"| for the benefit of, with the purpose of
| class="l"| beneficiary
|-
| -ut.- || -utî-/-us-⁶
| class="l"| without, ignoring, to the detriment of
| class="l"| theme, (anti)beneficiary
|-
|}

:¹) '''-‘ų-/-‘ųǫ-''' after an incorporated noun stem that ends in an obstruent; '''-°m°-/-°mo-''' otherwise.
:²) '''-oti+''' after an incorporated noun stem that ends in a consonant; '''-ːti+''' otherwise.
:³) '''-nu-''' after a nasalised vowel; '''-iu-''' after a consonant cluster; combines with preceding /s ʃ/ into '''-ssu- -ššu-'''; otherwise '''-‘ru-'''.
:⁴) '''-ien-/-įę‘-''' after a consonant (note that this morpheme selects the prevocalic allomorph of preceding prefixes where possible); '''-nien-/-nįę‘-''' after a nasalised vowel; '''-yen-/-yę‘-''' otherwise.
:⁵) '''-mm°-/-mmo-''' after an incorporated noun stem that ends in a nasalised vowel; '''-rm°-/-rmo-''' after an incorporated noun stem that ends in an oral vowel; '''-erm°-/-ermo-''' otherwise.
:⁶) '''-us-''' when followed by prevocalic /p t k/; '''-utî-''' otherwise.

When a directional prefixes beginning with a consonant is preceded by an incorporated noun stem that ends in a consonant, such that no acceptable medial cluster can be formed using only the rules under [[#Consonant sandhi|Consonant sandhi]], an epenthetic '''-a-''' will be inserted between the two morphemes.

==Modal suffixes==
The first slot after the verb stem may optionally be filled by one of several suffixes marking distinctions of ''modality''.

{{dl|
; ~dis-
: {{sc|obligative}}, indicates that the action is considered necessary. With a 2nd person subject, this suffix signals a command. {{comment|('''-nis-''' after /ɾ/; '''-nnis-''' after a softening morpheme boundary otherwise; '''-tis-''' after an obstruent)}}

; -ši-
: {{sc|optative}}, indicates that the action is wished for or intended to happen. {{comment|('''-ji-''' after a diphthong or a nasalised vowel)}}

; -°fų‘-
: {{sc|accidental}} (patientive), indicates that the action was not intended to occur but happened anyway. Can only be used with verbs whose subject is in the semantic role of patient, experiencer, or recipient. {{comment|('''-pų‘-''' after /s ʃ/; '''-ų‘-''' after a plosive (causing a preceding voiced plosive to become voiceless); '''-°vų‘-''' after a diphthong or a nasalised vowel)}}

; -rre-
: {{sc|accidental}} (agentive), indicates that the action was not intended to occur but happened anyway. Can only be used with verbs whose subject is in the semantic role of agent, donor, instrument, or cause. {{comment|('''-êrre-''' after a consonant)}}

; -‘ru-
: {{sc|conditional/hypothetical}}, indicates that the reality status of the action depends on something else. {{comment|('''-su-''' after instances of /p t k/ which are immune to {{sc|softening}}; combines with any preceding fricative into '''-ssu-''')}}

; ~gru-
: {{sc|potential}}, indicates that the action is likely to occur, or that the situation described is in accordance with common knowledge. {{comment|('''-ągru-''' after a consonant other than /b d ɡ/)}}

; -akˤ.-
: {{sc|energetic}}, indicates that the action is more salient or more forceful than usual, or that it runs contrary to common expectations. {{comment|('''-ˤkˤ.-''' after a vowel)}}

; -nį‘-
: {{sc|attenuative}}, indicates that the action is less salient or less forceful than usual. {{comment|('''-‘rį‘-''' after a plosive; combines with a preceding fricative or plosive which is immune to {{sc|softening}} into '''-ššį‘-''')}}

|dln}}

==Additional number markers==
While pronominal prefixes do not indicate the number of primary and secondary objects, Omari has a few suffixes that can optionally be used to explicitly specify a plurality of objects (usually primary objects, but secondary objects may also be meant; the distinction must be deduced from context if the verb is ditransitive). These ''object number'' suffixes share the final slot in the verb with several other morphemes that express distinctions of ''pluractionality'' or ''verbal number'', that is, relating to the number of events denoted by the verb.

{{dl|
; -į‘-
: {{sc|distributive}} ("each"), indicates that the action affects several object entities individually. {{comment|(replaces any preceding unstressed vowel)}}

; ~°ba-
: {{sc|exhaustive}} ("all"), indicates that the action affects all of the entities associated with the object noun phrase. {{comment|('''-ma-''' after /ɾ/; '''-mma-''' after a {{sc|softening}} morpheme boundary otherwise; '''-pa-''' after an obstruent)}}

; -ksu-
: {{sc|plural}} ("many"), indicates that the action affects multiple object entities together, but not necessarily all of them. This suffix is prototypically used with large groups of objects; for groups smaller than ~5 entities, object number is usually unmarked. {{comment|('''-aksu-''' after a consonant)}}

; -ˤgas-
: {{sc|iterative}} ("repeatedly"), indicates that the action occurs several times in relatively quick succession or in a predictable rhythm, but gives no information about the number of objects. {{comment|('''-kas-''' when preceded by a consonant other than /ɾ/)}}

; -en-
: {{sc|punctual}} ("once"), indicates that the action occurs only once, or is unrelated to any previous or subsequent instance of a similar kind of action. {{comment|('''-ẽd-''' when not in word-final position)}}

; ~‘xęǫ-
: {{sc|reciprocal/collective}} ("together"), requires plural subject marking; indicates either that the subject entities are acting upon each other, or else that they are all taking part in the same single instance of the action. {{comment|('''-kęǫ-''' after /s ʃ/ and instances of /t/ which are immune to {{sc|softening}}; '''-nęǫ-''' after a resonant or a nasalised vowel; combines with preceding /f h/ and instances of /p k/ which are immune to {{sc|softening}} into '''-hęǫ-''')}}
|dln}}

=Syntax and usage=
==Numerals==
Numerals in Omari follow a base-10 pattern. They are verbs morphologically, meaning that they mandatorily appear with a person/number/tense prefix. The numbers 1 and 1000 are treated as singulars, all other numbers as plurals.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! width=13%| 1.
| width=20%| -no-
! width=13%| 11.
| width=20%| -nųǫda-
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| -niek-
! 12.
| -niegęda-
! width=13%| 20.
| width=20%| -niegrą-
|-
! 3.
| -sa-
! 13.
| -sęąda-
! 30.
| -sena-
|-
! 4.
| -ˤkep-
! 14.
| -ˤkebęda-
! 40.
| -ˤkebrą-
|-
! 5.
| -‘re-
! 15.
| -‘rįęda-
! 50.
| -‘rena-
|-
! 6.
| -tokˤ.-
! 16.
| -tokąda-
! 60.
| -toššą-
|-
! 7.
| -mou-
! 17.
| -muręda-
! 70.
| -murna-
|-
! 8.
| -fe-
! 18.
| -fįęda-
! 80.
| -fena-
|-
! 9.
| -ora-
! 19.
| -oręąda-
! 90.
| -orna-
|-
! 10.
| -ẽda-
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| -ênerrą-
|-
|colspan=4|
! 1000.
| -‘roska-
|}

The numbers 110, 120, (...), 190 are formed by suffixing '''-na''' to the words for 11, 12, (...), 19.
: 110 '''-nųǫdana-'''
: 170 '''-murędana-'''

More complex numerals up to 199 can be formed by compounding, with the single digit coming first (and normally attracting the word accent). Note that some numbers have special combining forms in certain environments: 3 '''-se-''' (generally); 6 '''-tohˤ-''' (before {{sc|softening}} morphemes and before /f/); 7 '''-mur‘-''', 9 '''-or‘-''' (before a vowel or a single non-fricative consonant); 20 '''-‘įgrą-''', 70 '''-‘uonna-''', 110 '''-‘rųǫdana-''', 120 '''-‘inędana-''', 170 '''-‘onędana-''' (after an obstruent).

: 22 '''-niégįgrą-'''
: 49 '''-órgebrą-'''
: 76 '''-tóhoanna-'''
: 108 '''-fiénerrą-'''
: 137 '''-móuzęądana-'''

Multiples of 100 and 1000 are formed analytically, with the multiplier as a separate relativised verb that carries the suffix '''-gą‘-''' ('''-ką‘-''' after consonants). Smaller digits may then be added using the conjunction '''xǫ'''. Only the first verb may be further inflected with additional pre- and suffixes, but any smaller-digit verb in such a construction must take an appropriate person/number/tense prefix.

: 200 '''-ênerrą-'''…''' feniekką'''
: 964 '''-ênerrą-'''…''' forgą xǫ '''…'''-kéttoššą'''
: 5118 '''-‘roska-'''…''' feregą xǫ '''…'''-fénųǫda'''
: 6402 '''-‘roska-'''…''' fetokką xǫ '''…'''-ênerrą fekettą xǫ '''…'''-niek'''

[[Category:T1 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Cednìtıt

2012-12-09T10:39:10Z

Rorschach: My language has its own article proper now, and its name is slightly different.

{{Language
| language = Cednìtıt
| phonetic = [ {{IPA|ɕɛtnjʌ̀tʰəʔ}} ]
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = [[Potantrommo Bay]], in southeastern [[Tuysáfa]]
| speakers = ''unknown''
| script = ''unknown''
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />  Cednìtıt
| word-or = OV/SOV
| mor-type = agglutinating/polysynthetic with some fusion
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Treskro|Treskro]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Cednìtıt''' ('''ca-dnittobcì''' lit. ''the-dust-language'') is a [[T1 languages|T1 language]] spoken in southeastern [[Tuysáfa]]. The exact location is located slightly west of the main focus area of Cursed Relay 2, against the southern coastline of a bay area called [[Potantrommo Bay|Potantrommo]] ('''potantrommo''' [pʰotʰantʰommo] lit. ''it-flows-into-this-place''). It is a descendant of [[Proto-T1]] and was created for the reconstruction relay. Though Cednìtıt is actually the endonym of speakers of what they call '''ca-dnittobcì''', due to similarities between the two words it will be referred to as Cednìtıt throughout this article. Cednìtıt is related to [[West Yalan]], [[East Yalan]], [[Omari]], [[Teyetáti]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], and [[Cëzëdeğozin]].

The lexicon can be found [[Cednìtıt/Lexicon|here]].

=Phonology=
==Phoneme inventory==
===Consonants===

Consonants in parentheses are considered allophonic.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! width="14%" | labial
! width="14%" | dental
! width="14%" | alveolar
! width="14%" | retroflex
! width="14%" | velar
! width="14%" | glottal
|-
! plosive
| p pʰ
| {{IPA|(t̪ t̪ʰ)}}
| t tʰ
| ʈ ʈʰ
| k kʰ
| (ʔ)
|-
! nasal
| m
| {{IPA|(n̪)}}
| n
| ɳ
| ŋ
|
|-
! fricative
| ɸ
| {{IPA|s̪~θ}}
| ɕ
| ʂ
| x
|
|-
! liquid
| ʋ
|
| r l
|
|
|
|-
|}

* /p t̪ t ʈ k/ are written b d d dr g
* /pʰ t̪ʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ/ are written p t t tr k
* word final glottal stops are written as aspirated plosives
* l r are usually pronounced [ʋ], depending on the source word.
* /ɸ s̪ ɕ ʂ x/ are written f th c sr x
* /ʋ/ is written w

===Vowels===
The Cednìtıt vowel inventory is as follows.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! width="25%" | front
! width="25%" | central
! width="25%" | back
|-
! high
| i
|
| u
|-
! mid
| e
| ə
| o
|-
! low
|
| a
|
|-
|}

Additionally, there are two low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/.

==Phonotactics==
A basic syllable consists of an onset, nucleus, and coda. Of these, only the vowel is obligatory.

====Onset====
Valid onsets may consist of the following combinations:
* nothing
* any single consonant
* any fricative followed by any nasal
* /θ/ followed by any fricative
* any coronal plosive followed by a fricative at the same POA: /t̪θ t̪ʰθ tɕ tʰɕ ʈʂ tʰʂ/ <dth tth dc tc dsr tsr>. These function basically as a series of coronal affricates.
* any aspirated plosive followed by a nasal at a different POA.
* all of the above followed by the glide /ʋ/ <w>
* <l> is pronounced [ʋ] in onsets

====Nucleus====
Valid nuclei consist only of single vowels or the low tone diphthongs /jʌ̀ ʋʌ̀/.
Compounding or affixing that results in two vowels adjacent to each other is resolved by:
*epenthetic [ʋ~w] is inserted after /a o u/ and spelled <w>
*epenthetic [a] is inserted after /ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀/ and spelled <a>
*epenthetic [w] is inserted after /i e/ and spelled <w>

====Coda====
Valid codas may consist of the following combinations:
* nothing
* any single consonant
* any coronal plosive followed by fricative at same POA
* <l>, which is pronounced [l]
* the glide /ʋ/ followed by a nasal
* nasal followed by plosive at same POA
* fricative followed by /t/
* /r/ followed by a plosive

==Allophony==
Cednìtıt practices coronal harmony, where all coronal consonants in a "word" (including root and bound affixes, but not including clitics) conform to the point of articulation the first coronal consonant in the word. It should be noted that {{IPA|[t̪]}} and {{IPA|[n̪]}} are not phonemic and thus trigger alveolar harmony. The three coronal series are as follows:
* Dental: {{IPA|t̪ t̪ʰ n̪ s̪~θ}} <d t n th>
* Alveolar: {{IPA|t tʰ n ɕ}} <d t n c>
* Retroflex: {{IPA|ʈ ʈʰ ɳ ʂ}} <dr tr nr sr>
Because spelling is based on principles of phonemes, the word <owdrubthık> /oʋʈupθək/ is pronounced [oʋʈupʂəʔ].

* Final plosives become glottal stop [ʔ]

* /l/ is [ʋ] in all positions except word finally.
* /r/ is [ʋ] as a coda or in a coda cluster.

* Some dialects lower high vowels in positions adjacent to velar consonants.
* Initial plosives are often dropped when found in onset clusters with nasals. The nasal takes the POA of the plosive.
* unstressed vowels may be diphthongized or centralized; /i u e o ə a/ > [jɪ wʊ jə wə ɔ aj/aw] > [ɪ ʊ ə ə ɔ æ ɒ]
* word final /i e ə/ are devoiced adjacent to voiceless consonants, and eventually dropped completely.
* /ɸ/ > [f] adjacent to dental consonants

*Neutral Vowel Allophony
**[ɨ] following front vowels and /ɕ/; [ʌ] following /ʋ/
**Coda morphs:
***/ə/ > [ʋ] > [w] / [a,o,u]_
***/ə/ > [a] / [ə, jʌ̀, ʋʌ̀]_
***/ə/ > Ø / [i, e]_
***[n t tʰ] > [ɾ] / V_ə
***[ŋ k kʰ] > [ŋʷ kʷ kʰʷ] / V_ə
**[ə] elsewhere.

*Assimilation
**Sequences of two consecutive plosives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of plosive on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (wit + pnim [stem] > wippnim)
**Sequences of two consecutive fricatives across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of fricative on bound morpheme and geminate consonant on the stem. (ox [stem] + thu > oxxu)
**Sequences of obstruent + nasal across morpheme boundaries results in deletion of obstruent and geminate nasal. (it + ne > inne)

=Morphology=
==Nouns==
Cednìtıt inflects for animacy/definiteness, and case. These affixes generally follow a simple template of <root>-DEF.A/I-CASE

===Animacy and Definiteness===
The following chart lists
The definite article '''=ca''' has largely become an indicator of animacy. It has, in effect, fused with original animate/inanimate affixes to the point that the animacy of the noun is only specified when a specific instance of the noun is being introduced.

Animacy/Definiteness is only specified for third person arguments.
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! Animate
| '''-co'''
| '''-ncu'''*
|-
! Inanimate
| '''-ca'''
| '''-nca'''
|-
|}
*'''-ncu''' often becomes '''-nco''' by analogy.

===Case===
Cednìtıt inflects rather simply for case, generally employing only three main affixes.
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! Nominative
| (unmarked)
| class="l"| used to mark subjects of clauses.
|-
! Accusative
| '''-(a)n''' (nasal assimilates to POA of final obstruent -ip > -im. The allomorph '''-an''' is used after nasals)
| class="l"| used to mark direct objects of transitive clauses
|-
! Oblique
| '''-ı''' (after consonants)/'''-w''' (after vowels)
| class="l"| used to mark secondary objects of ditransitive clauses. Also used in some genitive constructions.
|-
|}

===Pronouns===
Because pronominal prefixes are present as verbal affixes, pronouns are often dropped in the first and second persons, but can be useful in distinguishing between third person arguments because of their similarity.

'''Nominative'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| dop
| ithep
|-
! 2
| ıwp
| nudep
|-
! 3a
| both
| both
|-
! 3i
| poth
| poth
|-
|}

'''Accusative'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| tom
| thim
|-
! 2
| ìm
| num
|-
! 3a
| om
| om
|-
! 3i
| om
| om
|-
|}

'''Oblique'''
{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1
| odci
| idthi
|-
! 2
| ıdci
| udci
|-
! 3a
| doc
| doc
|-
! 3i
| tco
| tco
|-
|}

===Possessive Prefixes===
Possessives in Cednìtıt are indicated by modifying prefixes on the noun, indicating the possessors. Only animate nouns can act as possessors; inanimate nouns form compounds using the genitive construction.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! singular
! plural
|-
!1
|'''e'''
|'''de'''
|-
!2
|'''thı'''
|'''di'''
|-
!3a
|'''mupu'''
|'''o'''
|}

*Note: Nouns beginning with '''mu-''', '''nu-''', or '''ŋu''' lose '''u-''' when a prefix is attached. ie. '''nusrip''' ''ear'' → '''ensrip''' ''my ear''

===Compounding===
Compounding is a simple method of combining multiple nominals to form a more complex meaning. The most common construction takes the form of <HEAD>-OBL/GEN-<MODIFIER>, forming a general genitive compound. The genitive marker is often elided when the second part of the compound begins with a vowel, resulting in a simple concatenation of the two nouns.

Examples:
*'''dteŋ''' ''hair'' + '''paxı''' ''lion'' → '''dteŋıpaxı''' ''mane''
*'''ar''' ''star'' + '''cowo''' ''summit, peak'' → '''arıcowo''' ''North Star'' (?)

==Verbs==
Cednìtıt verbal morphology is significantly more complex than nominal morphology. Verbal complexes are formed using the following template:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!-3
!-2
!-1
!0
!1
!2
!3
|-
|pronoun
|modal
|preverb
|stem
|adverb/aspectual marker
|voice
|deverbalizer
|-
|prefix
|
|
|
|
|
|valence
|-
|}

===Pronoun Prefixes===
Cednìtıt employs several sets of pronominal prefixes. The first is used for simple subjects, indicating the person, number, and animacy of subjects of intransitive clauses. Tense marking, which is differentiated between nonpast and past tenses, is incorporated into the pronoun prefixes.

'''Subject Pronouns'''
{| {{softtable|c}}

|-
| class="l" colspan="4"| '''Nonpast'''
! rowspan="6"|
| class="l" colspan="4"| '''Past'''
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! plural
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1
| e
| de
! colspan="2" | 1
| tr(u)
| u
|-
! colspan="2" | 2
| ù
| di
! colspan="2" | 2
| a
| t(u)
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3
! anim.
| o
| o(n)
! rowspan="2" | 3
! anim.
| th(ı)
| ù
|-
! inan.
| o(m)
| o(n)
! inan.
| p(o)
| ù
|}

* Additionally, the definite article '''ca''' can also be used as a particle which marks appositives and relative clauses when it is prefixed before nominalized predicate.
**'''cadnittobcìw onen edadthakıxt.''' <br><small>ca=dnit-dobcì-w o-ne-n eda-dthak-ıxt</small><br><small>DEF=dust-language-OBL speak-NOMINALIZER-ACC 1s>3si-have.ability-NEG </small><br>''I don't have the ability to speak Cednìtıt.''

'''Subject>Object Pronouns'''

In transitive and ditransitive clauses, the roles of the subject and primary object must be specified.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
| '''Nonpast'''
|-
!subj\obj
!1s
!1p
!2s
!2p
!3sa
!3pa
!3si
!3pi
!rflxs
!rflxp
|-
!1s
|
|ec(e)
|ì
|ec(i)
|mo
|no
|ed(a)
|ed(a)
|ece
|
|-
!1p
|de
|
|dì
|dc(i)
|do
|do
|dc(ì)
|dc(ì)
|
|dege
|-
!2s
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|ùcı
|
|-
!2p
|de
|dc(e)
|dì
|dc(i)
|dì
|dì
|dc(a)
|dc(a)
|
|digi
|-
!3sa
|oh
|ttho
|io
|tco
|om
|on
|ot(a)
|ot(a)
|oco
|
|-
!3pa
|ne
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|od(a)
|od(a)
|
|ogo
|-
!3si
|me
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|ob(a)
|ob(a)
|onco
|
|-
!3pi
|ne
|oth(e)
|ù
|oc(i)
|mo
|no
|od(a)
|od(a)
|
|ogo
|-
!colspan="11" |
|-
| '''Past'''
|-
!subj\obj
!1s
!1p
!2s
!2p
!3sa
!3pa
!3si)
!3pi
!rflxs
!rflxp
|-
!1s
|
|tsr(e)
|ù
|tsr
|tro
|tro
|dr(a)
|dr(a)
|trucu
|
|-
!1p
|we
|
|u
|uc(i)
|mu
|nu
|ud(a)
|ud(a)
|
|ugu
|-
!2s
|e
|ath(e)
|ù
|ac(i)
|ma
|na
|ad(a)
|ad(a)
|aca
|
|-
!2p
|te
|tth(e)
|tù
|tc(i)
|to
|to
|tud(a)
|tud(a)
|
|tugu
|-
!3sa
|the
|th(e)
|thù
|th(i)
|tho
|tho
|thıd(a)
|thıd(a)
|thıcı
|
|-
!3pa
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|
|ùgı
|-
!3si
|pe
|pth(e)
|pù
|poc(i)
|pom
|pon
|pth(a)
|pth(a)
|poco
|
|-
!3pi
|we
|w(e)
|ù
|ìc
|ùm
|ùn
|ùd(a)
|ùd(a)
|
|ùgı
|-
|}

===Modal Affixes===
Cednìtıt employs various modal infixes/particles to provide nuances on the meaning of the verb.

{| class="wikitable"
! width="12%" | Potential
| width="8%" | '''-tthon-'''
| align="left" | denotes ability or potential for action to occur in the future. Often functions as a future tense marker, though it can also be combined with past tense pronoun prefixes.
|-
! Volitional
| '''-r(u)-'''
'''-w(u)-'''
| align="left" | denotes desire for a nominal, or desire for oneself or someone/thing else to perform an action
|-
! Subjunctive
| '''-(o)sr-'''
| align="left" | denotes possible future outcome, implies possibility, but not absolute certainty. Certainty is of a lesser and more neutral degree than that which is implied by the Potential modal marker, which is skewed towards the fulfillment of the specified situation.
|-
! Imperative
| '''-wit-'''
| align="left" | indicates command
|}

===Preverbs===
Preverbs indicate various relationships between nominal arguments and specify manners in which actions are performed. Many verb stems associate heavily with specific preverbs to form lexicalized idiomatic compounds.

{| class="wikitable"
| width="5%"|
! align="left" width="12%" | Affix
! align="left" width="10%" | Referent Case
! align="left" | Usage
|-
|
| '''-o-'''
| ACC
| align="left" | towards, near, antibenefactive
|-
|
| '''-ath(ga)-'''
| ACC
| align="left" | away, apart, into pieces, benefactive
|-
|
| '''-rı(x)-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | up (imperfect)
|-
|
| '''-rıw-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | above, onto
|-
|
| '''-gı-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | down (imperfect)
|-
|
| '''-gıw-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | below, underneath
|-
|
| '''-t(a)n-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | into
|-
|
| '''-gim-'''
| ACC*
| align="left" | out of, through
|-
|
| '''-em-''', '''-en-'''
|
| align="left" | across, along exterior surface, around, beside (without interaction)
|-
|
| '''-ut-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | without
|-
|
| '''-wot-'''
| OBL
| align="left" | wavering, no clear direction (also refers to habitual states so overcooked that they are taken to be inalienable truths at the moment of utterance)
|}

[*] With transitivizing suffix '''-(i)nt''', if necessary.

===Verbal Stems and Aspect Markers (Circumstantials)===

Unlike previous affixes, which are generally true prefixes (or infixes for preverbs), circumstantials are fusional in nature and may cause minor stem changes depending on the interaction between the final sounds and circumstantial affixes. In some cases, circumstantial affixes can be used to form lexical verbal compounds. For the most part, Cednìtit uses circumstantials as aspectual markers, indicating level of completion and level of volition.

====Indicative====
The indicative form is used to describe general events in sequence. It consists of a pronominal marker and the bare form of the stem, though it can never be combined with prefixes marking past tense.

*'''wucu''' ''pull'' → '''mupunsrip edawucu''' ''I pull on his/her ear''

====Aspect====
Cednìtit differentiates five aspects: prospective, inceptive, imperfective, progressive, and perfective. These can all be used to describe events in the present and past tenses.

'''Prospective''' is in anticipatory state which announces an intention for some action to occur.
*For consonantal stems, -e is suffixed: <br> '''tenir''' ''make'' → '''edatenire''' ''I intend to make (something)''
*For non-consonantal stems, the final vowel is fronted. < i e u > become '''-i''', and all other vowels become '''-e'''. <br> '''xene''' ''breathe'' → '''ùxeni''' ''you intend to breathe'' <br> '''xwù''' ''kill'' → '''thexwe''' ''he intended to kill me''

'''Inceptive''' refers to the point in time in which events have just begun.
*Consonantal stems: '''-i''' is suffixed: <br> '''ıdcap''' ''lie down'' → '''ùwıdcapi''' ''they started to lie down''
*Coronal stems <th t d n c tr dr nr sr>: final coronal consonant is dropped, '''-dci''' is suffixed: <br> '''dcıt''' ''stare at'' → '''udcıdci''' ''we started to stare at you''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-ic''' is suffixed: <br> '''wınti''' ''shine upon'' → '''tthowıntic''' ''(the sun) begins to shine down upon us''

'''Imperfective''' refers to events in progress at the time of reference but not yet completed.
*Consonantal: '''-ı''' is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition: plosive > fricative; nasal/sonorant+plosive > nasal/sonorant(geminate): <br> '''cıt''' ''run'' → '''ocıcı''' ''they are running'' <br> '''aŋk''' ''apologize'' → '''ìaŋŋı''' ''I'm sorry (to you)''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-ı''' is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant: <br> '''noranti''' ''wash, clean'' → '''wontan donorannı''' ''we are washing the dog''

'''Progressive''' describes events advancing towards a specific goal, or advancing towards the state describe by a stative verb.
*Consonantal: '''-a''' is suffixed. If final consonant is preceded by a sonorant, it undergoes lenition: <br> '''rìwul''' ''be drunk'' → '''erìwulla''' ''I am getting (becoming) drunk'' <br> '''triŋ''' ''rule over'' → '''otriŋŋa''' ''he will (soon) be ruling over us''
*Non-consonantal: final vowel is dropped, '''-a''' is suffixed, triggering lenition of the final consonant: <br> '''cuctcu''' ''be dry'' → '''ırnca ocuctca''' ''the flowers are drying out''

'''Perfective''' marks actions which have been completed or have ended.
*Consonantal: '''-thu''' is suffixed, assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant. <br> '''exp''' ''be tanned'' → '''expfu''' ''I am completely tanned'' <br> '''neck''' ''climb (a mountain)'' → '''truneckxu''' ''I finished climbing (the mountain)''
*Coronal: '''-uthu''' is suffixed, again, with '''th''' assimilating as a fricative at the same POA of the final consonant. <br> '''xowt''' ''pillage'' → '''ùdaxowtucu''' ''they completely pillaged it''
*Non-consonantal: '''-thu''' is suffixed: <br> '''xwù''' ''kill'' → '''thıxwùthul''' ''she was murdered (passive)''

===Voice===
Though lexical verb stems usually have a specific valence with assigned roles for subject and object(s), these can be modified through the use of voice markers, which are affixed to the verb complex. Valence affixes also exist; however, many distinctions are lexical in nature.

{| class="wikitable"
| width="8%" | '''-(a)l-'''
| align="left" | stative passive voice marker. Original subject and primary object exchange roles.
|-
| '''-(a)wk-'''
| align="left" | dynamic passive voice marker.
|-
| '''-k(a)-'''
| align="left" | causative for intransitive stems. Also marker for dynamic verbs.
|-
| '''-ca-'''
| align="left" | causative for transitive stems.
|}

===Deverbalizer/Valence===

{| class="wikitable"
| width="8%" | '''-n(i)t-'''
| align="left" | transitivizer for intransitive verbs. Also used as a comparative suffix (see below).
|}

(to be expanded)

==Derivational Morphology==

===Verb > Noun===

* '''Xne''' - general verbal nominalizer, the way one Xs (marginal) - ''-n'' assimilates to POA of final plosive, if applicable, and causes it to become a geminate nasal
**'''thın''' ''walk'' > '''thınne''' ''walking'', or '''thınne''' ''gait''
* '''Xcu''', '''Xtcu''', '''Xdcu''' - abstract nominalization of X - final syllable removed if it does not end with a coronal plosive or nasal
**'''tenir''' ''create, make'' > '''tencu''' ''idea, something that has been created''
**'''oxtı''' ''honor (someone)'' > '''oxtcu''' ''honor''
*'''Xmı''', '''Xemı''' - occupation or person associated with ''non-stative'' verb X- '''m''' assimilates to POA of final plosives or nasals and causes final plosives to become nasals. The form '''Xemı''' replaces final vowels of roots that end in < i e ı>.
**'''xwù''' ''kill'' > '''xwùmı''' ''killer, murderer''
**'''guth''' ''dig, farm'' > '''guthmı''' ''farmer''
**'''fak''' ''hit, fight'' > '''faŋŋı''' ''fighter, warrior''

===Noun > Noun===

*'''X(o)rt''' - related to X
**'''triŋìme''' ''king'' > '''triŋìmort''' ''be kingly, be royal, be regal''

=Syntax=
Basic word order is SOV. Pronouns are usually only present for emphasis or for introducing an actor in a sentence. Third person pronouns are also often used to differentiate between singular, plural, animate and inanimate third person nouns.

==Noun Phrases==
Noun phrases head consist of a nominal head, inflected for case, which are preceded by modifiers in the form of verbal compounds.

{{+|
{{gl|owancu|o-ancu|3s.A.PRS-be_white}}
{{gl|aco|a-co-Ø|horse-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM}}
{{glend|the white horse}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|onowp|o-nowp|3p.A.PRS-be_calm}}
{{gl|paxı|paxı-Ø|lion-NOM}}
{{glend|calm lion(s)}}
}}

In noun phrases with only a single argument and a stative verb, it is common to attach the uninflected noun directly to the front of the stem, precluding the need for pronominal prefixes on the verb. In this case, definiteness is not marked as a suffix on the noun and is no longer distinguished; instead, emphasis is placed on the entire compound, which gains the relativizer '''ca=''' (also '''c'=''') and a nominalizing suffix (usually '''-ne'''). Relative clauses will be covered in more detail later.

{{+|
{{gl|c'|ca|REL}}
{{gl|awancune|a-ancu-ne|horse.DEF.ANIM.SG-be_white.NOMINALIZER}}
{{glend|white horse}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|paxınowmme|paxı-nowp-ne|lion-be_calm-NOMINALIZER}}
{{glend|calm lion(s)}}
}}

Verbal modifiers are not limited to stative verbs.
{{+|
{{gl|iowathgathınna|io-athga-thın-a|3s.A.PRS>2s-away-walk-PRG}}
{{gl|both|both|3s.a.NOM}}
{{glend|the one (person/animal) walking away from you}}
}}

Though first and second pronouns are generally not necessary, they may be included for emphasis, especially when the noun phrase is to be used as an embedded phrase within a longer sentence.

===Numerals===

For the most part, numbers and ordinal clauses pattern similarly to stative verbs and adjectival phrases.

Cednìtit has a base-10 counting system.
{| {{softtable|c}}
! width=13%| 1.
| width=20%| ot
! width=13%| 11.
| width=20%| otanatr
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| nıt
! 12.
| nıtanatr
! width=13%| 20.
| width=20%| nanıt
|-
! 3.
| tha
! 13.
| thanatr
! 30.
| nantha
|-
! 4.
| gep
! 14.
| gepanatr
! 40.
| naŋep
|-
! 5.
| we
! 15.
| wenatr
! 50.
| nanwe
|-
! 6.
| dok
! 16.
| dokanatr
! 60.
| nanok
|-
! 7.
| ù
! 17.
| ùnatr
! 70.
| nanù
|-
! 8.
| fe
! 18.
| fenatr
! 80.
| name
|-
! 9.
| ola
! 19.
| olanatr
! 90.
| nanola
|-
! 10.
| anatr
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| enetr
|}

Numbers from 21-99 are formed by compounding the units digit with the corresponding tens digit. An epethentic <a> is inserted before the tens digit if preceded by a consonant.

'''21'''
{{+|
{{gl|ot-|one-}}
{{gl|ananıt|twenty}}
{{glend|otananıt}}
}}

'''75'''
{{+|
{{gl|we-|five-}}
{{gl|nanù|seventy}}
{{glend|wenanù}}
}}

Values greater than 100 are formed in a similar manner, with the multiplier for the 100s digit preceding '''enetr''' ''hundred''.

'''101'''
{{+|
{{gl|ot-|one-}}
{{gl|enetr|hundred}}
{{glend|ot enetr}}
}}

'''819'''
{{+|
{{gl|olanatr|nineteen}}
{{gl|fe-|eight-}}
{{gl|enetr|hundred}}
{{glend|olanatr fenetr}}
}}

To specify a specific quantity of a noun, the number root is inflected as a typical verb root, taking the appropriate person agreement prefix. The noun whose quantity is being specified only denotes singular or plural when a definite article is being employed. In any other case, the noun remains uninflected except for case. Note special suppletive vocabulary for definite and ordinal forms for 1 and 5.

'''paxı''' ''lion''
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!Number
!Definite
!Ordinal
|-
|'''ot''' ''one'', '''un''' ''begin''
|'''paxı owot'''
|'''paxıco owun'''<sup>1</sup>
|'''ca paxunne'''<sup>1</sup>
|-
|'''nıt''' ''two''
|'''paxı onıt'''
|'''paxıncu onıt'''
|'''ca paxınınne'''
|-
|'''tha''' ''three''
|'''paxı otha'''
|'''paxıncu otha'''
|'''ca paxıthane'''
|-
|'''gep''' ''four''
|'''paxı ogep'''
|'''paxıncu ogep'''
|'''ca paxıgemme'''
|-
|'''we''' ''five'', '''fak''' ''hit, strike, slap''
|'''paxı owe'''
|'''paxıncu ofak'''<sup>2</sup>
|'''ca paxıfaŋŋe'''<sup>2</sup>
|-
|'''dok''' ''six''
|'''paxı odok'''
|'''paxıncu odok'''
|'''ca paxıdoŋŋe'''
|-
|'''ù''' ''seven''
|'''paxı owù'''
|'''paxıncu owù'''
|'''ca paxùne'''
|-
|'''fe''' ''eight''
|'''paxı ofe'''
|'''paxıncu ofe'''
|'''ca paxıfene'''
|-
|'''ola''' ''nine''
|'''paxı owola'''
|'''paxıncu owola'''
|'''ca paxıwola'''
|-
|'''anatr''' ''ten''
|'''paxı owanatr'''
|'''paxıncu owanatr'''
|'''ca paxıwanannre'''
|-
|'''nanıt''' ''twenty''
|'''paxı onanıt'''
|'''paxıncu onanıt'''
|'''ca paxınanıt'''
|-
|'''otananıt''' ''twenty-one''
|'''paxı owotananıt'''
|'''paxıncu owunananıt'''<sup>1</sup>
|'''ca paxunananıt'''<sup>1</sup>
|-
|'''wenanù''' ''seventy-five''
|'''paxı owenanù'''
|'''paxıncu owenanù''' (no suppletion)
|'''ca paxıwenanù''' (no suppletion)
|-
|}
<sup>1</sup>Uses the root '''un''' ''begin''<br>
<sup>2</sup>Uses the root '''fak''' ''hit, strike, slap''

==Basic Clauses==
'''Intransitive Verbs''': the simplest construction consists of an intransitive or stative verb and a single nominal argument.
{{+|
{{gl|efwuŋ|e-fwuŋ|1s.PRS-fall}}
{{glend|I am falling.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|fmolıxtncu|fmolıxt-ncu-Ø|monster-DEF.ANIM.PL-NOM}}
{{gl|ùrìwul|ù-rìwul|3p.A.PST-be_drunk}}
{{glend|The evil monsters were drunk.}}
}}

'''Transitive Verbs''' take an additional argument, and have polypersonal agreement as per the pronominal prefixes described earlier. Third person nominal arguments take appropriate case suffixes

{{+|
{{gl|triŋìmeco|triŋìme-co-Ø|king-DEF.ANIM.SG-NOM}}
{{gl|ensripan|en-srip-an|1s.POS-ear-ACC}}
{{gl|thıddenthık|thıd-denthe-ık|3s.A.PST>3s.I-cut-INTENS}}
{{glend|The king sliced my ear off.}}
}}

'''Ditransitive Verbs''' function similarly to transitive verbs, the only difference being that an additional nominal argument is added, taking the role of indirect object (recipient) or instrumental (by means of). Verbal morphology does not receive any affixes to agree with the oblique argument; oblique case pronouns are used instead.

{{+|
{{gl|enìbitan|e-nuìbit-an|1s.POS-rope-ACC}}
{{gl|doc|doc|3s.A.OBL}}
{{gl|draŋuxedthu|dra-ŋuxedı-thu|1s.PST>3p.I-lend-PERF}}
{{glend|I lent him my rope.}}
}}

==Relative Clauses==
Relative clauses can be thought of as glorified versions of noun phrases. Cednìtit has three relative particles, which precedes the modifier clause. The full relative clause precedes the noun which is being modified.

*'''ca''' is a general use particle, and is found before clauses modifying abstract nominals:
**'''ca dìomuìxınal dacuŋŋe''' ''the heresy you forced us to perform''
*'''cin''' is found before clauses modifying animate nouns:
**'''cin oxosr xa bcìm''' ''the man who can pick me up''
*'''sru''' is used before clauses modifying inanimate concrete nouns:
**'''sru owotak ne''' ''the cloud that is floating''

==Comparatives==

Cednitıt circumfixes '''n(u)t- -n(i)t''' around a bare stative verb stem to form a comparative verb. It should be noted that the two individual parts of this affix fit within the general verbal template, with '''n(u)t-''' patterning with as a preverb in the -1 slot and '''-n(i)t''' in the +3 valence slot. This essentially forms a transitive verb with the two subjects being compared taking the role of subject and object, where the subject exhibits the quality in question in a greater quantity or intensity.

{{+|
{{gl|entthun|en-tthun-Ø|1s.POS-skin-NOM}}
{{gl|thıntthunan|thın-tthun-an|2s.POS-skin-ACC}}
{{gl|obantıwdint|oba-nt-ıwd-int|3s.I.PRS>3s.I-COMP-be_dark_TRANS}}
{{glend|My skin is darker than your skin.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|exnutowant|eh-nut-owa-nt|3s.A.PRS>1s-COMP-clean-TRANS}}
{{glend|She is cleaner than I am.}}
}}

Simple comparisons between two noun phrases are not necessarily limited to stative verbs. When other intransitive verbs and transitive verbs are used in comparative constructions, the meaning "more often" or "more" is implied.

{{+|
{{gl|othentotint|othe-nt-ot-int|3p.A>1p-COMP-sleep-TRANS}}
{{glend|They sleep more than we do.}}
}}

The original object of a transitive verb is moved to the oblique case, while the original subject of the verb becomes the object of comparison. The noun taking the nominative case is the one that performs the activity in question more often than the original subject.

{{+|
{{gl|enunan|en-un-an|1s.POS-brother-ACC}}
{{gl|tcotcancaw|tcotca-nca-w|berry-DEF.I.PL-OBL}}
{{gl|mantdruxent|ma-nt-druxe-nt|2s.PST>3s.A-COMP-remove-TRANS}}
{{glend|You used to pick berries more often than my brother.}}
}}

===Stative Verbs & Adjectivals===

The status of adjectivals in Cednìtit is debatable. In many situations, adjectivals function simply as stative verbs, following verbal morphology and using the same derivational affixes. However, there are also situations in which the same roots function independent of the verb template and directly modify nouns or other verbs. Most notably, these situations include but are not limited to comparative constructions and noun modifiers.

==Interrogatives==

===Yes-No Questions===
Simple yes-no questions have two forms, depending on whether the expected answer is affirmative or negative. The affirmative form uses the interrogative verb '''ca''' after a nominalized verb complex. '''ca''' is almost exclusively found in the forms '''oca''' or '''poca''' (past), which simply prefixes the third person singular inanimate prefix to the verb, which denotes the nominalized verb as subject.

*Q
{{+|
{{gl|acıdci|a-cıt-i|2s.PST-run-INCEP}}
{{gl|poca|po-ca|3si.PST-INT.AFF}}
{{glend|Did you start to run?}}
}}

*A
{{+|
{{gl|trucıdci|tru-cıt-dci|1s.PST-run-INCEP}}
{{glend|(Yes,) I started to run}}
}}

The negative equivalent to '''ca''' is '''owk''', a transitive verb with a literal meaning ''to be without''. Usage of '''owk''' is similar to that of '''ca''', but requires polypersonal agreement. The nominal subject is the same as the subject of the nominalized verb, while the action itself takes the accusative (3si). Because the expected answer is negative, the question is often associated with conveying a sarcastic or exasperated tone.

*Q
{{+|
{{gl|okmart|o-kmart|3sa.NPST-eat}}
{{gl|otowk|ota-owk|3sa.NPST>3si-INT.NEG}}
{{glend|Does he not eat?}}
}}

*A
{{+|
{{gl|okmartıxt|o-kmart-ıxt|3sa.NPST-eat-NEG}}
{{glend|(No,) he doesn't eat.}}
}}

For both '''ca''' and '''owk''', answers do not necessarily need to repeat the nominalized verb; instead, the interrogative verb can be repeated to answer ''yes'' or ''no''. Therefore, in the previous examples, '''poca''' ''(it occurred)'', and '''otowk''' ''he is without it [the act of eating]'' are also valid responses.

===Content Questions===
Questions which expect a more specific response use a series of interrogative particles to denote the type of content expected as a reponse. The most basic of these is the "what" series: '''tca''', '''tcin''', and '''tsru''' pattern with the relative clause particles '''ca''' (clauses and abstractions), '''cin''' (animates), and '''sru''' (inanimates). Following the placement of the interrogative verbs in the previous section, the "what" series directly follow the noun phrase or nominalized verb that is being modified. In all three cases, these particles are treated as verbs which take a dummy third person subject that can be either animate or inanimate, singular or plural, depending on the situation.

{{+|
{{gl|bcìm|bcìm-Ø|person-NOM}}
{{gl|otcin|o-tcin|3a.NPST-Q.A}}
{{glend|Who is (that) person? (Which person is that?)}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|kùdthec|kùdthec-Ø|drink-NOM}}
{{gl|otsru|o-tsru|3.NPST-Q.I}}
{{glend|What is that drink? (What are those drinks?)}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ùdasrıne|ùda-drı-ı-ne|2s.NPST>3si-do-IMPF-VN}}
{{gl|otca|o-tca|3si.NPST-Q}}
{{glend|What are you doing?}}
}}

The following is a non-exhaustive list of all interrogative verbs which function similarly to the ones shown above.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
|[] (animate)<br>[] (inanimate)
|whose (possessive)
|-
|'''tca''' (generic, clausal)<br>'''tcin''' (animate)<br> '''tsru''' (inanimate)
|who, what, which
|-
|'''tin'''
|which one (ordinal) ['''in''']
|-
|'''tcam'''
|when ['''camunne''']
|-
|'''tekwıt'''
|what day ['''kwıt''']
|-
|'''tecbi'''
|where ['''cbi''']
|-
|'''teca'''
|why, whither (expects a ''goal'' as response) ['''eca''']
|-
|'''tra'''
|how ['''ra''']
|-
|'''dcıcu'''
|how many, how much (coll) ['''dıcu''']
|-
|}

=Sample Text=
{{+|
{{gl|Paxıco|paxı-co-Ø|lion-DEF.A.SG-NOM}}
{{gl|ca fmùwuncumbanen|ca fmùwu-ncu-muba-ne-n|REL large_animal-DEF.A.PL-be.all-VN-ACC}}
{{gl|onctriŋ|on-c-triŋ|3sa.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule}}
{{glend|The lion rules all the beasts}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|c'odrubthık,|ca o-drubth-ık|REL 3sa.NPST-strong-INTENS}}
{{gl|ca mupundcù|ca mupu-nudcù|REL 3sa.POS-chest}}
{{gl|obùl,|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|ca trì|ca trì|REL waist}}
{{gl|okı,|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|because he is very strong, thick of chest, slim of waist}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca ocınne|ca o-cın-ne-Ø|REL 3sa-run-VN-Ø}}
{{gl|otthonethen|o-tthon-ethen|3si.NPST-POT-fast}}
{{gl|eca|eca|because}}
{{glend|and runs fast.}}
}}

<br><br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ùda|ùda|3s.NPST>3si}}
{{gl|paxıco|paxı-co|lion-DEF.A.SG}}
{{gl|ofdcomont.|o-fdco-mont|3sa.NPST-young-EVID}}
{{glend|Well, there is this young lion.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|tmennin|tmen-nin|be.morning-each}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ottanthındci|ot-tan-thın-dci|3s.A.NPST>3si.I-into-walk-INCEP}}
{{glend|He always goes out into the forest in the morning}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|fmùwınnencuw|fmùwu-ıt-ne-ncu-w|large_animal-be.another-VN-DEF.P.A-OBL}}
{{gl|ocodrubthkipric|oco-drubth-kiprı-ic|3s.A.RFX.NPST-strength-compare-INCEP}}
{{glend|and compares himself to those who are the other beasts with regards to strength.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|pithmocon|pithmo-co-n|victor-DEF.SG.A-ACC}}
{{gl|thowotıtuthu|tho-wot-ıt-uthu|3sa.NPST>3sa-PVB-become-PERF}}
{{gl|thıcoc.|thı-coc|3sa.PST-return}}
{{glend|And every day he would return the victor.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Thıpithtuthu|thı-pitht-uthu|3sa.PST-win-PERF}}
{{gl|thıcocucu|thı-coc-uthu|3sa.PST-return-PERF}}
{{gl|sroncaw,|sro-nca-w|day-DEF.P.I-OBL}}
{{gl|mupuwmım|mupu-ımım-Ø|3s.A.POS-mother-NOM}}
{{gl|thomadci|tho-mat-ci|3sa.PST>3sa-praise-INCEP}}
{{glend|Every day that he would return victorious, his mother would praise him:}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Exwım!|e-ıxwım|1s.POS-child}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Thıtrì|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist-NOM}}
{{gl|okı!|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{gl|Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|"Gaddrubthan"|Gaddrubth-an|strongman-ACC}}
{{gl|ìcowgı!|ì-cowgı|1s.NPST>2s-name}}
{{glend|"Son of mine! Thick of neck! Slim of waist! Large of chest! I name you "He-man"!}}
}}

<br><br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ùda|ùda|2s.NPST>3si}}
{{gl|srowocı,|sro-ot-ı|morning-one-IMPF}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|paxıdconeco|paxı-dco-ne-co-Ø|lion-young-VN-DEF.S.A-NOM}}
{{gl|nuftan|nuft-an|muscle-ACC}}
{{gl|thıdawotsrı,|thıda-wot-tri-ı|3sa.PST>3pi-HAB-stretch-IMPF}}
{{glend|But one day, the young lion was stretching as usual,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|thomacı:|tho-wot-mat-ı|3sa.PST>3sa-HAB-praise-IMPF}}
{{gl|"Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Bthacıpaxı|bthacı-paxı-Ø|arm.OBL-lion-NOM}}
{{gl|ùwadth!|ù-adth|3pi.NPST-powerful}}
{{gl|Thıtrì!"|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist}}
{{gl|okı|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|and she praised him as usual, "Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Lion-armed! Slim of waist!"}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Thomatuthu|tho-mat-uthu|3sa.PST>3sa-praise-PERF}}
{{gl|thıwo:|thı-o|3sa.PST-say}}
{{gl|"Fmùwathŋŋencon|fmùwu-athŋŋe-nco-n|large_animal-others-DEF.P.A-ACC}}
{{gl|ùnutdrubthint|ùn-nt-drubth-int|2s.NPST>3pa-COMP-strong-TRANS}}
{{gl|ekoŋ."|e-koŋ|1s.NPST>blindly_follow}}
{{glend|She finished praising him and said, "I truly believe that you are the strongest of all the beasts.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sru|sru|REL}}
{{gl|srowinnew|sro-in-ne-w|day-each-VN-OBL}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.SG.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ottanthın|ot-tan-thın|3s.A.NPST>3s.I-into-walk}}
{{gl|ococ|o-coc|3s.A.NPST-return}}
{{glend|Every day you go out into the forest and return,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|fmùwuncun|fmùwu-ncu-n|large_animal-DEF.A.PL-ACC}}
{{gl|ùnctriŋŋe|ùn-c-triŋ-ne|2s.NPST>3pa-beyond-rule-VN}}
{{gl|ateneku|atene-ku|truth-that}}
{{gl|wewoŋ|we-oŋ|2s.NPST>1s-show}}
{{glend|and show me that you are truly king of the beasts.}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Ogù,|o-gù|3s.I.NPST-contrary}}
{{gl|ca|ca|REL}}
{{gl|petcan|pet-ca-n|forest-DEF.S.I-ACC}}
{{gl|ùdatthon|ùda-tthon|2s.NPST>3s-POT=}}
{{gl|tanthın|tan-thın|into-go_out}}
{{gl|sroca|sro-ca-Ø|day-DEF.S.I-NOM}}
{{gl|otthon|o-tthon|3s.I-POT}}
{{gl|comfa.|com-a|occur.PROG}}
{{glend|But, a day will come when you go out into the forest,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|idca|idca|there}}
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|otthon|o-tthon|3s.A-POT}}
{{gl|wotthınıxt|wot-thın-ıxt|waver-walk-NEG}}
{{gl|xi|xi|nor}}
{{gl|muputrìxa|mupu-trìxa-Ø|3s.POS-head-NOM}}
{{gl|srùw|srù-w|shoulders-OBL}}
{{gl|ogıwfdutal|o-gıw-fdut-al|3s.I.NPST>3s-below-carry-PASS}}
{{gl|ocoŋ|o-coŋ|3s.A.NPST-small}}
{{gl|mìwin|mìwi-n|creature-ACC}}
{{gl|ùmosr|um-osr|2s.NPST>3s-SUBJ}}
{{gl|ınoxxu.|ınox-thu|meet-PERF}}
{{glend|and there you will meet a small creature which walks straight and carries his head above his shoulders.}}
}}

<br>
{{+|
{{gl|Wewıppnım,|we-wıt-pnım|2s.NPST>1s-IMP hear}}
{{gl|exwım!|e-ıxwım|1s.POS-child}}
{{gl|Thındcù|thı-nudcù-Ø|2s.POS-chest-NOM}}
{{gl|ofinde!|o-finde|3si.NPST-large}}
{{gl|Thafk|thı-afk-Ø|2s.POS-neck-NOM}}
{{gl|obùl!|o-bùl|3si.NPST-thick}}
{{gl|Thıtrì|thı-trì-Ø|2s.POS-waist}}
{{gl|okı!|o-kı|3si.NPST-slim}}
{{glend|Listen, Son of mine! Thick of chest! Thick of neck! Slim of waist!,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|cin|cin|REL}}
{{gl|idrnokucoŋan|idrno-ku-coŋ-an|thing-that-be.small-ACC}}
{{gl|ùmtthonınox|ùm-tthon-ınox|2s.NPST>3sa-POT-meet}}
{{gl|sro|sro|day}}
{{glend|the day you meet that little thing,}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|srokun|sro-ku-n|day-that-ACC}}
{{gl|dricco|dric-co-Ø|sun-DEF.ANIM-NOM}}
{{gl|otagimfwuŋŋit,|ota-gim-fwuŋ-nit|3sa.NPST>3si-out.of-fall-TRANS}}
{{gl|ùcocowk.|ù-coc-owk|2s.NPST-return-without}}
{{glend|on that day the sun will set while you have not returned.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|ocoŋ|o-coŋ|3sa.NPST-be.small}}
{{gl|idrnoku|idrno-ku|thing-that}}
{{gl|"bcìm"|bcìm-Ø|person-NOM}}
{{gl|ocowgıl.|o-cowgı-al|3sa.NPST-name-PASS}}
{{glend|The name of that little thing is called 'man'.}}
}}

[[Category:T1 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

East Yalan

2012-12-09T10:36:32Z

Rorschach: It's got its own article now! Yay!

{{Language
| language = Jarene
| phonetic = {{IPA|[ʒaˈrənə]}}
| date = c. 0 YP
| place = southern Tuysáfa,<br /> Yalne plains
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[T1 languages]]<br />   Yalan<br />     '''East Yalan'''
| mor-type = agglutinative
| author = [[User:The Devilcat|the Devilcat]]
| word-or = VSO
| morphalign = accusative secundative
}}
'''East Yalan''' is an ethnolect spoken in southern [[Tuysáfa]] around 0 YP. Together with the [[West Yalan]] it forms the Yalan language family / dialect continuum.

==Background==
The term covers a group of dialects spoken in southern and southeastern Tuysáfa coast. It is also a descendant of the Old Yalan dialects spoken around -800 YP.

West Yalan is a part of the [[T1 languages|T1 language family]] created for the Second Reconstruction Relay, together with [[Cednìtıt]], [[Hkətl’ohnim]], [[Teyetáti]], [[Omari]], [[Cëzëdeğozin]] and [[Śetiid]].

East Yalan is known of its numerous homonyms. Frequently the meaning of a word depends on its syntactic role, inflections and sometimes on the context.

==Phonology==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! labial
! dental
! post-alv.
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
|
| {{IPA|ɲ}} ‹ny›
| {{IPA|ŋ}} ‹g›
|
|-
! plosive
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}}
|
|-
! voiceless fricative
|
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}} ‹c›
|
| {{IPA|x}}
|
|-
! voiced fricative
| {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|ʒ}} ‹j›
|
|
|rowspan=2| {{IPA|ɦ}} ‹h›
|-
! fluid
| {{IPA|(w)}}
| {{IPA|r}}
|
| {{IPA|(j)}} ‹y›
|
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Vowels
! front
! central
! back
|-
! close
| {{IPA|i}}
|
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! mid
|
| {{IPA|ə}} ‹e›
|
|-
! open
| {{IPA|ai}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|au}}
|}

Syllables of type (C)V.

The stress is placed on the last syllable if it contains diphthong, e.g. '''saxau''' {{IPA|[saˈxau̯]}} and on the next-to-last syllable otherwise, e.g. '''saxugu''' {{IPA|[saˈxuŋu]}}.

Unaccented /ai au/ are realized as {{IPA|[ɛ ɔ]}}.

/ai au i u/ followed directly by another vowel get an epenthetic glide [j w] written as '''y w''', e.g. '''awau''' {{IPA|[ɔwˈau̯]}}, '''xiya''' {{IPA|[ˈxija]}}.

Unaccented schwas are often elided in speech, e.g. '''akese''' {{IPA|[aˈkəsə ~ aˈkəs]}}.

==Pronouns==
The personal pronouns are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2|1.
!colspan=2|2.
!colspan=3|3.
|-
!align=center|sg
!pl
!sg
!pl
!sg an.
!sg inan.
!pl
|-
! N.
| nai
| ta
| sai
| cai
| vai
| ai
| nai
|-
! AD.
| nai'''cege'''
| ta'''cege'''
| sai'''cege'''
| cai'''cege'''
| v'''igi'''
| '''igi'''
| n'''igi'''
|-
! AI.
| nai'''cai'''
| ta'''cai'''
| sai'''cai'''
| cai'''cai'''
| vai
| ai
| nai
|-
! G.
| nai'''cehe'''
| ta'''cehe'''
| sai'''cehe'''
| cai'''cehe'''
| v'''ihi'''
| '''ihi'''
| n'''ihi'''
|-
! L.
| nai'''catai'''
| ta'''catai'''
| sai'''catai'''
| cai'''catai'''
| vai'''tai'''
| ai'''tai'''
| nai'''tai'''
|}

1sg and 3pl ''nai'' are distinguished by the verb agreement:

* '''Muxukaitai nai.'''
*: mu-xukaitai nai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-see {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see.''

* '''Nexukaitai nai.'''
*: ne-xukaitai nai
*: {{sc|pl}}-see {{sc|3pl}}
*: ''They see.''

The second one can be also omitted:

* '''Nexukaitai.'''
*: ne-xukaitai
*: {{sc|pl}}-see
*: ''They see.''

==Nouns==
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
|-
| possession
| number
| '''root'''
| case
|}

===Prefixes===
====Possessive====
:C – before consonants
:V – before vowels

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!C
!V
|-
!rowspan=3|sg
!1.
|ni-
|g- ¹
|-
!2.
|si-
|s- ¹
|-
!3.
|pu-
|p-
|-
!rowspan=3|pl
!1.
|te-
|t- ¹
|-
!2.
|ci-
|k- ¹
|-
!3.
|nu-
|n-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|autuzu, tuzu "fish"
|-
|'''g'''utuzu, '''ni'''tuzu
|-
|'''s'''utuzu, '''si'''tuzu
|-
|'''p'''autuzu, '''pu'''tuzu
|-
|'''t'''utuzu, '''te'''tuzu
|-
|'''k'''utuzu, '''ci'''tuzu
|-
|'''n'''autuzu, '''nu'''tuzu
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|akese, nekese "leg"
|-
|'''g'''ekese, '''ni'''nekese
|-
|'''s'''ekese, '''si'''nekese
|-
|'''p'''akese, '''pu'''nekese
|-
|'''t'''ekese, '''te'''nekese
|-
|'''k'''ekese, '''ci'''nekese
|-
|'''n'''akese, '''nu'''nekese
|}
|}

: ¹) initial ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

====Number====
: P – before plosives
: C – before other consonants
: V – before vowels

{| {{softtable|c}}
!colspan=2|
!P
!C
!V
|-
!sg
!rowspan=2|anim.
| au-
| -
| -
|-
!pl
| -
| nu-
| n- ¹
|-
!sg
!rowspan=2|inan.
|colspan=2| -
| -
|-
!pl
|colspan=2| ne-
| n- ¹
|-
!colspan=2|collective
|colspan=2| ai-
| ay- ¹
|}

: ¹) initial ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

===Declension===
East Yalan has five cases:
* '''Nominative''', the default form;
* '''Accusative-Dative''' (Primative), patient or recipient; used with prepositions; in past tense can be replaced with the nominative;
* '''Accusative-Instrumental''' (Secundative), instrument or theme;
* '''Genitive''', possessions and relations, used with temporal expressions;
* '''Locative''', location or movement;

And two declensions: familiar (proximate and definite) and unfamiliar (distal or indefinite).

: 1 – words ending with ''a e i u''
: 2 – words ending with ''ai''
: 3 – words ending with ''au''

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Familiar
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! N.
| aivi "ground"
| xikai "night"
| sau "language"
|-
! AD.
| aiv'''ege'''
| xik'''igi'''
| s'''ugu'''
|-
! AI.
| aih'''au''' ¹
| xik'''au''' ¹
| s'''au''' ¹
|-
! G.
| aiv'''ehe'''
| xik'''ihi'''
| s'''uhu'''
|-
! L.
| aiv'''atau'''
| xikai'''tau'''
| sau'''tau'''
|-
! Unfamiliar
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! N.
| aivi'''kau'''
| xik'''ikau'''
| s'''ukau'''
|-
! AD.
| aivi'''kugu'''
| xik'''ikugu'''
| s'''ukugu'''
|-
! AI.
| aivi'''hau'''
| xik'''ihau'''
| s'''uhau'''
|-
! G.
| aivi'''kuhu'''
| xik'''ikuhu'''
| s'''ukuhu'''
|-
! L.
| aivi'''kautau'''
| xik'''ikautau'''
| s'''ukautau'''
|}

: ¹) non-initial ''v'' mutates to ''h''

==Verbs==
{| {{softtable|c}}
! align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
|}

===Person-tense prefixes===
Verb prefixes mark tense, aspect and agree with animacy and number of the subject.

Where two prefixes are given, the former is used before consonants and the latter before vowels.

The definite conjugation is used when the primative object (patient or recipient) is known and definite, even if not directly mentioned.
* '''Pusuja.'''
*: pu-suja
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-put
*: ''He/she put (something).''

* '''Pausuja.'''
*: pau-suja
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-put
*: ''He/she put it.''

The definite prefixes ending with ''m'' have variants with ''n'', now dialectal, indicating plurality of the object.

: C – before consonants
: V – before vowels

''a ai au'' change to ''e i u'' after prefixes marked with an asterisk (*), namely in aorist and definite and reflexive present forms.
* There are some exceptions, though: verbs '''au''' (be located), '''aunu''' (be place of) and '''auzu''' (be there, be got) do not change.

====Aorist====
Aorist is used for complete actions with no present relevance.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| pu-
| p- *
|-
! def.
| pau-
| pum- *
|-
! refl.
| puhe-
| puh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| se-
| s- *
|-
! def.
| sa-
| sem- *
|-
! refl.
| sehe-
| seh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| xu-
| x- *
|-
! def.
| xau-
| xum- *
|-
! refl.
| xuhe-
| xuh- *
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''p'''icici
|-
| '''pum'''icici
|-
| '''puh'''icici
|-
| '''s'''icici
|-
| '''sem'''icici
|-
| '''seh'''icici
|-
| '''x'''icici
|-
| '''xum'''icici
|-
| '''xuh'''icici
|}
|}

====Imperfect====
Imperfect is used for incomplete past actions.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| pi-
| p-
|-
! def.
| pumi-
| pum-
|-
! refl.
| puhi-
| puh-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| si-
| s-
|-
! def.
| semi-
| sem-
|-
! refl.
| sehi-
| seh-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| xai-
| xuw-
|-
! def.
| xumi-
| xum-
|-
! refl.
| xuhi-
| xuh-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''p'''aicici
|-
| '''pum'''aicici
|-
| '''puh'''aicici
|-
| '''s'''aicici
|-
| '''sem'''aicici
|-
| '''seh'''aicici
|-
| '''xuw'''icici
|-
| '''xum'''aicici
|-
| '''xuh'''icici
|}
|}

====Present====
Present is used for general utterances.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mu-
| m-
|-
! def.
| mau-
| mum- *
|-
! refl.
| muhe-
| muh- *
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| a-
| -
|-
! def.
| au-
| am- *
|-
! refl.
| ahe-
| ah- *
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| ne-
| n-
|-
! def.
| na-
| nem- *
|-
! refl.
| nehe-
| neh- *
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''m'''aicici
|-
| '''mum'''icici
|-
| '''muh'''icici
|-
| aicici
|-
| '''am'''icici
|-
| '''ah'''icici
|-
| '''n'''aicici
|-
| '''nem'''icici
|-
| '''neh'''icici
|}
|}

====Progressive====
Progressive is used for ongoing actions.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mai-
| muw-
|-
! def.
| mumi-
| mum-
|-
! refl.
| muhi-
| muh-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| ai-
| ay-
|-
! def.
| ami-
| am-
|-
! refl.
| ahi-
| ah-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| nai-
| nay-
|-
! def.
| nemi-
| nem-
|-
! refl.
| nehi-
| neh-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''muw'''aicici
|-
| '''mum'''aicici
|-
| '''muh'''aicici
|-
| '''ay'''aicici
|-
| '''am'''aicici
|-
| '''ah'''aicici
|-
| '''nay'''aicici
|-
| '''nem'''aicici
|-
| '''neh'''aicici
|}
|}

====Future====
Future tense is used for perfective actions in future.

{|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Object
! C
! V
|-
!rowspan=3| sg anim.
! –
| mau-
| mat-
|-
! def.
| mumau-
| mumet-
|-
! refl.
| muhau-
| muhet-
|-
!rowspan=3| sg inan.
! –
| au-
| at-
|-
! def.
| amau-
| amet-
|-
! refl.
| ahau-
| ahet-
|-
!rowspan=3| pl
! –
| nau-
| nat-
|-
! def.
| nemau-
| nemet-
|-
! refl.
| nehau-
| nehet-
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| -aicici "require"
|-
| '''mat'''aicici
|-
| '''mumet'''aicici
|-
| '''muhet'''aicici
|-
| '''at'''aicici
|-
| '''amet'''aicici
|-
| '''ahet'''aicici
|-
| '''nat'''aicici
|-
| '''nemet'''aicici
|-
| '''nehet'''aicici
|}
|}

===Stem classes===
Verbs (and other words that are conjugated, e.g. adjectives) are divided into several groups:

* consonantal stems
*: 1 – verbs ending in ''e i u''

* regular vocalic stems
*: 2 – verbs ending in ''a'' ('''a''' stems)
*: 3 – verbs ending in ''ai'' ('''i''' stems)

* irregular (unpredictable) vocalic stems – ending in ''au'':
*: 4 – '''u''' stems
*: 5 – '''au''' stems

Regarding the consonantal stems:
* The stem is either irregular (and listed in the dictionary) or identical to the indicative form.
* The imperative is created from the indicative, not the stem.
* The last vowel/consonant of the stem is deleted before another vowel/consonant, e.g. tauku- + -au > '''taukau'''; saig- + -ka > '''saika'''.

The stem is needed to construct imperative, irrealis and optative mood. It can be formed knowing the group number, which is listed in the dictionary.

===Mood endings===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!colspan=2| 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
|-
!Indicative
| sig'''i''' "run"
| ait'''i''' "be dark"
| suj'''a''' "put"
| kak'''ai''' "live"
| tim'''au''' "eat"
| vat'''au''' "move"
|-
!Stem
| '''<span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''-
| aiti-
| suj'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''-
| kak'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''-
| tim'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''-
| vat'''<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''-
|-
!colspan=8|
|-
!Imperative
| sig'''a'''
| ait'''a'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">ay</span>'''a''' ¹
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">iy</span>'''a'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">uw</span>'''a'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">aw</span>'''a'''
|-
!Irrealis
| <span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''a'''
| ait'''a'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''ra'''
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''ra'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''ra'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''ra'''
|-
!Optative
| <span style="color:#bb0033;">saig</span>'''au'''
| ait'''au'''
| suj<span style="color:#bb0033;">a</span>'''rau'''
| kak<span style="color:#bb0033;">i</span>'''rau'''
| tim<span style="color:#bb0033;">u</span>'''rau'''
| vat<span style="color:#bb0033;">au</span>'''rau'''
|}

:¹) [j] appears there epenthetically

===Voice suffixes===
There are five voices in East Yalan:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Active
| -
|-
! Passive
| '''-unu''' ¹, '''-nu'''
|-
! Receptive
| '''-aunu''' ¹, '''-hunu''' ²
|-
! Indirective
| '''-teme''' ²
|-
! Causative
| '''-ka''' ²
|}

: ¹) group 1 verbs (in the indicative mood)
: ²) added to the stem (in the indicative mood)

The endings can be likewise combined with other moods.

The indirective voice is used for promoting a monotransitive instrument or ditransitive theme to the primary object of the verb:

* '''Pausaicai.'''
*: pau-saicai
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-give
*: ''He gave (something) to him.''

* '''Pausaiciteme.'''
*: pau-saici-teme
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-give-{{sc|ind}}
*: ''He gave it (to somebody).''

* '''Muhexukautau nai.'''
*: muhe-xukautau nai
*: {{sc|sg.an.refl}}-see {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see myself.''

* '''Muhexukaututeme nai.'''
*: muhe-xukautu-teme nai
*: {{sc|sg.an.refl}}-see-{{sc|ind}} {{sc|1sg}}
*: ''I see by myself.''

==Adjectives==
===Attributive===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
|-
|attributive
|'''root'''
|mood
|voice
|comparison
|}

Adjectives, numerals and verbal attributives take no possessive or number prefixes. Usually they describe another noun and have the attributive prefix '''xe-, x-'''.

* '''aukeza xexa'''
*: au-keza xe-xa
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-man {{sc|att}}-good
*: ''the good man''

===Substantive===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!align=center| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
! +3
! +4
|-
| person, tense, aspect
| '''root'''
| mood
| voice
| comparison
| case
|}

When they are used alone (substantivized), they take the verbal agreement prefixes and inflect with their own declension paradigm:

* '''muxa'''
*: mu-xa
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-good
*: ''the good one''

The inflection depends on the stem class; the endings are added to the stem:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! 1
! 2-5
|-
!N.
| mu'''tere''' "red"
| m'''axai''' "grey"
|-
!AD.
| muta'''tege'''
| maxi'''zege''' ¹
|-
!AI.
| muta'''sai'''
| maxi'''zai''' ¹
|-
!G.
| muta'''tehe'''
| maxi'''zehe''' ¹
|-
!L.
| muta'''tatai'''
| maxi'''zatai''' ¹
|}

: ¹) final ''a ai au'' reduced to ''e i u''

There are no participles in East Yalan. Attributive forms are used instead:

* '''aukeza xetimau'''
*: au-keza xe-timau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-man {{sc|att}}-eat
*: ''The eating man. / The man who eats.''

===Comparative suffix===
Comparative/superlative form is created by adding '''-tetaumai''' (group 1) / '''-zetaumai''' (groups 2-5) to the stem. So formed adjectives can take the standard argument as their primary object.

* '''muxazetaumai'''
*: mu-xa-zetaumai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-good-{{sc|comp}}
*: ''the better/best one''

==Numerals==
Numerals are inflected like other attributives.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1.
| nau
! 11.
| naneza
|colspan=2|
|-
! 2.
| gehe
! 12.
| geheneza
! 20.
| gaka
|-
! 3.
| sa
! 13.
| saneza
! 30.
| sena
|-
! 4.
| keve
! 14.
| keveneza
! 40.
| kapa
|-
! 5.
| ha
! 15.
| haneza
! 50.
| hena
|-
! 6.
| tuku
! 16.
| tukeneza
! 60.
| tauka
|-
! 7.
| muru
! 17.
| mureneza
! 70.
| mauna
|-
! 8.
| kepahe
! 18.
| kepaheneza
! 80.
| kepaka
|-
! 9.
| aura
! 19.
| auraneza
! 90.
| aurena
|-
! 10.
| aneza
|colspan=2|
! 100.
| anezena
|}

Higher numbers are constructed by agreement (addition) and attributives (multiplication), e.g.:

* '''nanezena xaura'''
*: n-anezena x-aura
*: {{sc|pl}}-hundred {{sc|att}}-nine
*: ''nine hundred''

* '''naura nanezena''' / '''nanezena naura'''
*: n-aura n-anezena
*: {{sc|pl}}-nine {{sc|pl}}-hundred
*: ''one hundred and nine''

When a numeral describes a noun, the former word order is preferred to avoid ambiguity:

* '''tuzu xanezena xaura'''
*: ∅-tuzu x-anezena x-aura
*: {{sc|pl}}-fish {{sc|att}}-hundred {{sc|att}}-nine
*: ''nine hundred fish''

* '''tuzu xaura xanezena'''
*: ∅-tuzu x-aura x-anezena
*: {{sc|pl}}-fish {{sc|att}}-nine {{sc|att}}-hundred
*: ''one hundred and nine fish''

==Syntax==
The East Yalan is a strictly head-initial language. The adjectives are placed after nouns and nouns after verbs.

The usual word order is VSO.

In ditransitive clauses, recipients are placed before themes:

* '''Maisaicai nai saicege ai.'''
*: mau-saicai nai saic-ege ai
*: {{sc|sg.an.def}}-give {{sc|1sg}} {{sc|2sg-acc.dat}} {{sc|3sg.acc.ins}}
*: ''I give it to you.''

Subjects can appear actually everywhere in clauses, but their usual place is after the verb.

Adverbs are placed before verbs and agree in tense (but not in person) with the verbs:

* '''Sipatege pitimau hina.'''
*: si-patege pi-timau hina
*: {{sc|sg.in.ipf}}-continuous {{sc|sg.an.ipf}}-eat woman
*: ''The woman was still eating.''

===Existence===
There are three verbs equivalent to English "to be" in East Yalan.

The first one, '''pa''' is used for expressing existence of the subject:

* '''Mupa xaupexai.'''
*: mu-pa xaupexai
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-exist lion
*: ''(The) lion exists.''

It inflects regularly, as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
| pupa || pipa || mupa || maipa || maupa
|-
! sg inan.
| sepa || sipa || apa || aipa || aupa
|-
! pl
| xupa || xaipa || nepa || naipa || naupa
|}

===Location===
The locational verb is '''au'''. It has only definite forms and requires the location as direct object:

* '''Pumau amenai pitigi.'''
*: pum-au amenai pit-igi
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor.def}}-be.located deer forest-{{sc|acc.dat}}
*: ''The deer was in the forest.''

It inflects slightly irregularly – its initial diphthong is never reduced (the same is true also for its other forms):

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| pumau ||colspan=2| mumau || mumetau
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| semau ||colspan=2| amau || ametau
|-
! pl
|colspan=2| xumau ||colspan=2| nemau || nemetau
|}

It has also passive form '''aunu''' "to be location of":

* '''Paunu pitai amenihi.'''
*: p-au-nu pitai amen-ihi
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-be.located-{{sc|pass}} forest deer-{{sc|gen}}
*: ''The forest was location of the deer.''

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| paunu || maunu || muwaunu || mataunu
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| saunu || aunu || ayaunu || ataunu
|-
! pl
| xaunu || xuwaunu || naunu || nayaunu || nataunu
|}

===Copula===
The third verb, the copula is '''ahe'''.

It requires the predicative as its direct object:

* '''Mumehe xaurau amenigi.'''
*: mum*-ahe xaurau amen-igi
*: {{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula animal deer-{{sc|acc.dat}}
*: The animal is deer.

It is conjugated regularly. It has only definite forms, though.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
| pumehe || pumahe || mumehe || mumahe || mumetahe
|-
! sg inan.
| semehe || semahe || amehe || amahe || ametahe
|-
! pl
| xumehe || xumahe || nemehe || nemahe || nemetahe
|}

However, it is not used with adjectives and other attributive nouns – those are conjugated instead.

* '''Muxaita xaurau.'''
*: mu-xaita xaurau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-big animal
*: The animal is big.

===Possession and introduction===
There is an intransitive verb '''auzu''' expressing possession. Its subject is a noun with appropriate possessive prefix:

* '''Mauzu nivautau.'''
*: m-auzu ni-vautau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-be {{sc|1sg.poss}}-cow
*: ''I have a cow.''

Additionally, it can be used for introducing a subject – with distal inflection on the noun:

* '''Mauzu xaupexikau.'''
*: m-auzu xaupex-ikau
*: {{sc|sg.an}}-be lion-{{sc|dist.nom}}
*: ''There is a lion.''

* '''Pauzu amenikau pitaitau.'''
*: p-auzu amen-ikau pitai-tau
*: {{sc|sg.an.aor}}-be deer-{{sc|dist.nom}} forest-{{sc|loc}}
*: ''There was a deer in the forest.''

Rarely, the proximate inflection can be used.

It inflects irregularly.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Subject
! Aorist !! Imperfect !! Present !! Progressive !! Future
|-
! sg anim.
|colspan=2| pauzu || mauzu || muwauzu || matauzu
|-
! sg inan.
|colspan=2| sauzu || auzu || ayauzu || atauzu
|-
! pl
| xauzu || xuwauzu || nauzu || nayauzu || natauzu
|}

==Sample text==
The sample text is '''xaupehai xexukau''' ("the young lion"), the text used in comparative linguistics of the T1 language family.

{{+|
{{gl|Mumehe|mum*-ahe|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula}}
{{gl|xaupehai|xaupehai|lion}}
{{gl|caigemege|caig-em-ege|rule-er-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|pa|pa|all}}
{{gl|nuxauruhu,|nu-xaur-uhu|{{sc|pl.an}}-animal-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|The lion is the ruler of all animals,}}

{{gl|tau|tau|because}}
{{gl|acihi|a-cihi|{{sc|sg.in}}-very}}
{{gl|muheva,|mu-heva|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong}}
{{gl|apexaze|a-pexaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|puxamau,|pu-xamau|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{gl|akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|pauhu,|p-auhu|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|axukau|a-xukau|{{sc|sg.in}}-fast}}
{{gl|musigi.|mu-sigi|{{sc|sg.an}}-run}}
{{glend|because he is very strong, his chest is thick, his belly is thin and he runs fast.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Ka|ka|behold}}
{{gl|mauzu|m-auzu|{{sc|sg.an}}-be}}
{{gl|xaupexai|xaupehai|lion}}
{{gl|xexukau.|xe-xukau|{{sc|att}}-young}}
{{glend|Look, there is the young lion.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Muceje|mu-ceje|{{sc|sg.an}}-come}}
{{gl|pitaitau|pitai-tau|forest-{{sc|loc}}}}
{{gl|aigi|aigi|every}}
{{gl|tatehe,|tat-ehe|morning-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maukupau|mau-kupau|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-compare}}
{{gl|nuhaurugu|nu-haur-ugu|{{sc|pl.an}}-animal-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|xahe|x-ahe|{{sc|att}}-other}}
{{gl|hevezau.|hevez-au|strength-{{sc|acc.ins}}}}
{{glend|He comes to the forest every morning and compares to the other animals with regard to strength.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|apautusu|a-pautusu|{{sc|sg.in}}-always}}
{{gl|maikainau|m-aikainau|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|xepitaisici.|xe-pitaisici|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{glend|And he always returns winning.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Napame|na-pame|{{sc|pl.def}}-hear}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|nasaketai|na-saketai|{{sc|pl.def}}-know}}
{{gl|mekege:|mek-ege|news-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|maucaigi|mau-caigi|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-rule}}
{{gl|xaupehai.|xaupehai|lion}}
{{glend|All the animals hear and know the news: the lion rules them.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maikainau|m-aikainau|{{sc|sg.an}}-return}}
{{gl|xepitaisici|xe-pitaisici|{{sc|att}}-win}}
{{gl|aigi|aigi|every}}
{{gl|saxuhu,|sax-uhu|day-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maumaxeta|mau-maxeta|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-praise}}
{{gl|paimegai:|p-aimegai|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|And he returns winning every day, and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Mumehe|mum*-ahe|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.copula}}
{{gl|sai|sai|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|guxazege!|g*-auxaz-ege|{{sc|1sg.poss}}-child-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|Apexaze|a-pexaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|sexeke!|s*-axeke|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|suhu!|s*-auhu|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Axaita|a-xaita|{{sc|sg.in}}-big}}
{{gl|sixamau!|si-xamau|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“You are my child! Your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is big!}}

{{gl|Mauxausuka|mau-xausu-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-be.named-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|nai|nai|{{sc|1sg}}}}
{{gl|saicege|saic-ege|{{sc|2sg-acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|‘Muhevezau’!”|mu-heva-*zau|{{sc|sg.an}}-strong-{{sc|acc.ins}}}}
{{glend|I name you ‘The Strong One’!”}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Apate|a-pate|{{sc|sg.in}}-now}}
{{gl|apahasete|a-pahasete|{{sc|sg.in}}-repeat}}
{{gl|maucayaka|mau-caya-ka|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-stretch-{{sc|caus}}}}
{{gl|punekesege|pu-n*-ekes-ege|{{sc|3sg.poss-pl}}-leg-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|tatehe,|tat-ehe|morning-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{gl|sai|sai|and}}
{{gl|maumaxeta|mau-maxeta|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-praise}}
{{gl|paimegai:|p-aimegai|{{sc|3sg.poss}}-mother}}
{{glend|Now he stretches his legs again this morning and his mother praises him:}}

{{gl|“Apehaze|a-pehaze|{{sc|sg.in}}-thick}}
{{gl|sexeke!|s*-axeke|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-neck}}
{{gl|Akai|a-kai|{{sc|sg.in}}-thin}}
{{gl|suhu!|s*-auhu|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-belly}}
{{gl|Aheva|a-heva|{{sc|sg.in}}-strong}}
{{gl|sixamau!|si-xamau|{{sc|2sg.poss}}-chest}}
{{glend|“Your neck is thick! Your stomach is thin! Your chest is strong!}}

{{gl|Mausake|mau-sake|{{sc|sg.an.def}}-own}}
{{gl|sai|sai|{{sc|2sg}}}}
{{gl|pesazege|∅-pesaz-ege|{{sc|pl}}-arm-{{sc|acc.dat}}}}
{{gl|xetesakaixiki|xe-tesakaixiki|{{sc|att}}-mighty}}
{{gl|xaupehihi!”|xaupeh-ihi|lion-{{sc|gen}}}}
{{glend|You own the mighty arms of lion!”}}
}}

[[Category:T1 languages|Yalan East]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Languages of Akana/T1

2012-12-09T10:35:19Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-T1]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP)}}
** [[Cednìtıt]] {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 0 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
** Old Yalan {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -800 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[West Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[East Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
** [[Hkətl’ohnim]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Teyetáti]] {{context|(Yètùpono'mòn mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Linguifex]])}}
** [[Omari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Hato]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:2-4|2-4]])}}
** Northeastern Bay Language {{context|(Northeastern Bay, c. -1000 YP)}}
*** [[Cëzëdeğozin]] {{context|(Ieğiuk River Basin, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}
*** [[Śetiid]] {{context|(Ieğiuk River Basin, Śetiid Plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}

Main Page

2012-12-09T10:33:50Z

Rorschach: /* Welcome to the AkanaWiki! */

{| style="border:0; background:transparent; margin:0 auto;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="10"
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==<center>Welcome to the AkanaWiki!</center>==
[[Image:NE-Peilash-physical3.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš, the focus area of the Akana project.]]

The world of [[Akana]] is a collaborative conlanging and conworlding effort, with a focus on family diachronics and a shared historical basis for these linguistic developments. The world grew out of two different games on the [http://www.incatena.org/ Zompist Bulletin Board]: a linguistic reconstruction game in 2005 for which Akana was originally created, and a diachronic derivation relay in 2006, which gradually metamorphosed into the conworld of today and its flagship language family, the [[Edastean languages]].

'''Overview: [http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0ByfFAGMBy-9XMTgwN2EyMTMtY2IxZC00ZjIyLWIyYWUtNzU0YjlhYmMwZmZh&hl=en&authkey=CI6q6doD The World Of Akana]'''
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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">History</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Akana timeline|Timeline]] • [[Year of the Prophet]] • [[:Category:Akana by period|Akana by period]]
:''([[:Category:History|more...]])''

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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Geography</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Maps of Akana|Maps]]
:Continents • ''[[Peilaš]]'' • ''[[Tuysáfa]]'' • ''[[Zeluzhia]]''
:Regions • ''[[Aiwa valley]]'' • ''[[Kasca]]'' • ''[[Lasomo]]'' • ''[[Rathedān]]''
:Cities • ''[[Ngahêxôldod]]'' • ''[[Oigop'oibauxeu]]'' • ''[[Buruya]]'' • ''[[Momuva'e]]'' • ''[[Ussor]]'' • ''[[Azbǽbu]]'' • ''[[Mæmedéi]]'' • ''[[Sertek]]'' • ''[[Isi]]'' • ''[[Naəgbum]]''
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:[[Ndak Empire]] • [[Empire of Athalē]] • [[Huyfárah]] • [[Woldulaš]] • [[Affalinnei]] • [[Zeluzh]] • [[Xšalad]] • ''([[:Category:Nations|more...]])''

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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Culture</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:Edastean sphere: ''[[Ngauro]]'' • ''[[Ndak Calendar]]'' • ''[[Ndok]]'' • ''[[Dāiadak]]'' • ''[[Anaitism]]'' • ''[[Etúgə]]'' • ''[[Culture of Kasca|Kasca]]'' • ''[[Culture of Mɨdu|Mɨdu]]'' • ''[[Talo]]''
:Western sphere: ''[[Proto-Western/Culture|Proto-Westerners]]'' • ''[[Culture of Ishe|Ishe]]'' • ''[[Ìletlégbàku culture|Nugbùn]]''
:''([[:Category:Culture|more...]])''

</div>

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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Languages</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] • ''[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]''
:[[Talo-Edastean languages]] • ''[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]]''
::Talo languages • ''[[Tlaliolz]]''
::[[Edastean languages]] • ''[[Ndak Ta]]''
:::''[[Adāta]]'' • ''[[Ndok Aisô]]'' • ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' • ''[[Delta Naidda|Naidda]]'' • ''[[Fáralo]]''
:[[Xoronic languages]] • ''[[Proto-Xoronic]]''
:[[Isles languages]] • ''[[Proto-Isles]]''
:::''[[Mûtsipsa']]'' • ''[[Thokyunèhòta]]'' • ''[[Naxuutayi]]'' • ''[[Zele]]'' • ''[[Affanonic]]''
:[[T1 languages]] • ''[[Proto-T1]]''
:::''[[Cednìtıt]]'' • ''[[Hkətl’ohnim]]'' • ''[[Teyetáti]]'' • ''[[Omari]]'' • ''[[Cëzëdeğozin]]'' • ''[[Śetiid]]'' • ''[[East Yalan]]'' • ''[[West Yalan]]''
:[[T2 languages]] • ''[[Proto-T2]]''
:::''[[Potɑnsʉti]]'' • ''[[Wokatasuto]]'' • ''[[Trinesian]]'' • ''[[Katatuti]]'' • ''[[Jouki Stəy]]'' • ''[[Kaspzoch]]''
:[[Núalís-Takuña languages]] • ''[[Proto-Núalís-Takuña]]''
:[[Peninsular languages]] • ''[[Proto-Peninsular]]''
:::''[[Kibülʌiṅ]]'' • ''[[User:Nebulawindphone/Merneha|Merneha]]'' • ''[[Gaadràmarneš]]'' • ''[[Lotoka]]''
:[[Western languages]] • ''[[Proto-Western]]''
:::''[[Proto-Coastal-Western]]'' • ''[[Çetázó]]'' • ''[[Iŋomœ́|Iŋom{{IPA|œ́}}]]'' • ''[[Gezoro]]'' • ''[[Tmaśareʔ]]''
:''([[Languages of Akana|more...]])''

</div>
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<div class="bluebg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #8091ab;"></div>

[[:Category:Articles|All articles]] • [[AkanaWiki:External history|External history]] • [[AkanaWiki:About|FAQ]] • [[AkanaWiki:Todo List|To Do]] • [http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=19130 The Cursed Relay Thread (ZBB)] • [http://akana.conlang.org/forum AkanaForum] • [irc://irc.sorcery.net/akana #akana (IRC)]

|-
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<center><small>{{CURRENTDAYNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}. AkanaWiki currently has [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles.<br />{{AkanaWiki:Copyright}}</small></center>

[[Category:Meta]]

Languages of Akana/T1

2012-10-29T00:17:07Z

Rorschach:

* [[Proto-T1]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP)}}
** [[Cednìtıt]] {{context|(Potantrommo coast, c. 0 YP - [[User:Treskro|Treskro]])}}
** Old Yalan {{context|(Yalne plains, c. -800 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[West Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
*** [[East Yalan]] {{context|(Yalne plains, c. 0 YP - [[User:the Devilcat|the Devilcat]])}}
** [[Hkətl’ohnim]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[User:Rorschach/Relay draftlang|Teyetáti]] {{context|(Tuysáfa southeastern mountains, c. 0 YP - [[User:Rorschach|Linguifex]])}}
** [[Omari]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
** [[Hato]] {{context|(Wohata plain, c. 0 YP - [[User:2-4|2-4]])}}
** Northeastern Bay Language {{context|(Northeastern Bay, c. -1000 YP)}}
*** [[Cëzëdeğozin]] {{context|(Ieğiuk River Basin, c. 0 YP - [[User:Caleone|Caleone]])}}

Main Page

2012-10-28T23:59:14Z

Rorschach: /* Welcome to the AkanaWiki! */

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==<center>Welcome to the AkanaWiki!</center>==
[[Image:NE-Peilash-physical3.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš, the focus area of the Akana project.]]

The world of [[Akana]] is a collaborative conlanging and conworlding effort, with a focus on family diachronics and a shared historical basis for these linguistic developments. The world grew out of two different games on the [http://www.incatena.org/ Zompist Bulletin Board]: a linguistic reconstruction game in 2005 for which Akana was originally created, and a diachronic derivation relay in 2006, which gradually metamorphosed into the conworld of today and its flagship language family, the [[Edastean languages]].

'''Overview: [http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0ByfFAGMBy-9XMTgwN2EyMTMtY2IxZC00ZjIyLWIyYWUtNzU0YjlhYmMwZmZh&hl=en&authkey=CI6q6doD The World Of Akana]'''
|-

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<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">History</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Akana timeline|Timeline]] • [[Year of the Prophet]] • [[:Category:Akana by period|Akana by period]]
:''([[:Category:History|more...]])''

</div>
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<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Geography</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Maps of Akana|Maps]]
:Continents • ''[[Peilaš]]'' • ''[[Tuysáfa]]'' • ''[[Zeluzhia]]''
:Regions • ''[[Aiwa valley]]'' • ''[[Kasca]]'' • ''[[Lasomo]]'' • ''[[Rathedān]]''
:Cities • ''[[Ngahêxôldod]]'' • ''[[Oigop'oibauxeu]]'' • ''[[Buruya]]'' • ''[[Momuva'e]]'' • ''[[Ussor]]'' • ''[[Azbǽbu]]'' • ''[[Mæmedéi]]'' • ''[[Sertek]]'' • ''[[Isi]]'' • ''[[Naəgbum]]''
:''([[:Category:Geography|more...]])''

</div>
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d; border-top:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Nations</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Ndak Empire]] • [[Empire of Athalē]] • [[Huyfárah]] • [[Woldulaš]] • [[Affalinnei]] • [[Zeluzh]] • [[Xšalad]] • ''([[:Category:Nations|more...]])''

</div>
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d; border-top:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Culture</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:Edastean sphere: ''[[Ngauro]]'' • ''[[Ndak Calendar]]'' • ''[[Ndok]]'' • ''[[Dāiadak]]'' • ''[[Anaitism]]'' • ''[[Etúgə]]'' • ''[[Culture of Kasca|Kasca]]'' • ''[[Culture of Mɨdu|Mɨdu]]'' • ''[[Talo]]''
:Western sphere: ''[[Proto-Western/Culture|Proto-Westerners]]'' • ''[[Culture of Ishe|Ishe]]'' • ''[[Ìletlégbàku culture|Nugbùn]]''
:''([[:Category:Culture|more...]])''

</div>

| style="width:50%; vertical-align:top; border:1px solid #b38d7d; background-color:#fffaf7" |
<div class="brownbg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;"></div>

<div class="big" style="padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #b38d7d;">Languages</div>
<div style="padding-right:10px">

:[[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] • ''[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]''
:[[Talo-Edastean languages]] • ''[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]]''
::Talo languages • ''[[Tlaliolz]]''
::[[Edastean languages]] • ''[[Ndak Ta]]''
:::''[[Adāta]]'' • ''[[Ndok Aisô]]'' • ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' • ''[[Delta Naidda|Naidda]]'' • ''[[Fáralo]]''
:[[Xoronic languages]] • ''[[Proto-Xoronic]]''
:[[Isles languages]] • ''[[Proto-Isles]]''
:::''[[Mûtsipsa']]'' • ''[[Thokyunèhòta]]'' • ''[[Naxuutayi]]'' • ''[[Zele]]'' • ''[[Affanonic]]''
:[[T1 languages]] • ''[[Proto-T1]]''
:::''[[Cednìtıt]]'' • ''[[Hkətl’ohnim]]'' • ''[[User:Rorschach/Relay_draftlang|Teyetáti]]'' • ''[[Omari]]'' • ''[[Cäzadeğozīn]]'' • ''[[East Yalan]]'' • ''[[West Yalan]]''
:[[T2 languages]] • ''[[Proto-T2]]''
:::''[[Potɑnsʉti]]'' • ''[[Wokatasuto]]'' • ''[[Trinesian]]'' • ''[[Katatuti]]'' • ''[[Jouki Stəy]]'' • ''[[Kaspzoch]]''
:[[Núalís-Takuña languages]] • ''[[Proto-Núalís-Takuña]]''
:[[Peninsular languages]] • ''[[Proto-Peninsular]]''
:::''[[Kibülʌiṅ]]'' • ''[[User:Nebulawindphone/Merneha|Merneha]]'' • ''[[Gaadràmarneš]]'' • ''[[Lotoka]]''
:[[Western languages]] • ''[[Proto-Western]]''
:::''[[Proto-Coastal-Western]]'' • ''[[Çetázó]]'' • ''[[Iŋomœ́|Iŋom{{IPA|œ́}}]]'' • ''[[Gezoro]]'' • ''[[Tmaśareʔ]]''
:''([[Languages of Akana|more...]])''

</div>
|-

| colspan="2" align="center" style="border:1px solid #8091ab; background-color: #f7faff" |
<div class="bluebg" style="font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #8091ab;"></div>

[[:Category:Articles|All articles]] • [[AkanaWiki:External history|External history]] • [[AkanaWiki:About|FAQ]] • [[AkanaWiki:Todo List|To Do]] • [http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?t=19130 The Cursed Relay Thread (ZBB)] • [http://akana.conlang.org/forum AkanaForum] • [irc://irc.sorcery.net/akana #akana (IRC)]

|-
|}

<center><small>{{CURRENTDAYNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}. AkanaWiki currently has [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles.<br />{{AkanaWiki:Copyright}}</small></center>

[[Category:Meta]]