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Kopoıves

2019-02-20T22:12:15Z

Pole, the: /* Subjunctive mode */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to some instances of /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [t͡sɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I own it.''

Quite often a lexically '''transitive''' verb will by default have an intransitive meaning (e.g. '''dnai''' ''swim'', '''gaig''' ''urinate'', '''pouk''' ''run''). In those cases, '''te''' ''it'' is often used as a dummy patient pronoun:

* '''Didnai beit.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-swim sea
*: ''I'm swimming in the sea.''

* '''Didnai te.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-swim {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I'm swimming.''

A transitive verb can be put into a mediopassive form, which behaves as intransitive:

* '''Dibjau te.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-stop {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I'm stopping (something)''

* '''Dibjaum.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-stop-{{sc|mpass}}
*: ''I'm stopping'', ''I'm coming to a halt''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner, commonly through shortening the root with reduction of a diphthong to a monophthong (e.g. '''gŋoıg''' ''swim'' → '''gŋa''') or through ablaut (e.g. '''ngvein''' ''eat'' → '''ngvoın'''). These forms are listed in the dictionary.

For other verbs, the form doesn't change in subjunctive positions and use the same form as for indicative (e.g. '''jaiŋ''' ''exist'').

There are several uses of the subjunctive form, mainly attributive and subordinate constructions.

===== Attributive usage =====

The verb in the subjunctive mode can be used as an attributive form — either preposed as a bare stem, or postposed and taking personal inflection:

* '''pigo ndvei'''
*: be.green.{{sc|subj}} fruit
*: ''a green fruit''

* '''ndvei tepigo'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.green.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a green fruit''

However, the postposed construction is less clear whenever a verb without a separate subjunctive form is used:

* '''hrai ndvei'''
*: be.red fruit
*: ''a red fruit''

* '''ndvei tehrai'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.red
*: ''a red fruit'' ~ ''the fruit is red''

Preposed attributives of transitive verbs keep their agentive meaning:

* '''kneg daım'''
*: kill.{{sc|subj}} animal
*: ''a killing animal'', ''a predator''

However, when postposed, they either gain patientive meaning (along with appropriate personal inflection for the agent), or they require a patient in absolutive:

* '''daım dikneg'''
*: animal {{sc|1sg}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''an animal killed by me''

* '''daım bakneg'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a killed animal'', ''an animal killed (by someone/something else)''

* '''daım bakneg te'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|3in}}
*: ''an animal killing (something)''

Sentences with many attributive forms (especially for verbs with no subjunctive variants) can become ambiguous. To ensure clarity, subject attributives tend to be preposed and object attributives tend to be postposed:

* '''Tsjı jupekau bahımou kıgoıj bakrog.'''
*: be.tall.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|erg}}-man {{sc|3an}}-hit dog {{sc|3an}}-be.angry.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The tall man hits the angry dog.''

* '''Krog kıgoıj badesaiv papekau batsjı.'''
*: be.angry.{{sc|subj}} dog {{sc|3an}}-bite {{sc|an.gen}}-man {{sc|3an}}-be.tall.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The angry dog bites the tall man.''

===== Subordinate usage =====

The subjunctive forms are used along with the '''ma''' ''that, which'' particle to form subordinate clauses:

* '''Grihreik datjau.'''
*: {{sc|1pl}}-go {{sc|all}}-that
*: ''We are going to there.''

* '''Paıt griraıg grai koun.'''
*: {{sc|past}} {{sc|1pl}}-fight {{sc|1pl.abs}} there
*: ''We fought there.''

* '''Grihreik datjau ma paıt griroıg grai koun.'''
*: {{sc|1pl}}-go {{sc|all}}-that {{sc|rel}} {{sc|past}} {{sc|1pl}}-fight.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|1pl.abs}} there
*: ''We are going to where we fought.''

===== Other usages =====

For verbs which have a subjunctive form distinct from indicative, the former can be used to create a generic hortative:

* '''Grikmoın.''' ''Let's be happy.'' (a suggestion)
*: compare '''Vı grikmaun.''' ''Let's be happy.'' (an order)

* '''Vudesi.''' ''You should speak.'' (an encouragement)
*: compare '''Naısij vudesaig.''' ''You have to speak.'' (a necessity)

* '''Baknoı.''' ''May theysg succeed.'' (a wish)
*: compare '''Gnaıv baknau.''' ''Theysg might succeed.'' (a possibility)

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-20T21:43:37Z

Pole, the: /* Transitivity */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to some instances of /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [t͡sɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I own it.''

Quite often a lexically '''transitive''' verb will by default have an intransitive meaning (e.g. '''dnai''' ''swim'', '''gaig''' ''urinate'', '''pouk''' ''run''). In those cases, '''te''' ''it'' is often used as a dummy patient pronoun:

* '''Didnai beit.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-swim sea
*: ''I'm swimming in the sea.''

* '''Didnai te.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-swim {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I'm swimming.''

A transitive verb can be put into a mediopassive form, which behaves as intransitive:

* '''Dibjau te.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-stop {{sc|3in}}
*: ''I'm stopping (something)''

* '''Dibjaum.'''
*: {{sc|1sg}}-stop-{{sc|mpass}}
*: ''I'm stopping'', ''I'm coming to a halt''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner, commonly through shortening the root with reduction of a diphthong to a monophthong (e.g. '''gŋoıg''' ''swim'' → '''gŋa''') or through ablaut (e.g. '''ngvein''' ''eat'' → '''ngvoın'''). These forms are listed in the dictionary.

For other verbs, the form doesn't change in subjunctive positions and use the same form as for indicative (e.g. '''jaiŋ''' ''exist'').

There are several uses of the subjunctive form, mainly attributive and subordinate constructions.

===== Attributive =====

The verb in the subjunctive mode can be used as an attributive form — either preposed as a bare stem, or postposed and taking personal inflection:

* '''pigo ndvei'''
*: be.green.{{sc|subj}} fruit
*: ''a green fruit''

* '''ndvei tepigo'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.green.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a green fruit''

However, the postposed construction is less clear whenever a verb without a separate subjunctive form is used:

* '''hrai ndvei'''
*: be.red fruit
*: ''a red fruit''

* '''ndvei tehrai'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.red
*: ''a red fruit'' ~ ''the fruit is red''

Preposed attributives of transitive verbs keep their agentive meaning:

* '''kneg daım'''
*: kill.{{sc|subj}} animal
*: ''a killing animal'', ''a predator''

However, when postposed, they either gain patientive meaning (along with appropriate personal inflection for the agent), or they require a patient in absolutive:

* '''daım dikneg'''
*: animal {{sc|1sg}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''an animal killed by me''

* '''daım bakneg'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a killed animal'', ''an animal killed (by someone/something else)''

* '''daım bakneg te'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|3in}}
*: ''an animal killing (something)''

Sentences with many attributive forms (especially for verbs with no subjunctive variants) can become ambiguous. To ensure clarity, subject attributives tend to be preposed and object attributives tend to be postposed:

* '''Tsjı jupekau bahımou kıgoıj bakrog.'''
*: be.tall.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|erg}}-man {{sc|3an}}-hit dog {{sc|3an}}-be.angry.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The tall man hits the angry dog.''

* '''Krog kıgoıj badesaiv papekau batsjı.'''
*: be.angry.{{sc|subj}} dog {{sc|3an}}-bite {{sc|an.gen}}-man {{sc|3an}}-be.tall.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The angry dog bites the tall man.''

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-20T21:31:17Z

Pole, the: /* Subjunctive mode */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to some instances of /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [t͡sɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner, commonly through shortening the root with reduction of a diphthong to a monophthong (e.g. '''gŋoıg''' ''swim'' → '''gŋa''') or through ablaut (e.g. '''ngvein''' ''eat'' → '''ngvoın'''). These forms are listed in the dictionary.

For other verbs, the form doesn't change in subjunctive positions and use the same form as for indicative (e.g. '''jaiŋ''' ''exist'').

There are several uses of the subjunctive form, mainly attributive and subordinate constructions.

===== Attributive =====

The verb in the subjunctive mode can be used as an attributive form — either preposed as a bare stem, or postposed and taking personal inflection:

* '''pigo ndvei'''
*: be.green.{{sc|subj}} fruit
*: ''a green fruit''

* '''ndvei tepigo'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.green.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a green fruit''

However, the postposed construction is less clear whenever a verb without a separate subjunctive form is used:

* '''hrai ndvei'''
*: be.red fruit
*: ''a red fruit''

* '''ndvei tehrai'''
*: fruit {{sc|3in}}-be.red
*: ''a red fruit'' ~ ''the fruit is red''

Preposed attributives of transitive verbs keep their agentive meaning:

* '''kneg daım'''
*: kill.{{sc|subj}} animal
*: ''a killing animal'', ''a predator''

However, when postposed, they either gain patientive meaning (along with appropriate personal inflection for the agent), or they require a patient in absolutive:

* '''daım dikneg'''
*: animal {{sc|1sg}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''an animal killed by me''

* '''daım bakneg'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''a killed animal'', ''an animal killed (by someone/something else)''

* '''daım bakneg te'''
*: animal {{sc|3an}}-kill.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|3in}}
*: ''an animal killing (something)''

Sentences with many attributive forms (especially for verbs with no subjunctive variants) can become ambiguous. To ensure clarity, subject attributives tend to be preposed and object attributives tend to be postposed:

* '''Tsjı jupekau bahımou kıgoıj bakrog.'''
*: be.tall.{{sc|subj}} {{sc|erg}}-man {{sc|3an}}-hit dog {{sc|3an}}-be.angry.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The tall man hits the angry dog.''

* '''Krog kıgoıj badesaiv papekau batsjı.'''
*: be.angry.{{sc|subj}} dog {{sc|3an}}-bite {{sc|an.gen}}-man {{sc|3an}}-be.tall.{{sc|subj}}
*: ''The angry dog bites the tall man.''

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-20T19:11:08Z

Pole, the: /* Tsroı-tsraa isogloss */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to some instances of /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [t͡sɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T23:00:11Z

Pole, the: /* Tsroı-tsraa isogloss */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [t͡sɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T22:59:36Z

Pole, the: /* Nasai-ndsai isogloss */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [tsɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T22:58:57Z

Pole, the: /* Phonology */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several varieties /ɤɨ/ is realized as [ɯ̯ɤ] or [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

=== Dialectology ===

There are two main traits distinguishing Kopoıves dialects.

==== Tsroı-tsraa isogloss ====

In some dialects there is an additional vowel /ɑː/ «'''aa'''» corresponding to /ɤɨ/ in other dialects, found for example in words like '''tsraa''' [t͡sɾɑː] ''sun'' (standard '''tsroı'''). In those dialects, the two vowels contrast (cf. '''goım''' ''nose'', not found as **'''gaam''').

/ɑː/ often merges with /ɑ/ in fast speech. Also, /ɑː/ merges with /ɑɨ/ before word-final glides, e.g. '''tsaav''' ''bald'' and '''tsaıv''' ''mouse'' often both become [tsɑʋ].

==== Nasai-ndsai isogloss ====

Some dialects permit /s/ as a medial consonant and perform a syncope of pre-tonic vowels preceding /s/, e.g. '''nasai''' ''leg'' → '''ndsai''' [əndˈs̬ai], '''kosei''' ''sheep'' → '''ksei''' [ksei].

This also applies to morphological prefixes, e.g. '''vu-''' {{sc|2fam}} + '''sag''' ''smile'' → '''bsag''' [bs̬ɑɡ] ''you are smiling'' (cf. standard '''vusag''').

Cases where this would result in a consonant cluster /t-s/ (contrasted with the single affricate /ts/) might be marked with a facultative assibilation and lengthening to [t͡ss] «'''tss'''», e.g. '''tssaij''' ''it rises'' [tsaʝ ~ t͡ssaʝ] (standard '''tesaij''') versus '''tsaij''' ''100'' [t͡saʝ].

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T21:52:40Z

Pole, the: /* Tense and mood */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several dialects /ɤɨ/ is changed to [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic particles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T21:36:11Z

Pole, the: /* Causative */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several dialects /ɤɨ/ is changed to [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''' along with the subjunctive form of the main verb:

* '''Didaiŋ.''' → '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.'' → ''You make me live.''

* '''Tesaim.''' → '''Dvaıp tesoım.'''
*: ''It occurs.'' → ''I make it occur.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic articles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Kopoıves

2019-02-19T21:29:04Z

Pole, the: /* Transitivity */

{{Article}}
{{language
|color=gray
|language=Kopoıves
|phonetic=[kɔˈpɤɨʋɛs]
|date=-400 ÷ 0 YP
|place=Western [[Tuysáfa]]
|family=[[:Category:Leic languages|Leic]]
|word-or=VSO or SVO
|mor-type=mainly analytic, agglutinative
|morphalign=ergative (nouns), accusative (verbs)
|author=[[User:Pole, the|Pole, the]]
|speakers=c. 500.000
}}

'''Kopoıves''' (''thinkers' language'') is one of the descendants of Proto-Leic.

See also: [[/Lexicon|the lexicon]], [[/CR 22|the Conlang Relay 22 torch]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! labial
! alveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! nasal
| /m/
| /n/
| {{gray|[ɲ]}}
| /ŋ/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| stop
| /b/
| /d/
|
| /ɡ/
|
|-
| /p/
| /t/
|
| /k/
|
|-
!rowspan=2| affricate
|
|
| {{gray|[dʑ]}}
|
|
|-
|
| /ts/
| {{gray|[tɕ]}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| /ɸ/
| /s/
| {{gray|[ɕ]}}
|
| /h/
|-
! sonoric
| /ʋ/
| /ɾ/
|colspan=2| /j/
|
|}

* /ɸ ʋ ɾ/ are written ‹'''f v r'''›.
* Sequences of /nj ŋj/, /dj ɡj/, /tj tsj kj/ and /sj hj/ are in most (not all) registers merged to [ɲ], [dʑ], [tɕ] and [ɕ], respectively.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! front
! back ur.
! back r.
|-
! high
| /i/
| /ɨ/
| /u/
|-
!rowspan=2| mid
| /ei/
| /ɤɨ/
| /ou/
|-
| /ɛ/
|
| /ɔ/
|-
!rowspan=2| low
| /ai/
| /ɑɨ/
| /ɒu/
|-
|
| /ɑ/
|
|}

* /ai ɛ ei i/ are written ‹'''ai e ei i'''›.
* /ɑɨ ɑ ɤɨ ɨ/ are written ‹'''aı a oı ı'''›.
* /ɒu ɔ ou u/ are written ‹'''au o ou u'''›.
* In several dialects /ɤɨ/ is changed to [ɯ̯ʌ].

The syllable structure is C(X)V(C), where X is a medial consonant, i.e. one of /m n ŋ ʋ ɾ j/.
* In all registers, /ʋ j/ are devoiced after voiceless onsets. /pj/ is pronounced [pɕ].
* Syllable-final /j/ is realized as [ç~ʝ] after front vowels and [x~ɣ] after back vowels.
** Some varieties even delete the off-glide preceding final /j/, so /fɒuj/ /teij/ become [fɒɣ] [teʝ].
* /ʋ ɾ j/ in onsets are replaced with /b d ɡ/ before a medial consonant.
* /m n ŋ/ in onsets are realized as [mb nd ŋɡ] (word-initially [əmb ənd əŋɡ]) and written ‹'''mb nd ng'''› before a medial consonant, e.g. /nɾai/ [əndɾai] '''ndrai'''.
** Exceptionally, /nj ŋj/ remain unchanged.

The syllable with a diphthong is stressed, if present. Otherwise, the word stress falls on the final syllable.

== Morphology ==

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

Several pronouns have separate honorific variants. There is also a distinction of animacy in the third person.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 1 pl
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=2 width="8em"| 2
!rowspan=0|
!colspan=3 width="12em"| 3 sg
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 co
!rowspan=2 width="4em"| 3 pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| familiar
| honorific
| familiar animate
| honorific animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| dai
| grai
| gvu
| gŋo
| boı
| gaı
| te
| go
| noı
|-
! Ergative
| ngrai
| jukrai
| jukvu
| jukŋo
| jupoı
| jukaı
| ŋude
| juko
| gnoı
|-
! Genitive
| prai
| krai
| kvu
| kŋo
| pa
| ka
| te
| ko
| ra
|-
! Locative
| brai
| pıkrai
| pıkvu
| pıkŋo
| pıpoı
| pıkaı
| bıde
| pıko
| pnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsrai
| dakrai
| dakvu
| dakŋo
| dapoı
| dakaı
| dade
| dako
| dnoı
|-
! Vocative
| —
| —
| rekvu
| rekŋo
| repoı
| rekaı
| —
| reko
| —
|-
! Prefix
| di-, d-
| gri-
| vu-, b-
| ŋo-, ng-
| ba-, p-
| gı-, k-
| te-, t-
| go-, g-
| na-, nd-
|}

(The ergative forms are rarely used, as they are superseded by the subject prefixes.)

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| kupoı
| gude
| kuko
| knoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋugupoı
| jukude
| ŋuguko
| ŋugnoı
|-
! Genitive
| kuba
| gude
| kugo
| kra
|-
! Locative
| bıgupoı
| pıkude
| bıguko
| bıgnoı
|-
! Allative
| dagupoı
| dakude
| daguko
| dagnoı
|}

Other interrogative words include:
* '''gau''' ''which''
* '''jein''' ''where''
* '''toı''' ''when''
* '''ko''' ''how''

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| boıs
| teip
| goud
| noıs
|-
! Ergative
| jupoıs
| ŋudeip
| jukoud
| gnoıs
|-
! Genitive
| poıt
| teit
| kout
| roıt
|-
! Locative
| pıpoıs
| bıdeip
| pıkoud
| pnoıs
|-
! Allative
| dapoıs
| dadeip
| dakoud
| dnoıs
|}

Other indefinite words include:
* '''gaus''' ''some''
* '''jeinis''' ''somewhere''
* '''toıs''' ''somewhen''
* '''koup''' ''somehow''

==== Distal and demonstrative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| sg
!rowspan=2| co
!rowspan=2| pl
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| tapoı
| djau
| tako
| tnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ŋudapoı
| jutjau
| ŋudako
| ŋudnoı
|-
! Genitive
| taba
| djo
| tago
| tra
|-
! Locative
| bıdapoı
| pıtjau
| bıdako
| bıdnoı
|-
! Allative
| dadapoı
| datjau
| dadako
| dadnoı
|}

Other demonstrative words include:
* '''gi''' ''this'' — '''gi-doı''' ''that'' — '''doı''' ''other''
* '''bai''' ''here'' — '''koun''' ''there'' — '''tjein''' ''somewhere else''
* '''faij''' ''now'' — '''dadoı''' ''then'', ''once''
* '''tako''' ''in that way''

==== Universal and negative pronouns ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="t"
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| universal
!colspan=2| negative
|- class="bg2 context"
| animate
| inanimate
| animate
| inanimate
|-
! Absolutive
| deko
| dnoı
| vıko
| bnoı
|-
! Ergative
| ngreko
| ŋudnoı
| gvıko
| jubnoı
|-
! Genitive
| deko
| dra
| vıgo
| bra
|-
! Locative
| breko
| bıdnoı
| pvıko
| pıbnoı
|-
! Allative
| tsreko
| tsadnoı
| dvıko
| dabnoı
|}

Other universal and negative words include:
* '''de''' ''all'', ''every'' — '''maı''' ''no''
* '''deim''' ''everywhere'' — '''maırem''' ''nowhere''
* '''ki''' ''always'' — '''maıg''' ''never''
* '''tseiv''' ''in every way'' — '''maırev''' ''in no way''

=== Nouns ===

==== Class ====

There are two main noun classes: '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' nouns. They determine the type of genitive prefixes and pronouns they take. It is generally based on the meaning — there are however some exceptions.

There are also two subgroups:
* '''animate human''' nouns — animate nouns that are never declined in plural (collective is used instead);
* '''pluralia tantum''' nouns — nouns that are plural by default; they take singular prefixes in Erg., Loc., Dat. and plural prefix in Gen.; they are referenced by plural pronouns.

==== Declension ====

There are four paradigms of noun stems:
* '''type I'''
** nouns beginning with a voiceless obstruent (one of '''p t ts k f s h''') or a voiceless cluster
* '''type II'''
** nouns beginning with a voiced obstruent (one of '''b d g''') or a voiced cluster
* '''type III'''
** nouns beginning with a single sonorant (one of '''m n ŋ v r j''')

Nouns are declined using prefixes.

===== Paradigm I =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| na- ¹
|-
! Ergative
| ŋu- ¹
| juko-
| gna- ¹
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| bı- ¹
| pıko-
| pna- ¹
|-
! Dative
| da- ¹
| dako-
| dna- ¹
|}

* ¹) '''p t k f ts h''' are lenited to '''b d g v r j''' ('''b d g b d g''' in clusters)

===== Paradigm II =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| go-
| ra-
|-
! Ergative
| ju-
| juko-
| gra-
|-
! Genitive
| pa- {{gray|''fa''}} ka- {{gray|''ha''}} te- {{gray|''i''}}
| ko-
| ra-
|-
! Locative
| pı-
| pıko-
| pra-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dako-
| dra-
|}

* single '''b d g''' are fortited to '''p t k''' in singular and plural forms after a prefix

===== Paradigm III =====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!width="22%"| sg
!width="22%"| co
!width="22%"| pl
|-
! Absolutive
| —
| g-
| d-
|-
! Ergative
| g-
| juk-
| jud-
|-
! Genitive
| p- {{gray|''fa''}} k- {{gray|''ha''}} t- {{gray|''i''}}
| k- (gak-)
| d- (gad-)
|-
! Locative
| p-
| pık-
| pıd-
|-
! Dative
| da-
| dak-
| dad-
|}

* '''gak- gad-''' are used instead of '''k- d-''' when disambiguation is needed

=== Verbs ===

Verbs in Kopoıves are relatively little inflected.

==== Transitivity ====

Verbs can be divided into two classes according to their morphosyntactical behaviour.

'''Intransitive''' verbs have their main argument in absolutive. The verb agrees with the subject. Another argument can be added in genitive:

* '''(Dai) dihotsai.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter
*: ''I enter.''

* '''(Dai) dihotsai tepego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}) 1{{sc|sg}}-enter {{sc|gen.i}}-house
*: ''I enter the house.''

'''Transitive''' verbs have their patientive argument in absolutive and their agentive argument in ergative. The patientive argument cannot be omitted. The verb agrees with the agent:

* '''(Ngrai) dvait bego.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own house
*: ''I own the house.''

* '''(Ngrai) dvait te.'''
*: (1{{sc|sg}}.erg) 1{{sc|sg}}-own it
*: ''I own it.''

==== Person ====

Verbs exhibit accusative alignment. They are inflected for the person of the subject or the agent.

The person prefixes are:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! 1st singular
|width="25%"| di- ||width="25%"| d-
|-
! 1st plural
|colspan=2| gri-
|-
! 2nd familiar
| vu- || b-
|-
! 2nd honorific
| ŋa- || ŋ- ~ ng-
|-
! 3rd sg a familiar
| ba- || p-
|-
! 3rd sg a honorific
| gı- || k-
|-
! 3rd sg inanimate
| te- || t-
|-
! 3rd collective
| go- || g-
|-
! 3rd plural
| na- || n- ~ nd-
|}

Notes:
* Prefixes without vowels are used before '''m n ŋ v r j'''.
** '''ŋ-''', '''n-''' are used before '''j''';
** '''ng-''', '''nd-''' are used elsewhere.

==== Voice ====

===== Mediopassive =====

The mediopassive is created by adding:
* '''-m''' after a vowel;
* '''-om''' after a velar/glottal consonant;
* '''-im''' after other consonants.

Last consonants '''p t k m n ŋ''' are changed to '''b d g v r j''' before the ending is added.

The mediopassive causes the verb to become intransitive, with the subject interpreted as patient or agent-patient:

* '''Ditoın gvu.'''
*: ''I see you.''

* '''Ditoırim.'''
*: ''I am seen.'' ~ ''I see myself.''

===== Causative =====

The causative is created periphratically, by inflecting the causative operator '''vaıp''':

* '''Didaiŋ.'''
*: ''I live.''

* '''Bvaıp didaiŋ.'''
*: ''You make me live.''

==== Tense and mood ====

Tense isn't explicitly marked on verbs. It can, however, be expressed by one of several analytic articles:
* '''paıt''' — past tense;
* '''gŋou''' — future tense;
* '''gnaıv''' — potential modality;
* '''naısij''' — necessitative modality;
* '''vı''' — imperative mood.

==== Subjunctive mode ====

Many verbs have separate subjunctive forms, formed in an irregular manner. These forms are listed in the dictionary.

=== Numerals ===

==== Cardinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| bmoı
! 10.
| kaip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| moıs
! 11.
| kibmoı
|
|
! 100.
| tsaij
|-
! 2.
| gei
! 12.
| kip-jei
! 20.
| ge-gaip
! 200.
| he-tsaij
|-
! 3.
| pe
! 13.
| kipe-be
! 30.
| pe-gaip
! 300.
| pe-tsaij
|-
! 4.
| doıs
! 14.
| kibe-toı
! 40.
| do-gaip
! 400.
| da-tsaij
|-
! 5.
| toım
! 15.
| kibe-doım
! 50.
| tmo-gaip
! 500.
| tma-tsaij
|-
! 6.
| douj
! 16.
| kibe-touj
! 60.
| dje-gaip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaij
|-
! 7.
| doıb
! 17.
| kibe-toıb
! 70.
| dabe-gaip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaij
|-
! 8.
| getoı
! 18.
| kip-jetoı
! 80.
| geto-gaip
! 800.
| geta-tsaij
|-
! 9.
| gedoım
! 19.
| kip-jedoım
! 90.
| gedmo-gaip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaij
|}

==== Ordinal numerals ====

{| {{softtable}}
|-
! 0.
| —
! 10.
| kairip
|
|
|
|
|-
! 1.
| voınis
! 11.
| kip-voınis
|
|
! 100.
| tsaijir
|-
! 2.
| gein
! 12.
| kip-jein
! 20.
| ge-gairip
! 200.
| he-tsaijir
|-
! 3.
| peir
! 13.
| kipe-beir
! 30.
| pe-gairip
! 300.
| pe-tsaijir
|-
! 4.
| toınis
! 14.
| kibe-doınis
! 40.
| do-gairip
! 400.
| da-tsaijir
|-
! 5.
| toırim
! 15.
| kibe-doırim
! 50.
| tmo-gairip
! 500.
| tma-tsaijir
|-
! 6.
| toınij
! 16.
| kibe-doınij
! 60.
| dje-gairip
! 600.
| dohe-tsaijir
|-
! 7.
| doıber
! 17.
| kibe-doıber
! 70.
| dabe-gairip
! 700.
| dabe-tsaijir
|-
! 8.
| gritoı
! 18.
| kipe-gritoı
! 80.
| geto-gairip
! 800.
| geta-tsaijir
|-
! 9.
| gedoırim
! 19.
| kip-jedoırim
! 90.
| gedmo-gairip
! 900.
| gedma-tsaijir
|}

==== Fractions ====

* '''ni''' ''a half''
* '''dibe''' ''a third''
* '''ndrai''' ''a quarter''
* '''tidoım''' ''a fifth''
* '''titouj''' ''a sixth''
* '''titoıb''' ''a seventh''
* '''tjetoı''' ''an eighth''
* '''tjedoım''' ''a ninth''
* '''digaip''' ''a tenth''

[[Category:Leic languages]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-30T18:20:05Z

Pole, the: /* Irrealis endings */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

The generalizing determiner is '''ių''' ''every'', ''all''.

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Indefinite quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

An indefinite amount can be expressed using several different determiners:
* '''uhi''' ''a little''
* '''ni''' ''too little''
* '''iai''' ''a lot''
* '''iaina''' ''too much''
* '''ndiaki''' ''most'', ''almost all''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

The negative determiner is '''vu''' ''no''.

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises most verbs with the root ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina-''' ''be false''
| '''uhi-''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku-''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga-''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuv-''' ''be wide''
| '''kini-''' ''know''
| '''asik-''' ''have taste''
|-
! I
| vin'''a'''
| uh'''i'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''a'''
| iukiuv'''i'''
| kin'''i'''
| asik'''i'''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina-''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika-''' ''graze''
| '''kianga-''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuv-''' ''be wide''
| '''kini-''' ''know''
| '''asik-''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-30T18:19:40Z

Pole, the: /* Subject class endings */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

The generalizing determiner is '''ių''' ''every'', ''all''.

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Indefinite quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

An indefinite amount can be expressed using several different determiners:
* '''uhi''' ''a little''
* '''ni''' ''too little''
* '''iai''' ''a lot''
* '''iaina''' ''too much''
* '''ndiaki''' ''most'', ''almost all''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

The negative determiner is '''vu''' ''no''.

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises most verbs with the root ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina-''' ''be false''
| '''uhi-''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku-''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga-''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuv-''' ''be wide''
| '''kini-''' ''know''
| '''asik-''' ''have taste''
|-
! I
| vin'''a'''
| uh'''i'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''a'''
| iukiuv'''i'''
| kin'''i'''
| asik'''i'''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:59:24Z

Pole, the: /* Existential quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

The generalizing determiner is '''ių''' ''every'', ''all''.

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Indefinite quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

An indefinite amount can be expressed using several different determiners:
* '''uhi''' ''a little''
* '''ni''' ''too little''
* '''iai''' ''a lot''
* '''iaina''' ''too much''
* '''ndiaki''' ''most'', ''almost all''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

The negative determiner is '''vu''' ''no''.

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:52:32Z

Pole, the: /* Negative quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

The generalizing determiner is '''ių''' ''every'', ''all''.

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

The negative determiner is '''vu''' ''no''.

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:51:52Z

Pole, the: /* Generalizing quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

The generalizing determiner is '''ių''' ''every'', ''all''.

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:51:23Z

Pole, the: /* Interrogatives */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga''' ''what'', ''which''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:51:00Z

Pole, the: /* Interrogatives */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

The interrogative determiner is '''nga'''.

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal''
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what''
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:49:35Z

Pole, the: /* Existential quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

There are following existential pronouns and determiners:
* '''maisihaį''' ''some woman''
* '''maisima''' ''some man''
* '''ngaitingaiq''' ''some people'', ''somebody''
* '''maindi''', '''ngaindi''' ''somebody's''
* '''tiumi''' ''something''

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:40:06Z

Pole, the: /* Existential quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi''' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:39:55Z

Pole, the: /* Negative quantifiers */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Existential quantifiers ====

The following words can be used as existential and indefinite quantifiers:
* '''vaisi''' ''one''
* '''ngaisi''' ''some''
* '''ana''' ''any'', ''possibly some''
* '''hihi''' ''any'', ''no matter which''
* '''nda''' ''another''

Additionally, following indefinite adverbs exist:
* '''hinisi''' ''somewhere''
* '''taisi'' ''somewhen'', ''once''
* '''ngaumi''' ''somehow''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:26:58Z

Pole, the: /* Interrogatives */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Demonstratives ====

The demonstrative determiners are:
* '''įq''' ''this'', ''here''
* '''kani''' ''that''

Related adverbs are:
* '''įq''' ''here''
* '''ihini''' ''there''
* '''į''' ''now''
* '''ita''' ''then''
* '''ingaų''' ''this way'', ''in this manner''

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:20:38Z

Pole, the: /* Interrogatives */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

==== Generalizing quantifiers ====

There are following generalizing pronouns:
* '''iuvungi''' ''every force''
* '''iuvuangaiq''' ''every person'', ''everybody''
* '''iuvuna''' ''everything''

Additionally, following generalizing adverbs exist:
* '''iuvi''' ''everywhere''
* '''kį''' ''always''
* '''iuaų''' ''in every way''

==== Negative quantifiers ====

There are following negative pronouns:
* '''vungi''' ''no force''
* '''vuangaiq''' ''no person'', ''nobody''
* '''vuina''' ''nothing''

Additionally, following negative adverbs exist:
* '''vuivi''' ''nowhere''
* '''vuakį''' ''never''
* '''vuiaų''' ''in no way''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T22:12:18Z

Pole, the: /* Pronouns */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

==== Interrogatives ====

There are following interrogative pronouns:
* '''ngahaį''' ''what woman''
* '''nguma''' ''what man'', ''what person''
* '''nga''' ''what animal'', ''what'' (determiner)
* '''ngatių''' ''what thing'', ''what'' (pronoun)
* '''ngungi''' ''what force''
* '''ngangaiq''' ''what people''
* '''ngana''' ''what things''

Additionally, following interrogative adverbs exist:
* '''hini''' ''where''
* '''ta''' ''when''
* '''ngaų''' ''how''

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T21:44:22Z

Pole, the: /* Irrealis endings */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''ndiakika''' ''graze''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| ndiakik'''auvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| ndiakik'''auvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| ndiakik'''auviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| ndiakik'''auviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T21:24:43Z

Pole, the: /* Subject class endings */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''PL''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''', '''3''' and '''4''' comprise verbs with roots most often ending in a consonant, with the ending '''i''' added in the basic form, those types taken together cover around 40% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! PL
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! PL
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

==== Irrealis endings ====

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=9| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a
!colspan=2| 1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Irr I
| '''~avi'''
| '''~ivi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''~auvi'''
| '''~iuvi'''
| '''~uvi'''
| '''-uvi'''
| '''-ivi'''
| '''-ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| '''~avių'''
| '''~ivių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''~auvių'''
| '''~iuvių'''
| '''~uvių'''
| '''-uvių'''
| '''-ivių'''
| '''-ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| '''~aviu'''
| '''~iviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''~auviu'''
| '''~iuviu'''
| '''~uviu'''
| '''-uviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
| '''-iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| '''~aviaiq'''
| '''~iviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''~auviaiq'''
| '''~iuviaiq'''
| '''~uviaiq'''
| '''-uviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
| '''-iviaiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! Irr I
| vin'''avi'''
| uh'''ivi'''
| nanuk'''uvi'''
| kiang'''uvi'''
| iukiuv'''uvi'''
| kin'''ivi'''
| asik'''ivi'''
|-
! Irr II
| vin'''avių'''
| uh'''ivių'''
| nanuk'''uvių'''
| kiang'''uvių'''
| iukiuv'''uvių'''
| kin'''ivių'''
| asik'''ivių'''
|-
! Irr III
| vin'''aviu'''
| uh'''iviu'''
| nanuk'''uviu'''
| kiang'''uviu'''
| iukiuv'''uviu'''
| kin'''iviu'''
| asik'''iviu'''
|-
! Irr PL
| vin'''aviaiq'''
| uh'''iviaiq'''
| nanuk'''uviaiq'''
| kiang'''uviaiq'''
| iukiuv'''uviaiq'''
| kin'''iviaiq'''
| asik'''iviaiq'''
|}

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T21:00:01Z

Pole, the: /* Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Iuvuangaįq aiaį sia iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndandau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's kinsman here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is not tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|∅-haha-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-depart-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vau|vau|{{sc|rel}}}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|∅-ndiakika-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-graze-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|What grazes, will depart.}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|∅-hahait-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.related-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|įq|įq|here}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|∅-ngium-aiq|{{sc|3.s}}-die-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{glend|Who's kinsman here, will die.}}

{{gl|Iuvuangaįq|iuvu-ngaįq|everybody-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|aiaį|aiaį|time}}
{{gl|sia|∅-si-a|{{sc|3.s}}-get-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|iuvami-a|end-{{sc|dat}}}}
{{glend|Everybody's time will reach an end.}}

{{gl|Hihia|∅-hihi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-exist-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{gl|vaisi|vaisi|one}}
{{gl|takau,|takau|thing}}
{{glend|There is one thing}}

{{gl|Hihau|hihau|wound}}
{{gl|vu|vu|{{sc|neg}}}}
{{gl|ti-ndandau,|∅-ti-ndandau-u|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-corrupt-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|That is not tarnished,}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|tataindaį|memory}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|ngiumisi-ngaįq|dead.person-{{sc|coll.pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|pupia.|∅-pupi-ia|{{sc|3.s}}-be.good-{{sc|iii}}}}
{{glend|A good memory of the dead.}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T20:34:16Z

Pole, the: /* Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Siaiq iangaįq nisaina iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndaundau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's our blood here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is never tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

{{gl|Hahaiq|…}}
{{gl|vau|…}}
{{gl|ndiakikaiq.|…}}
{{glend|…}}

{{gl|Hahaitaiq|…}}
{{gl|įq|…}}
{{gl|ngiumaiq.|…}}
{{glend|…}}

{{gl|Siaiq|…}}
{{gl|iangaįq|…}}
{{gl|nisaina|…}}
{{gl|iuvamia.|…}}
{{glend|…}}

{{gl|Hihia|…}}
{{gl|vaisi|…}}
{{gl|takau,|…}}
{{glend|…}}

{{gl|Hihau|…}}
{{gl|vu|…}}
{{gl|ti-ndaundau,|…}}
{{glend|…}}

{{gl|Tataindaį|…}}
{{gl|ngiumisingaįq|…}}
{{gl|pupia.|…}}
{{glend|…}}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T20:27:54Z

Pole, the: /* Deraighaw creed */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia.|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Siaiq iangaįq nisaina iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndaundau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's our blood here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is never tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-29T20:27:17Z

Pole, the: /* Deraighaw creed */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

{{gl|Iti-sihaiq|i-ti-sih-aiq|{{sc|1ex-3in}}-speak-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|ingaįq|i-ngaįq|{{sc|1ex-pl.gen}}}}
{{gl|sihaį.|sihaį|language}}
{{glend|We speak our language.}}

{{gl|Ndungiq|∅-ndungi-iq|{{sc|3.s}}-be.bright-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|pauhuangaiq|pauhu-ngaiq|spirit-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|kivisisingaiq|kivisisi-ngaiq|caretaker-{{sc|coll.pl}}}}
{{gl|inga|i-nga|{{sc|1ex-pl.dat}}}}
{{gl|ti-tiungaiq|∅-ti-tiung-aiq|{{sc|3.s-3in}}-give-{{sc|pl}}}}
{{gl|vindiungia|vindiungi-a|wind-{{sc|abl}}}}
{{glend|The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.}}

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Siaiq iangaįq nisaina iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndaundau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's our blood here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is never tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T22:32:16Z

Pole, the: /* Sample texts */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

=== Wendoth poetry (“Cattle die”) ===

A loose adaptation of the [[Wendoth#Kejazang_ouhyeh.C4.85sh:_a_poem|Kejazang ouhyehąsh]] poem.

* '''Hahaiq vau ndiakikaiq. Hahaitaiq įq ngiumaiq. Siaiq iangaįq nisaina iuvamia. Hihia vaisi takau, Hihau vu ti-ndaundau, Tataindaį ngiumisingaįq pupia.'''
*: ''What grazes, will depart. Who's our blood here, will die. Everybody's time will reach an end. There is one thing That is never tarnished, A good memory of the dead.''

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T20:55:35Z

Pole, the:

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

== Sample texts ==

=== Deraighaw creed ===

* '''Iti-sihaiq ingaįq sihaį. Ndungiq pauhuangaiq kivisisingaiq inga ti-tiungaiq vindiungia.'''
*: ''We speak our language. The bright spirits caretakers gave it to us by the wind.''

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

User:Pole, the

2019-01-28T20:43:56Z

Pole, the:

[[/common.css]]
----

[she/her, they/them]

What do I do here?

(Languages in ''italic'' are unfinished sketches that probably will never be continued.)

[[T1 languages|East Tuysafa Team-1 languages]]:
* [[Yalan]]
** [[Old Yalan]] ([[Old Yalan/Lexicon|lexicon]])
** '''[[West Yalan]]''' ([[West Yalan/Lexicon|lexicon]])
** '''[[East Yalan]]''' ([[East Yalan/Lexicon|lexicon]])
** [[Early North Yalan]]
* '''[[Tari]]''' ([[Tari/Lexicon|lexicon]])
* ''[[/Lent|Lentlang]]''

[[Dumic languages|East Tuysafa Team-2 (Dumic) languages]]:
* [[Proto-Dumic (reconstructed)|reconstruction]] ([[Proto-Dumic (reconstructed)/Lexicon|lexicon]])

[[:Category:Leic languages|West Tuysafa Team-2 (Leic) languages]]:
* '''[[Wihəs]]''' ([[Wihəs/Lexicon|lexicon]], [[Wihəs/CBBCR VI|relay text]])
* [[Deraighaw]]
* '''[[Kopoıves]]''' ([[Kopoıves/Lexicon|lexicon]], [[Kopoıves/CR 22|relay text]])
* '''[[Arósen tayīgan]]''' ([[Arósen tayīgan/Lexicon|lexicon]])
** '''[[Endayin]]''' ([[Endayin/Lexicon|lexicon]])
* ''[[/Donut|Donutlang]]'', ''[[/Hamoluan|Hamoluan]]'', ''[[/Newyear|Newyearlang]]''
* [[Vindasingaįq sihaį]]

Other languages:
* ''[[/BND|Satie]]''
* [[/proto-A|Proto-A]]
** ''[[/Snow|Snowlang]]''
** ''[[/Cake|Cakelang]]''
* [[/preę|Pre-Numəsūr]]
** [[Numəsūr]]

Meta:
* [[/numb3rs|numerals comparison]]
* [[/pr0|pronouns comparison]]
* [[/medi|mediundic languages]]

----
<gallery>
File:Yal1.png
File:Yal2.png
File:Yal3.png
File:Yal4.png
File:Graph.pdf
File:Graph.png
File:Antarctica.png
File:Tuysafa.png
File:CR14.png
</gallery>

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T20:26:33Z

Pole, the:

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

[[Category:Languages of Tuysáfa]]

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T20:24:37Z

Pole, the: /* Verbs */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''». This doesn't influence pronunciation and is only done to make the spelling more morphologically transparent.

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T20:22:24Z

Pole, the: /* Object prefixes */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''».

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

The following object prefixes exist:
* '''i-''' (1sg or 1pl exclusive), e.g. '''i-uahiq''' ''theypl fight me/us''
* '''haini-''' (1pl inclusive), e.g. '''haini-uahiq''' ''theypl fight us all''
* '''hai-''' (2sg or 2pl), e.g. '''hai-uahiq''' ''theypl fight you'', '''ihai-uahių''' ''I fight you''
* '''ha(n)-''' (3sg feminine), e.g. '''han-uahiq''' ''theypl fight her'', '''hainihan-uahių''' ''we all fight her''
* '''ma-''' (3sg masculine), e.g. '''ma-uahiq''' ''theypl fight him'', '''haima-uahi''' ''yousg fight him''
* '''a-''' (3sg animal), e.g. '''a-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''ia-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''ti-''' (3sg inanimate), e.g. '''ti-uahiq''' ''theypl fight it'', '''haiti-uahiq''' ''youpl fight it''
* '''ngi-''' (3sg/pl environmental), e.g. '''ngi-uahių''' ''theysg fight it'', '''ingi-uahiq''' ''we fight it''
* '''nga-''' (3sg/pl collective), e.g. '''nga-uahių''' ''theysg fight thempl'', '''hainga-uahi''' ''yousg fight them''
* '''na-''' (3sg/pl mass nouns), e.g. '''na-uahių''' ''theysg fight it all'', '''ina-uahių''' ''I fight it all''

In many cases the ambiguities are resolved with subject class endings, see below:
* '''ha-iuku''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-u''' ''yousg rule over me'' (the ending suggests a '''''2sg''''' subject)
* '''ha-iukų''' ← '''∅-hai-iuku-ų''' ''theysg rule over you'' (the ending suggests a '''''3sg''''' subject)

However, sometimes the ambiguities persist:
* '''ha-iukuiq''' ← '''hai-i-iuku-uiq''' ''youpl rule over me'' or '''∅-hai-iuku-uiq''' ''theypl rule over you''

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T19:52:21Z

Pole, the: /* Subject person prefixes */

'''Vindasingaįq sihaį''' /ʋiⁿdɑsiŋgɑĩʔ siχɑĩ/ is a language spoken in Western [[Tuysafa]] around -500 [[YP]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Nasal stops
| /m/ «'''m'''»
| /n/ «'''n'''»
|rowspan=2| {{gray|[ɲ ~ ɲɟ]}}
|rowspan=2| /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ «'''ng'''»
|
|
|-
! Prenasalized stops
|
| /ⁿd/ «'''nd'''»
|
|
|-
! Plain stops
| /p/ «'''p'''»
| /t/ «'''t'''»
| {{gray|[c]}}
| /k/ «'''k'''»
|
| /ʔ/ «'''q'''»
|-
! Fricatives
|
| /s/ «'''s'''»
| {{gray|[ç]}}
|
| /χ/ «'''h'''»
|
|-
! Approximants
| /ʋ/ «'''v'''»
|
| {{gray|[i̯]}}
| {{gray|[u̯]}}
| {{gray|[ɑ̯]}}
|
|}

Notes:
* /ŋ ~ ŋɡ/ are two realizations of the same phoneme, occurring in free variation; [ŋ] tends to be more common word-initially and [ŋɡ] tends to be more common word-medially.
* [ɲ ɲɟ c ç] are palatalized variants of /ŋ ŋɡ k χ/, occurring before /i/.
* /ʔ/ occurs only word-finally and is the only one consonant allowed in that position.
* [i̯ u̯ ɑ̯] are the glide equivalents of /i u ɑ/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Monophthongs
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| /i ĩ/ «'''i į'''»
| /u ũ/ «'''u ų'''»
|-
! Open
|
| /ɑ ɑ̃/ «'''a ą'''»
|}

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Diphthongs
| /iɑ iɑ̃/ «'''ia ią'''»
| /iu iũ/ «'''iu ių'''»
| /uɑ uɑ̃/ «'''ua uą'''»
| /ui uĩ/ «'''ui uį'''»
| /ɑi ɑĩ/ «'''ai aį'''»
| /ɔu ɔũ/ «'''au aų'''»
|}

Notes:
* Nasal vowels are phonemic only word-finally. In other positions they can occur as allophones before nasal consonants.
* The word stress is not phonemic. It is usually drawn to the last diphthong in a word (although in words with multiple diphthongs, a free variation might be present). In words without diphthongs, the last syllable is stressed.

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

==== Class system ====

Vindasingaįq nouns can be divided into seven classes depending on their countability, animacy and gender. They fall into an animacy hierarchy which then determines the appropriate verb agreement.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Animacy hierarchy
! Countable
! Uncountable
|-
! Highest
|
| '''ngi''' (environment)
|-
!rowspan=2| Middle
| '''haį''' (feminine)
|rowspan=2| '''ngaiq''' (collective)
|-
| '''ma''' (masculine)
|-
! Lower
| '''a''' (animal)
|
|-
! Lowest
| '''tių''' (inanimate)
| '''na''' (mass nouns)
|}

==== Countables ====

===== HAĮ class =====

This class consists of feminine animate nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''haį''' and is homonymous with the irregular noun '''haį''' “woman”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''she'' / ''woman''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitihaį''' “widow”, '''niahaį''' “(female) neighbor”, '''nuiukiahaį''' “spinster”, '''ainiahaį''' “hostess” and '''kiuvuahaį''' “vixen”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitihaį''' ''widow''
| '''niahaį''' ''(female) neighbor''
| '''nuiukiahaį''' ''spinster''
| '''ainiahaį''' ''hostess''
| '''kiuvuahaį''' ''vixen''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''haįq'''
| nia'''haįq'''
| nuiukia'''haįq'''
| ainia'''haįq'''
| kiuvua'''haįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''hana'''
| nia'''hana'''
| nuiukia'''hana'''
| ainia'''hana'''
| kiuvua'''hana'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''hanį'''
| nia'''hanį'''
| nuiukia'''hanį'''
| ainia'''hanį'''
| kiuvua'''hanį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== MA class =====

This class consists of masculine animate and gender-neutral human nouns. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''ma''' and two irregular nouns are '''numa''' “man” and '''ama''' “human”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ma''' ''he'', ''they'' (sg)
| '''numa''' ''man''
| '''ama''' ''human''
|-
! Genitive
| '''maįq'''
| '''numaįq'''
| '''amaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''maia'''
| '''numaia'''
| '''amaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''mauį'''
| '''numauį'''
| '''amauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| —
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''naitima''' “widower”, '''nima''' “(male) neighbor”, '''nuiukuma''' “bachelor”, '''ainima''' “host” and '''kiuvuma''' “(male) fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''naitima''' ''widower''
| '''nima''' ''(male) neighbor''
| '''nuiukuma''' ''bachelor''
| '''ainima''' ''host''
| '''kiuvuma''' ''(male) fox''
|-
! Genitive
| naiti'''maįq'''
| ni'''maįq'''
| nuiuku'''maįq'''
| aini'''maįq'''
| kiuvu'''maįq'''
|-
! Dative
| naiti'''ma'''
| ni'''ma'''
| nuiuku'''ma'''
| aini'''ma'''
| kiuvu'''ma'''
|-
! Ablative
| naiti'''mauį'''
| ni'''mauį'''
| nuiuku'''mauį'''
| aini'''mauį'''
| kiuvu'''mauį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| naiti'''ngaiq'''
| ni'''ngaiq'''
| nuiuku'''angaiq'''
| aini'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== A class =====

This class consists of non-human animate nouns, mostly animals. Nouns of this class form collective plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''a'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''a''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''aia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''uį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''uviu''' “female animal”, '''ta''' “male animal”, '''uaupisa''' “reptile”, '''viukia''' “goose” and '''kiuvua''' “fox”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''uviu''' ''female animal''
| '''ta''' ''male animal''
| '''uaupisa''' ''reptile''
| '''viukia''' ''goose''
| '''kiuvua''' ''fox''
|-
! Genitive
| uviu'''aįq'''
| t'''aįq'''
| uaupis'''aįq'''
| viuki'''aįq'''
| kiuvu'''aįq'''
|-
! Dative
| uviu'''a'''
| t'''a'''
| uaupis'''a'''
| viuki'''a'''
| kiuvu'''a'''
|-
! Ablative
| uvi'''uį'''
| ta'''uį'''
| uaupis'''uį'''
| viuki'''uį'''
| kiuvua'''uį'''
|-
! Collective noun
| uviu'''angaiq'''
| ta'''ngaiq'''
| uaupisi'''ngaiq'''
| viukiti'''ngaiq'''
| kiuvu'''angaiq'''
|}

===== TIŲ class =====

This class consists of countable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class form mass plurals.

The pronoun for this class is '''tių'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''tių''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''tįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''tiuva'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''tiuvį'''
|}

A few irregular nouns in this class are '''iuvu''' “nose”, '''iakau''' “house”, '''pauq''' “shirt”, '''nasi''' “leg”, '''ainda''' “foot”, '''sata''' “eye” and '''kių''' “stone”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iuvu''' ''nose''
| '''iakau''' ''house''
| '''pauq''' ''shirt''
| '''nasi''' ''leg''
| '''ainda''' ''foot''
| '''sata''' ''eye''
| '''kių''' ''stone''
|-
! Genitive
| iuvu'''tįq'''
| iakau'''kįq'''
| pau'''kįq'''
| nasi'''tįq'''
| ainda'''tįq'''
| sata'''itįq'''
| kiu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iuvu'''a'''
| iakau'''a'''
| pau'''a'''
| nas'''ia'''
| aind'''a'''
| sata'''ia'''
| kiu'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| iuv'''uį'''
| iaka'''uį'''
| pa'''uį'''
| nasi'''uį'''
| ainda'''uį'''
| sat'''uį'''
| kiu'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| iuvu'''na'''
| iakau'''na'''
| pau'''kuna'''
| nasi'''na'''
| ainda'''na'''
| sata'''ina'''
| kiu'''huna'''
|}

A regular inflection table looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''~u ~uq'''
| '''~i ~iq'''
| '''~a ~aq'''
| '''~ų ~ųq'''
| '''~į ~įq'''
| '''~ą ~ąq'''
|-
! Genitive
| '''-pįq'''
| '''-tįq'''
| '''-kįq'''
| '''-mįq'''
| '''-ndįq'''
| '''-ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''~ua'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-va'''
| '''-na'''
| '''-ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''~uį'''
| '''~į'''
| '''~aį'''
| '''-vį'''
| '''-nį'''
| '''-hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| '''~una ~puna'''
| '''~ina ~tina'''
| '''~aina ~kina'''
| '''~vuna ~muna'''
| '''~nina ~ndina'''
| '''~hina ~ngina'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''ndiuiuvu''' “smell”, '''savui''' “head”, '''aiq''' “wall”, '''napua''' “ear”, '''ngiaiųq''' “tooth”, '''hahaitaį''' “bloodline” and '''puą''' “room”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ndiuiuvu''' ''smell''
| '''savui''' ''head''
| '''aiq''' ''wall''
| '''napua''' ''ear''
| '''ngiaiųq''' ''tooth''
| '''hahaitaį''' ''bloodline''
| '''puą''' ''room''
|-
! Genitive
| ndiuiuvu'''pįq'''
| savui'''tįq'''
| ai'''tįq'''
| napua'''kįq'''
| ngiai'''mįq'''
| hahaita'''ndįq'''
| pua'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| ndiuiuv'''ua'''
| savu'''ia'''
| a'''ia'''
| napu'''a'''
| ngiai'''va'''
| hahaita'''na'''
| pua'''ha'''
|-
! Ablative
| ndiuiuv'''uį'''
| savu'''į'''
| a'''į'''
| napu'''aį'''
| ngiai'''vį'''
| hahaita'''nį'''
| pua'''hį'''
|-
! Mass noun
| ndiuiuv'''una'''
| savu'''ina'''
| ai'''tina'''
| napu'''aina'''
| ngiai'''muna'''
| hahaita'''nina'''
| pua'''hina'''
|}

==== Uncountables ====

===== NGI class =====

This class consists of uncountable animate nouns, mostly environmental forces and natural phenomena. These nouns don't have plural forms and can't be formed from singular nouns of other classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngi'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngi''' ''it''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngiuį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''iangungi''' “earth”, '''aungi''' “sun”, '''iuiungi ''' “ice”, '''tiaungi''' “star” and '''kiuvungi''' “river(s)”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''iangungi''' ''earth''
| '''aungi''' ''sun''
| '''iuiungi''' ''ice''
| '''tiaungi''' ''star''
| '''kiuvungi''' ''river(s)''
|-
! Genitive
| iangu'''ngįq'''
| au'''ngįq'''
| iuiu'''ngįq'''
| tiau'''ngįq'''
| kiuvu'''ngįq'''
|-
! Dative
| iangu'''ngia'''
| au'''ngia'''
| iuiu'''ngia'''
| tiau'''ngia'''
| kiuvu'''ngia'''
|-
! Ablative
| iangu'''ngiuį'''
| au'''ngiuį'''
| iuiu'''ngiuį'''
| tiau'''ngiuį'''
| kiuvu'''ngiuį'''
|}

===== NGAIQ class =====

This class consists of collective animate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the HAĮ, MA and A classes.

The pronoun for this class is '''ngaiq'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ngaiq''' ''they all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''ngaia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''ngaį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''vindasingaiq''' “the Vindasingaiq tribe”, '''hainingaiq''' “women”, '''numangaiq ''' “men”, '''amangaiq''' “people” and '''uangaiq''' “vermin”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''vindasingaiq''' ''the Vindasingaiq tribe''
| '''hainingaiq''' ''women''
| '''numangaiq''' ''men''
| '''amangaiq''' ''people''
| '''uangaiq''' ''vermin''
|-
! Genitive
| vindasi'''ngaįq'''
| haini'''ngaįq'''
| numa'''ngaįq'''
| ama'''ngaįq'''
| ua'''ngaįq'''
|-
! Dative
| vindasi'''nga'''
| haini'''nga'''
| numa'''nga'''
| ama'''nga'''
| ua'''nga'''
|-
! Ablative
| vindasi'''ngauį'''
| haini'''ngauį'''
| numa'''ngauį'''
| ama'''ngauį'''
| ua'''ngauį'''
|}

===== NA class =====

This class consists of uncountable inanimate nouns. Nouns of this class can be formed from singular nouns of the TIŲ class.

The pronoun for this class is '''na'''.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''na''' ''it all''
|-
! Genitive
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''nauį'''
|}

Examples of regular nouns in this class include '''kikaina''' “grass”, '''kiaina''' “sound”, '''vaina''' “jewelry”, '''nukuna''' “tools”, '''aiangana''' “travel” and '''piuna''' “fat, oil”.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''kikaina''' ''grass''
| '''kiaina''' ''sound''
| '''vaina''' ''jewelry''
| '''nukuna''' ''tools''
| '''aiangana''' ''travel''
| '''piuna''' ''fat, oil''
|-
! Genitive
| kikai'''naįq'''
| kiai'''naįq'''
| vai'''naįq'''
| nuku'''naįq'''
| aianga'''naįq'''
| piu'''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| kikai'''na'''
| kiai'''na'''
| vai'''na'''
| nuku'''na'''
| aianga'''na'''
| piu'''na'''
|-
! Ablative
| kikai'''nauį'''
| kiai'''nauį'''
| vai'''nauį'''
| nuku'''nauį'''
| aianga'''nauį'''
| piu'''nauį'''
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Personal pronouns ====

There is a class-gender split in first person singular and third person pronouns. Additionally, there is a clusivity distinction in first person plural pronouns.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1. ''exc''
| '''ihaį''' ''fem'' '''iuma''' ''masc''
| '''ingaiq'''
|-
! 1. ''inc''
|
| '''haini'''
|-
! 2.
| '''hai'''
| '''haingaiq'''
|-
! 3.
| '''haį''' ''fem'' '''ma''' ''masc'' '''a''' ''an'' '''tių''' ''inan''
| '''ngi''' ''env'' '''ngaiq''' ''coll'' '''na''' ''mn''
|}

===== Declension =====

First and second person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''ihaį''' ''1sg fem''
| '''iuma''' ''1sg masc''
| '''ingaiq''' ''1pl exc''
| '''haini''' ''1pl inc''
!rowspan=4|
| '''hai''' ''2sg''
| '''haingaiq''' ''2pl''
|-
! Genitive
| '''ihaįq'''
| '''iumaįq'''
| '''ingaįq'''
| '''hainingaįq'''
| '''haiungįq'''
| '''haingaįq'''
|-
! Dative
|colspan=2| '''ia'''
| '''inga'''
| '''hainia'''
| '''haia'''
| '''hainga'''
|-
! Ablative
|colspan=2| '''iuį'''
| '''ingauį'''
| '''hainiuį'''
| '''haį'''
| '''haingaį'''
|}

Third person pronouns:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Nominative
| '''haį''' ''3sg fem''
| '''ma''' ''3sg masc''
| '''a''' ''3sg an''
| '''tių''' ''3sg inan''
| '''ngi''' ''3sg/pl env''
| '''ngaiq''' ''3sg/pl coll''
| '''na''' ''3sg/pl mn''
|-
! Genitive
| '''haįq'''
| '''maįq'''
| '''aįq'''
| '''tįq'''
| '''ngįq'''
| '''ngaįq'''
| '''naįq'''
|-
! Dative
| '''haina'''
| '''maia'''
| '''aia'''
| '''tiuva'''
| '''ngia'''
| '''ngaia'''
| '''naia'''
|-
! Ablative
| '''hainį'''
| '''mauį'''
| '''uį'''
| '''tiuvį'''
| '''ngiuį'''
| '''ngaį'''
| '''nauį'''
|}

=== Verbs ===

Adjectives and verbs are put into a common grammatical class.

The structure of an inflected verb looks as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!class="c"| -2
! -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| subject person
| object person / class
| {{gray|'''root'''}}
| subject class
| irrealis (optional)
|}

Verb prefixes are separated from the stem with a hyphen «'''-'''».

Occurrences of the same vowel blend together, e.g. '''hai-''' + '''iukimi''' → '''ha-iukimi'''. Sometimes it can lead to ambiguities, e.g. '''iukimių''' can be analyzed either as '''∅-iukim-ių''' or as '''i-iukim-ių'''.

==== Subject person prefixes ====

The following subject person prefixes can be applied to a verb:

'''i-''' — first person singular and first person plural exclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''i-auaų''' ''I am bald'', '''i-auaiq''' ''we are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''i-naitakaų''' ''I am thirsty'', '''i-naitakaiq''' ''we are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

'''haini-''' — first person plural inclusive:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''haini-auaų''' ''we all are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''haini-naitakaų''' ''we all are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''hain-iukimių''' ''we all are wet''

'''hai-''' — second person:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''hai-aua''' ''yousg are bald'', '''hai-auaiq''' ''youpl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''hai-naitaki''' ''yousg are thirsty'', '''hai-naitakaiq''' ''youpl are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''ha-iukimi''' ''yousg are wet'', '''ha-iukimaiq''' ''youpl are wet''

Third person is unmarked:
* '''aua''' ''be bald'' → '''auaų''' ''theysg are bald'', '''auaiq''' ''theypl are bald''
* '''naitaki''' ''be thirsty'' → '''naitakaų''' ''theysg are thirsty'', '''naitakaiq''' ''theysg are thirsty''
* '''iukimi''' ''be wet'' → '''iukimių''' ''I am wet'' / ''theysg are wet'', '''iukimaiq''' ''we are wet'' / ''theypl are wet'' (ambiguous forms)

==== Object prefixes ====

==== Subject class endings ====

Verbs are inflected into four forms:
* '''I''' — used with '''''2sg''''' subjects and with subjects of the '''ngi''' ''environmental'' class, also used as the basic dictionary form;
* '''II''' — used with '''''1sg''''' subjects (both masculine and feminine), '''''1pl inclusive''''' subjects and with the '''haį''' ''feminine'' and '''ma''' ''masculine'' classes;
* '''III''' — used with subjects of the '''a''' ''animal'' and '''tių''' ''inanimate'' classes;
* '''IV''' — used with subjects of the '''ngaiq''' ''collective'' and '''na''' ''mass nouns'' classes.

Verbs are divided into six inflectional types, according to their conjugation pattern:
* type '''1a''' comprises verbs with basic forms ending with '''a i u''', this type covers around 30% of verbs;
* type '''1b''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a i''' and differs from the type '''1a''' only in irrealis forms, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''1c''' comprises some of the verbs ending in '''a''' which turns to '''u''' in some forms, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''2''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a labial consonant, this type covers around 20% of verbs;
* type '''3''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a coronal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs;
* type '''4''' comprises verbs ending in '''i''' often preceded by a dorsal consonant, this type covers around 10% of verbs.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!rowspan=2| Form
!colspan=7| Type
|-
!colspan=3 class="c"| 1a/1b
! 1c
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! I
| '''~a'''
| '''~i'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~a'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
| '''-i'''
|-
! II
| '''~aų'''
| '''~ių'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''~ų'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-ių'''
| '''-aų'''
|-
! III
| '''~au'''
| '''~ia'''
| '''~u'''
| '''~u'''
| '''-u'''
| '''-a'''
| '''-a'''
|-
! IV
| '''~aiq'''
| '''~iq'''
| '''~uiq'''
| '''~aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
| '''-aiq'''
|}

Examples of inflected verbs:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! I
| '''vina''' ''be false''
| '''uhi''' ''be small''
| '''nanuku''' ''be useful''
| '''kianga''' ''be fruitful'', ''be plentiful''
| '''iukiuvi''' ''be wide''
| '''kini''' ''know''
| '''asiki''' ''have taste''
|-
! II
| vin'''aų'''
| uh'''ių'''
| nanuk'''ų'''
| kiang'''ų'''
| iukiuv'''ių'''
| kin'''ių'''
| asik'''aų'''
|-
! III
| vin'''au'''
| uh'''ia'''
| nanuk'''u'''
| kiang'''u'''
| iukiuv'''u'''
| kini'''a''' *
| asik'''a'''
|-
! IV
| vin'''aiq'''
| uh'''iq'''
| nanuk'''uiq'''
| kiang'''aiq'''
| iukiuv'''aiq'''
| kini'''aiq''' *
| asik'''aiq'''
|}

: *) Please note that in the case of '''kini''' ''to know'', the root to which the endings are added, is '''kini-''', not '''kin-'''.

=== Numerals ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Number
! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| {{gray|(vuina)}} || {{gray|(vuinaįq)}} || —
|-
! 1
| vaisi || vainisi || —
|-
! 2
| kuau || kuapįq || niq
|-
! 3
| pią || pinį || tipią
|-
! 4
| ndaisi || ndainisi || ni
|-
! 5
| ndauva || ndainiva || tindauva
|-
! 6
| ndai || ndaini || tindai
|-
! 7
| ndaupią || ndaupinį || tindaupią
|-
! 8
| inda || ininda || tinda
|-
! 9
| uhina || uhinatįq || tiuhina
|-
! 10
| kiumi || kinimi || tikiumi
|}

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T19:30:38Z

Pole, the: /* Verbs */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T19:28:28Z

Pole, the: /* Numerals */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T16:23:23Z

Pole, the: /* Declension */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T16:21:30Z

Pole, the: /* Personal pronouns */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-28T16:21:07Z

Pole, the: /* Numerals */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T11:30:33Z

Pole, the: /* A class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T11:17:45Z

Pole, the: /* TIŲ class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T11:09:34Z

Pole, the: /* Uncountables */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T03:18:27Z

Pole, the: /* Declension examples */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T03:17:49Z

Pole, the: /* NGAIQ class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T03:07:07Z

Pole, the: /* TIŲ class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T02:47:00Z

Pole, the: /* NA class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T02:16:40Z

Pole, the: /* TIŲ class */

Vindasingaįq sihaį

2019-01-26T02:15:20Z

Pole, the: /* Class system */