AkanaWiki - User contributions [en]

Faralo alphabet

2026-08-14T12:46:04Z

Inzan: Redirected page to Fáralo alphabet

#REDIRECT [[Fáralo alphabet]]

Languages of Akana/Isles

2026-08-11T01:18:18Z

Inzan:

* [[Proto-Isles]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - Ran)}}
** [[Thokyunèhòta]] {{context|(Sumarušuxi, c. -300 YP - v2.0 by [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]], v1.0 by Legion)}}
** [[Naxuutayi]] {{context|(Sumarušuxi, c. 0-200 YP - Legion)}}
** [[Mûtsipsa']] {{context|(Mûtsinamtsys, c. 0-200 YP - Rory)}}
*** [[Kozzaŋ Fasa]] {{context|(Mûtsinamtsys, c. 1000 YP - Radius Solis)}}
** [[Máotatšàlì]] {{context|(Tymytỳs, c. 0-200 YP - kolyn)}}
** '''Zelic languages'''
*** [[Zele]] {{context|(northwestern Zeluzhia, c. 0-200 YP - v2.0 by [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]], v1.0 by brandrinn)}}
*** [[User:Radius/Kiizwaye|Kiizwaye]] {{context|(Zeluzhia, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
** [[Ppãrwak]] {{context|(Ttiruku, c. 0-200 YP - Avaja)}}
** [[Affanonic]] {{context|(Affalinnei, c. -200 YP - [[User:Basilius|Basilius]])}}

Zod

2026-08-10T10:18:46Z

Inzan: Redirected page to User:Radius/Zod

#REDIRECT [[user:Radius/Zod]]

Damak

2026-08-10T01:52:24Z

Inzan: Created page with "The Damak were a people living in the lower Eiwəl Gourun. Their language descended from Proto-Xoronic, and is close to Habeo. In c. -500 YP, The Damak successfully rebelled against the nomad Mohudza, and then declared war against the settled Mohudza. {{stub}} Category:Xoronic languages"

The Damak were a people living in the lower [[Eiwəl Gourun]]. Their language descended from [[Proto-Xoronic]], and is close to [[Habeo languages|Habeo]].

In c. -500 YP, The Damak successfully rebelled against the nomad Mohudza, and then declared war against the settled Mohudza.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Xoronic languages]]

Aiwa canal

2026-08-05T10:54:54Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
The [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] had a few early engineering achievements, most notable of which was a canal (the name of which is no longer remembered) from a branch of the lower [[Aiwa valley|Aiwa]] twenty miles to the nearest arm of the sea. It was dug over the course of a generation by slave labor, building on the previous aborted attempts by the [[Ngauro]] to do the same. it did not actually connect to the Aiwa at the upper end; instead, a long ramp rose out of the end of the canal and descended into the Aiwa on the other side, with ships being pulled across the ramps over log rollers by - you guessed it - up to several hundred slaves pulling ropes tied to the ship.

The original canal did not include the ramp, the waterway opening directly into the Aiwa, but this arrangement caused most of the river to divert down the narrow canal in a torrent sufficient to prevent upstream travel.

The canal was necessary for ships to get from the river to the sea or vice versa; the Aiwa does not empty into the sea by a single channel, but instead splits and splits again into a thousand small and shallow channels winding though the flat, swampy delta, which change course every time the river floods.

== See also ==
* [[Ndak Empire]]
* [[Kasca]]
{{Stub}}
[[Category:Culture]]

Eiwəl Gourun

2026-08-04T05:13:58Z

Inzan: /* Names */

{{Article}}
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of the '''Eiwəl Gourun''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:48px; right:240px; font-size:smaller">
'''Eiwəl Gourun'''
</div>
</div>
[[Image:Sc_arid-5_.png|thumb|right|300px|Wide plains in the Eiwəl Gourun.]]

The name '''Eiwəl Gourun''' refers to the arid regions near the upper [[Aiwa]] river. This area has been home to different nomadic tribes for millennia; among them the [[Meshi]] and the [[Habeo languages|Habeo]].

=Names=
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Gauron Emwel
| [ˈɡaʊ.rõn ˈɛm.wɛl]
| ''"western steppe"''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Eiwəl Gourun
| [ˈe.wəl ˈɡo.ɾun]
| ← {{NT|Gauron Emwel}}
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Gauxod Êbôxel
| [ɡawˈʔoʔ ɛ̈.βɞˈʔel]
| ← {{NT|Gauron Emwel}}
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Xōron Eiel
| [ˈxoː.ron ˈe.jel]
| ← {{NT|Gauron Emwel}}
|-
! [[Naidda]]
| Oroñël
| [ˈo.ro.ɲɛl]
| ← {{Ad|Xōron Eiel}}
|-
! [[Wippwo]]
| Oangell
| [ˈwa.ŋɛʎ]
| ← {{Ndd|Oroñël}}
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Xōron Īl
| [ˌxoː.ɾɔn ˈiːl]
| ← {{Ad|Xōron Eiel}}
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Hornīl
| ['hɔr.niːl]
| ← {{Ad|Xōron Eiel}}
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| Xôronêjel
| [ˈxo.rɔ.ne.jɛl]
| ← {{Ad|Xōron Eiel}}
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| Ġóroaņeıel
| [ˈɦoː.ɹɔ.ɲe.ɛl]
| ← {{Ad|Xōron Eiel}}
|-
! [[Proto-Xoronic]]
| Ǝqa:hlun əm ippi:
| [əˈqɑːh.lun əm ip.piː]
| ''"the Steppe and Grass"''
|-
! [[Habeo languages#Proto-Habeo|Proto-Habeo]]
| Quɬun em e:pi
| [ˈqo.ɬun ɛm 'ɛː.pi]
| ← {{PX|Ǝqa:hlun əm ippi:}}
|-
|-
! [[Shtåså]]
| Kysuñemif
| [kɨ.'su.ɲe.mif ]
| ← ''Quɬun em e:pi''
|-
|}

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Regions]]

Languages of Akana/Edastean

2026-08-04T05:00:15Z

Inzan:

* [[Ndak Ta]] {{context|(Eigə valley, c. -1800 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
** Western Edastean languages:
*** [[Ndok Aisô]] {{context|(Lasomo, c. 0-200 YP - v2.0 by [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]] and [[User:Cedh|Cedh]], v1.0 by ghur [http://akana.conlang.org/files/ndok_aiso.html])}}
*** '''Dāiadak languages''': [[Adāta]] {{context|(Rathedān, c. 0-200 YP - [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]])}}
**** Lasomoran languages: [[Æðadĕ]] {{context|(Lasomo, c. 1000 YP - ebilein)}}
***** [[Yād]] {{context|(Lasomo, c. 1600 YP - gsandi)}}
****** [[Zhaj]] {{context|(c. 2500 YP - con quesa)}}
******* [[Aríe]] {{context|(c. 3700 YP - [[User:Tzirtzi|TzirTzi]])}}
******** [[Arie]] {{context|(c. 4500 YP - Nuntar)}}
********* [[ʔAghïyï]] {{context|(c. 5200 YP - [[User:Kodé|kodé]])}}
****** [[Yēt]] {{context|(c. 2500 YP - [[User:Tzirtzi|TzirTzi]])}}
**** Athalēran languages:
***** [[Aθáta]] {{context|(Rathedān, c. 1000 YP - RHaden)}}
****** [[E'át]] {{context|(Milīr valley, c. 1600 YP - Rory)}}
******* [[Yhát]] {{context|(Xšali, c. 2400 YP - Starsinger)}}
******** [[Öhat]] {{context|(Xšali, c. 3000 YP - Whimemsz)}}
******** [[Erhadzy]] {{context|(Lesan, c. 3700 YP - [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]])}}
********* Orrótx {{context|(Lesan, c. 4600 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
***** [[Aθáta/Sawîyaran|Arâta Sawîyaran]] {{context|(Thabīa valley, c. 1000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] - classified as a dialect of Aθáta)}}
**** Tharāran languages: [[Ayāsthi]] {{context|Thāraspē, c. 1600 YP - [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]] - v1.0 [http://zhenlin.nfshost.com/akana/ayasth/ayasth.html here])}}
***** [[A'gɑf]] [http://thelegion.free.fr/agaf/introduction.htm] {{context|(c. 2500 YP - Legion)}}
****** [[Yïåf]] [http://akana.conlang.org/files/yiaf.txt] {{context|(c. 3200 - 3500 YP - jmcd)}}
******* [[Ghaf]]  [http://akana.conlang.org/files/ghaf2.html] {{context|(c. 3800 - 4000 YP - [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]])}}
******** [[Xa']] {{context|(c. 4800 YP - Ink Pudding)}}
**** Khalanuran languages: [[Mavakhalan]] {{context|(Khalanu, c. 1000 YP - [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]])}}
***** [[Ājat he-Heloun]] {{context|(Khalanu, c. 1700 YP - [[User:4pq1injbok|4pq1injbok]])}}
**** Koyic languages:
***** [[Koyek]] [http://thelegion.free.fr/open/koyek.htm] {{context|(northwestern Rathedān, c. 600 YP - Legion)}}
***** [[Kozado]] {{context|(northwestern Rathedān, c. 1200 YP - Legion)}}
****** Kōt {{context|(c. 2000 YP - [[User:Kodé|kodé]])}}
**** [[Kuyʔūn]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. 1200 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
**** [[Pencek]] {{context|(western Ici Forest, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
** Eastern Edastean languages:
*** [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]] {{context|(Kasca, c. 0-200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]] - v1.0 [http://staff.washington.edu/salmiak/akana/naidda.html here] ''{broken link → [http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda.html backup]}'')}}
**** [[Wippwo|Neire Wippwo]] {{context|(Kasca, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Arzena|Arzena]])}}
*** [[Buruya Nzaysa]] {{context|(Buruya, c. 200-400 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]], [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]] - classified as a dialect of Naidda)}}
**** [[Dendana/Vuuyin Zayxa|Vuuyin Zayxa]] {{context|(Buruya, c. 1300-1500 YP - [[User:Dendana|Dendana]])}}
*** '''Fáralo languages''': [[Fáralo]] {{context|(Huyfárah, c. 0-200 YP - zompist)}}
**** [[Puoni]] {{context|(eastern Ici Forest, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
**** [[Namɨdu]] {{context|(southern Huyfárah, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]])}}
***** [[Nåmúþ]] {{context|(southern Hufárah and northern Kasca, c. 2000 YP - [[User:Dē Graut Bʉr|Dē Graut Bʉr]])}}
**** [[Farwo n-Abebbu]] {{context|(Azbǽbu, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] - classified as a dialect of Namɨdu)}}
**** [[Fallo na Mendia]] {{context|(Mæmedéi, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]] - classified as a dialect of Namɨdu)}}
**** [[Woltu Falla]] {{context|(Oltu valley, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]])}}
**** [[Cəssın]] {{context|(Isthmus south coast, c. 1100 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
*** [[Komejech]]  {{context|(Dagæm islands, c. 0-200 YP - Legion)}}
** Northern Edastean languages:
*** [[Qedik]] {{context|(Isthmus north coast, c. 0-200 YP - Space Dracula)}}

Writing systems of Akana

2026-08-04T01:00:08Z

Inzan:

'''[[Oryziform]]''' {{context|(Ngauro)}}
*[[Ndak logosyllabary]] {{context|(Ndak Ta)}}
**[[Fáralo alphabet]] {{context|(Fáralo, Fáralo languages, Naidda)}}
***[[Luyíma alphabet]] {{context|(Vuuyin Zayxa)}}

'''[[Xšali script|Xšali logographic script]]''' {{context|(Xšali, Shtåså)}}

'''Early Ōshinese ideogram''' {{context|(Proto-Anatolionesian)}}
*Hazōken script {{context|(Hazōken)}}
*Ōmishiman abugida {{context|(Imperial Ōmishiman)}}
==Unclassified==

[[Deraighaw-A]] {{context|(Deraighaw)}}

Lukpanic script {{context|(Lukpanic languages, Coastal-Western languages, Tmaśareʔ)}}

"Ngauro script" {{context|(probably just Ndak logosyllabary?)}} {{context|(Buruya Nzaysa, Ndok Aisô, Puoni, Namɨdu, Aysuchi Meshi, Pencek)}}

Nopa script {{context|(probably from Lukpanic script?)}} {{context|(Sahaśe)}}

Takuña script {{context|(Takuña, Mûtsipsa‘)}}

Tjakori script {{context|(probably from Xšali script?)}} {{context|(Tjakori ?, Gezoro, Adāta, Dāiadak languages)}}

[[Category:Writing|*]]

{{Stub}}

Ndak Ta

2026-08-04T00:43:45Z

Inzan:

{{Language
| language = Ndak Ta
| phonetic = [n̩ˈdɐk.ta]
| date = c. -1900 YP
| place = Kasca, Aiwa valley, Rathedān, Sau Ibli
| speakers = c. 6 million
| script = [[Ndak logosyllabary]]
| family = Macro-Edastean  Talo-Edastean   Ndak Ta
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = mixed
| morphalign = Split-S
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Ndak Ta''' is the language of the ancient [[Ndak Empire]] based in [[Kasca|Kasadgad]] around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. During the reign of emperor [[Tsinakan text|Tsinakan]] (r. -1915 to -1889 YP), the empire came to dominate the whole lower and middle [[Aiwa valley]], the [[Rathedān]] highlands, and the coast up to the Čisse river in the north and the Şepamã river in the south. As a result, the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]] descended from Ndak Ta became the most important linguistic group in north-central [[Peilaš]] for many millennia.

= Genealogy =
Ndak Ta itself belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. It is most closely related to [[Antagg]], spoken on the upper Bwimbai, and [[Tlaliolz]], spoken in the forest of Lu Tal. Another, more remote relative of Ndak Ta is [[Proto-Xoronic]], the ancestor of the [[Habeo languages]] and [[Damak]].

* Proto-Macro-Edastean (c. -3500 YP)
** [[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] (c. -2500 YP)
*** Antaggic
**** [[Antagg]] (c. -1900 YP)
*** Talo
**** [[Tlaliolz]] (wordlist from 300 YP)
*** Edastean
**** '''Ndak Ta''' (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Proto-Xoronic]] (c. -2500 YP)

== Descendants ==
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-edastean-100.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the immediate daughter languages of Ndak Ta, dating to 100 YP.]]
Ndak Ta is the ancestor of the [[Edastean languages]], one of [[Akana]]'s largest language families. It had six immediate descendants, the most important of which were ''Adāta'' and ''Fáralo''.

* Western Edastean:
** '''Dāiadak languages''': [[Adāta]] ([[Rathedān]])
** [[Ndok Aisô]] ([[Lasomo|Axôltseubeu]])
* Eastern Edastean:
** '''Fáralo languages''': [[Fáralo]] ([[Huyfárah]])
** [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]] ([[Kasca]])
** [[Buruya Nzaysa]] ([[Buruya]])
** [[Komejech]] ([[Dagæm islands]])
* Northern Edastean
** [[Qedik]] (north coast)

= Phonology =
{{/Phonology}}
= Grammar =
{{/Grammar - Basics}}
{{/Grammar - Additional stuff}}
= Sample text =
{{/Sample text}}
= Lexicon =
* [[Ndak Ta/Lexicon]]

= See also =
* [[Ndak Empire]]

[[Category:Talo-Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Ndak Empire]]

Talk:Writing systems of Akana

2026-08-04T00:26:27Z

Inzan: Created page with "Since some writings systems doesn't have enough information, I should label them as unclassified {{context|- Inzan}}"

Since some writings systems doesn't have enough information, I should label them as unclassified {{context|- [[User:Inzan|Inzan]]}}

Languages of Akana/Western

2026-08-03T13:29:42Z

Inzan:

* [[Proto-Western]] {{context|(Peilaš west coast, c. -3500 YP - [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]])}}
** Coastal languages
*** [[Proto-Coastal-Western]] {{context|(Lukpanic coast, c. -1800 YP - Legion, [[User:Tzirtzi|TzirTzi]])}}
**** [[Ìletlégbàku]] {{context|(Nugbùn, c. -900 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
**** [[Doayâu]] {{context|(Pítau, c. -500 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
**** [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] {{context|(Ishe, c. -450 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]])}}
**** [[U Bol]] {{context|(Doanu, c. -200 YP - CatDoom)}}
** Steppe languages
*** [[Iŋomœ́|Iŋom{{IPA|œ́}}]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Eodrakken|eodrakken]])}}
**** [[Satnímʔa]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -1000 YP - Kohorik)}}
***** [[ʔuulhemoo]] {{context|(Peilaš northwest coast, c. 100 YP - CatDoom)}}
**** [[Hanheliubl]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -1000 YP - Nortaneous)}}
** Lake languages (Wañelin languages)
*** [[Çetázó]] {{context|(Wañelin, c. -2000 YP - WeepingElf)}}
**** [[Óhylvídós]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -900 YP - Ingolemo)}}
***** [[Ohilí]] {{context|(c. -300 YP - Abi)}}
***** [[Ayčasamo]] {{context|(northwestern Xōron Eiel, c. 300 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]])}}
**** [[Šetâmol]] {{context|(Wañelin, c. -500 YP - Curlyjimsam)}}
**** [[Shtåså]] {{context|(Tjakori & northern Xšalad, c. -500 YP - [[User:Arzena|Arzena]])}}
**** [[Hośər]] {{context|(West Peilaš steppe, c. -600 YP - [[User:Caedes|caedes]])}}
** Plateau languages (Gezoro languages)
*** [[Gezoro]] {{context|(Rathedān, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
*** [[Tjakori]] {{context|(Tjakori valley, c. -1000 YP)}}
** Valley languages
*** [[Empotle7á]] {{context|(Coastal corridor, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Arzena|Arzena]])}}
**** [[Melì]] {{context|(Coastal corridor, c. -1000 YP - Mouse-tache)}}
** Desert languages
*** [[Tmaśareʔ]] {{context|(Kipceʔ desert, c. -1800 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}
**** [[Sahaśe]] {{context|(Southern Peilaš, c. -600 YP - [[User:Mouse-tache|Mouse-tache]])}}
** Mountain languages
*** [[Mountain Western]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -1800 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

Writing systems of Akana

2026-08-03T13:24:01Z

Inzan:

Writing systems of Akana

2026-08-03T13:22:11Z

Inzan: Created page with "'''Oryziform''' {{context|(Ngauro)}} *Ndak logosyllabary {{context|(Ndak Ta)}} **Fáralo alphabet {{context|(Fáralo, Fáralo languages, Naidda)}} ***Luyíma alphabet {{context|(Vuuyin Zayxa)}} '''Xšali script''' {{context|(Xšali, Shtåså)}} ==Unclassified== Deraighaw-A {{context|(Deraighaw)}} Lukpanic script {{context|(Lukpanic languages, Coastal-Western languages, Tmaśareʔ)}} Nopa script {{context|(Sahaśe)}} Takuña script {{context|..."

Ru Negwẽ

2026-08-03T13:12:17Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Ru Negwẽ
| phonetic = [ʀu nəgʷə̃]
| date = c. -900 YP
| place = [[Naəgbum]] (Lukpanic coast)
| speakers = unknown
| script = Lukpanic script
| family = [[Lukpanic]]  Naəgbum dialect
| word-or = head-initial
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = unknown
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]; this dialect: [[User:Alces|Alces]]
}}

This is a brief, primarily phonological sketch of the Naəgbum dialect of [[Lukpanic languages|Lukpanic]], which was spoken in the peripheral city of [[Naəgbum]] (known as '''Negwẽ''' [nəgʷə̃] to its members). It describes it at the time of around -900 BP. Naəgbum was one of the earliest cities to be captured by [[Proto-Coastal-Western|Coastal Western]] peoples, of the [[Ìletlégbàku]] tribe--it was already starting to be overrun at this time.

== Sound changes from Proto-Lukpanic ==

# /v/ disappears everywhere except initially where it becomes /ʋ/. If two identical vowels come together as a result of this, they dissimilate into a glide: /ii/ > /iə/, /uu/ > /uə/, /aa/ > /aə/.
# Non-initial nasals disappear, nasalising the previous vowel. The labial-velar /ŋm/ becomes /m/, while still nasalising the previous vowel.
# /i u/ > /ə/ when unstressed, but not before /a/ or /ə/.
# /iə uə/ > /ɨ/ when unstressed.
# Nasalised /i u/ shift to /ɨ/ too.
# /aə/ merges into /ə/.
# /h/ shifts to /ʀ/.
# Labial-velars shift to labialised velars.

== Background ==

Naəgbum was the easternmost of the principal Lukpanic cities, and the first to be captured by Coastal Western peoples. It was rather backward compared to some of the authors, and was ruled by an autocratic king (whose title was '''metĩea''' 'all the elders', in reference to the councils of elders which ruled some of the other cities). In -985 YP, the city was invaded by Coastal Westerners speaking [[Ìletlégbàku]]. The old king was deposed and one of the Coastal Western chiefs proclaimed himself the '''mutĩea''' (in Ìletlégbàku, '''mutìnge''').

The city's population was not affected greatly, however. Instead, the Lukpanics actually prospered for a short while; in-fighting among the Westerners allowed the city to occasionally restore indigenous rule under the councils of elders. The Coastal Western speakers were only a small proportion of the population, though increasing: there were about 15,000 of them, out of a total population in Naəgbum of 75,000, in -900 YP. By this time, however, Coastal Western rule under a single '''mutìnge''' had been firmly established. Gradually, the Naəgbum dialect speakers shifted to Ìletlégbàku. By -400 YP, the language was pretty much dead.

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Velar
!
! Uvular
|-
!
!
!
! plain
! lab.
!
|-
! Voiceless stop
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
| '''k''' /k/
| '''kw''' /kʷ/
|
|-
! Voiced stop
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''g''' /g/
| '''gw''' /gʷ/
|
|-
! Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
|
|
|
|-
! Trill
|
|
|
|
| '''r''' /ʀ/
|-
! Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
| '''ŋ''' /ŋ/
| '''ŋw''' /ŋʷ/
|
|-
! Approximant
| '''v''' /ʋ/
| '''l''' /l/
|
|
|
|}

* /ʀ/ becomes /ʁ/ in non-careful speech.
* The nasals only appear word-initially, except /m/ which occasionally appears elsewhere.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
|-
!
! Front
! Central
!
! Back
|-
!
!
! plain
! nasalised
!
|-
! Gliding
| '''ie''' /iə/
|
|
| '''ue''' /uə/
|-
! Close
| '''i''' /i/
|
| '''ĩ''' /ɨ̃ /
| '''u''' /u/
|-
! Mid
|
| '''e''' /ə/
| '''ẽ''' /ə̃/
|
|-
! Open
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''ã''' /ã/
|
|}

* The sequences of /ia/ and /ua/ are realised as [ea] and [oa], and are spelled to reflect this.
* /iə/ and /uə/ become [ɨ] allophonically when unstressed.
* /i/ and /u/ only appear in stressed syllables; elsewhere they have become /ə/, but this /ə/ has become phonemic due to the shift of former /aə/ to /ə/.
* /ə/ and nasalised /ə̃/ are often rounded to help distinguish it from /a/ and [ɨ].
* When nasalised vowels precede an identical (though not necessarily nasalised) vowel, an epenthetic [n] is inserted in between, which is also written.

=== Syllable Structure ===

Many vowel combinations are permitted: /ia/, /ua/, /au/, /ai/, /əu/, /əi/. Only /p b m l/ may occur finally, and there are no clusters.

Stress usually goes on the antepenultimate, or penultimate in two-syllable words or when the penultimate contains /iə/ or /uə/. In a few cases it falls on penultimate /ə/ irregularly; with these words I mark the stressed /ə̃/ as '''é'''.

[[Category:Lukpanic languages]]

Takuña

2026-08-03T13:09:01Z

Inzan:

{{Language
| language = Takuña
| date = 0-200 [[YP]]
| place = [[Siixtaguna]] and nearby islands
| speakers = unknown
| script = [[Takuña script]]
| family = Núalís-Takuña family
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = synthetic affixes; consonant mutations
| morphalign = Accusative
| author = TzirTzi
}}
{{Article}}
'''Takuña''' is a language of the Núalís-Takuña family. It is the variety indigenous to [[Siixtaguna]] and the surrounding islands colonised by the speakers of [[Mûtsipsa']].

== Features ==
Like other members of its family, Takuña has a comparatively small phoneme inventory; this inventory, however, is considerably larger than that of its ancestor due to the development of a series of long consonants. Historically, its consonants have been less stable than its vowels; its monophthongs have remained virtually unchanged since its reconstructed ancestor, [[Proto-Núalís-Takuña|PNT]]. It is characterised by processes causing vowel nasalisation and by a phonemic vowel register involving lowered tone and creaky phonation.

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/tzirtzi/takunagrammar.pdf Takuña grammar]
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/tzirtzi/takunalexicon.pdf Lexicon of Takuña]

[[Category:Núalís-Takuña languages]]

Takuña

2026-08-03T13:08:43Z

Inzan:

{{Language
| language = Takuña
| date = 0-200 [[YP]]
| place = [[Siixtaguna]] and nearby islands
| speakers = unknown
| script = [[Takuña script]]
| family = Núalís-Takuña family
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = synthetic affixes; consonant mutations
| morphalign = Accusative
| author = TzirTzi
}}
{{Article}}
'''Takuña''' is a language of the Núalís-Takuña family. It is the variety indigenous to the [[Siixtaguna]] and the surrounding islands colonised by the speakers of [[Mûtsipsa']].

== Features ==
Like other members of its family, Takuña has a comparatively small phoneme inventory; this inventory, however, is considerably larger than that of its ancestor due to the development of a series of long consonants. Historically, its consonants have been less stable than its vowels; its monophthongs have remained virtually unchanged since its reconstructed ancestor, [[Proto-Núalís-Takuña|PNT]]. It is characterised by processes causing vowel nasalisation and by a phonemic vowel register involving lowered tone and creaky phonation.

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/tzirtzi/takunagrammar.pdf Takuña grammar]
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/tzirtzi/takunalexicon.pdf Lexicon of Takuña]

[[Category:Núalís-Takuña languages]]

Main Page

2026-08-03T08:16:21Z

Inzan:

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::Talo languages • ''[[Tlaliolz]]''
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:[[Isles languages]] • ''[[Proto-Isles]]''
:::''[[Mûtsipsa']]'' • ''[[Thokyunèhòta]]'' • ''[[Naxuutayi]]'' • ''[[Zele]]'' • ''[[Affanonic]]''
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:::''[[Cednìtıt]]'' • ''[[Hkətl’ohnim]]'' • ''[[Omari]]'' • ''[[Yalan]]'' • ''[[Tumetıęk]]'' • ''[[Tari]]'' • ''[[Asséta]]''
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Tsinakan text

2026-08-03T04:49:47Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
== Tsinakan text ==

The '''Tsinakan text''' refers to an inscription found on a monumental stele some three miles north of the [[Kasca|Kascan]] city of [[Momuva'e]], the old capital of the [[Ndak Empire]]. The monument dates to approximately -1700 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] and recounts the deeds of the great emperor [[Tsinakan]]:
:''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king, king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon:''

:''Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The neighboring foreign countries spoke thus: "his father was a valiant king. He had conquered enemy countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child."''

:''When I, brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus:''

:''"O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!"''

:''The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.''

=== Source ===

The Tsinakan text is not an original creation. Rather, it is an ancient Hittite text [https://web.archive.org/web/20061113055326/http://www.premiumwanadoo.com/cuneiform.languages/en_trad_KBo_III_4_obv_col1.htm] which was edited and abridged by [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]] for use in Akana. As can be seen, some of the peculiar English usage in the text (e.g. "oxes") comes straight from the Hittite translation and is not due to any error on our part.

== Comparative translation ==

Translation of the Tsinakan text is a customary practice in Edastean philological tradition. This section presents a comparative overview of the first two lines in all major [[Edastean languages]].

=== [[Ndak Ta]] ===
(''Proto-Edastean'', [[Kasca|Kasadgad]], c. -1900 YP)

* ''Mbi tsip Tsinakan, ngu lu diàka peras, ngu lu diàka âk lu lats um Kasadgad, ngu lu merkat âk Tol on Imbi: Isla raits i ob lung ospàk âk lu mebwe âki mpen, isla im as ewek lats sai, selkon.''
* [ m̩ˈbi ʦɪp ˈʦ{{IPA|ɪ̃}}.na.k{{IPA|ɐ̃}}n | ŋu lu diˈja.ka ˈpe.rɐs | ŋu lu diˈja.ka {{IPA|ɐ̃}}k lu lɐʦ ũm ˈka.sɐd.ɡɐd | ŋu lu ˈmɛr.kɐt {{IPA|ɐ̃}}k tol õn {{IPA|ɪ̃}}m.bi ‖ ˈɪs.la rɐɪʦ i ob lũŋ osˈpɐk {{IPA|ɐ̃}}k lu ˈme.bwe ˈ{{IPA|ɐ̃}}.ki m̩ˈp{{IPA|ɛ̃}}n | ˈɪs.la {{IPA|ɪ̃}}m ɐs ˈe.wɛk lɐʦ sɑi | ˈsɛl.kõn ]
* say thus Tsinakan, as DEF king valiant, as DEF king of DEF land of Kasadgad, as DEF brother of Sun and Moon: before SUB 1SG on DEF.OBJ.SG throne of DEF father of.1SG sit-PST.PFV, towards 1SG.OBL COP-PST.IMPF all-PL land foreign, hostile.

{{toggler|2g-edastean|view direct descendants only|view all descendants}}

=== Dāiadak languages ===
==== [[Adāta]] ====
(''Common Dāiadak'', [[Rathedān]], c. 100 YP)

* ''Sinakan, dizaka xezor, dizaka ax las ax Kāxad, mēkat ax Zama on ax Thālo, ro abise sip: Īlanu i ro ape ob ōpākātia ax meze ai, eze dizakalas rūlas ro īr hēkon īla in.''
* [ ˈsi.na.kan | ˈdi.za.ka ˈxe.zor | ˈdi.za.ka ax las ax ˈkaː.xad | ˈmeː.kat ax ˈza.ma on ax ˈtʰaː.lo | ro ˈa.bi.se sip ‖ ˈiː.la.nu i ro ˈa.pe ob oːˈpaː.kaː.ti.a ax ˈme.ze aj | ˈe.ze ˈdi.za.ka.las ˈruː.las ro iːr ˈheː.kon ˈiː.la in ]
* Sinakan, king great, king of land of Kāxad, brother of Sun and of Moon, AFF say-HAB.SG this.way: before 1SG AFF sit-HAB.SG near throne of father 1SG-POSS, all king.land foreign AFF be-FTL.HAB.SG hostile to 1SG.OBL

{{toggler|3g-daiadak|view direct descendants only|view all descendants}}
<div class="2g-edastean">

==== Northern Dāiadak ====
'''[[Æðadĕ]]''' ([[Lasomo]], c. 1000 YP)

* ''Ævi-n sjeb Sjenkĕn-ro, ðjesk xizor, ðjesk æx læs æx Kāxd, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Tālo: Īlnu je-ro æb-ṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx miz-aj, iz ðjeskĕlĕs rūlzro vi hēgon īl je-n.''
* [ ˈæ.βin sjeb ˈsjen.kʰən.ɾɔ | ðjeskʰ ˈxi.zɔɾ | ðjeskʰ æx læs æx kʰaːxd | meːxtʰ æx zæm un æx ˈtʰaː.lɔ ‖ ˈiːl.nu ˈje.ɾɔ ˈæb.n̩ uβ ˈɔː.ba.ɡat.jə æx ˈmi.zaj | iz ˈðjes.kʰə.ləs ˈɾuːlz.ɾɔ βi ˈheː.ɡɔn iːl jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Sjenken-SUB, King great, King of Land of Kaxd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign-SUB be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.

<div class="3g-daiadak">
'''[[Yād]]''' (c. 1600 YP)

* ''Ēvin sheb Shenkan, dhyesk hīz, dhyesk ē les ē Kōd, mīht ē Zem un ē Tōl: Ilnu ye ēbin uv ūbach ē mīzē, iz dhyeskal rülz in hīgun il yen.''
* [ ˈeː.vin ʃeb ˈʃeŋ.kʰan | ðjesk xiːz | ðjesk eː les eː koːd | miːxt eː zem un eː tʰoːl ‖ ˈil.nu je ˈeː.bin uv ˈuː.baʧ eː ˈmiː.zeː | iz ˈðjes.kal ryːlz in ˈhiː.ɡun il jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Shenkan, King great, King of Land of Kōd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.

'''[[Zhaj]]''' (c. 2500 YP)

* ''Khanıvin sı Shengan ur xız zijsuk, ngin zijsuk et Kod, ngin mixyt et zejm un thor: İrnu wetaluhin zher uv kajrel et mıze, hax! Ryrz isuhuzijsukar wengin xireho ır zher.''
* [ ˈkʰa.nɪ.vin sɪ ˈɕɛ.ŋan uɾ xɪz ˈzɪj.suk | ŋin zɪj.suk ɛt kod | ŋin ˈmi.xʉt ɛt zɛjm un tʰoɾ ‖ ˈɪɾ.nu ˈwɛ.ta.ɺu.hin ʑɛɾ uv ˈkaj.ɾɛɺ ɛt ˈmɪ.zɛ | hax | ɾʉɾz ˌi.su.ʔuˈzɪj.su.kaɾ ˈwɛ.ŋin ˈxi.ɾɛ.ʔo ɪɾ ʑɛɾ ]
* PRET-speak thus-OBJ Shengan great king, COPULA king of Kod, COPULA brother of sun and moon: before IMPERF-sit I-OBJ on throne of father-1sg:POS alas foreign all-PL-kingdom IMPERF-COPULA hostile to I

'''[[Aríe]]''' (c. 3700 YP)

* ''Khénejin Shéŋanwur lhíphwamwur arírwu’wur, arírwu’wur Khwálha, míu’wur aréjma wón thwára, sý: Ýrnw wétalwu’in aréi wój khejrezla é’a mýrér, ‘éx! Weŋin worwyraj urwurirwukar wowire’wo ýr aréi.''
* [ ˈkʰeː.ne.jin ˈʃeː.ŋɑ.nʷuɹ ˈɮiː.pʰʷɒ.mʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ | ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ ˈkʰʷɒː.ɮɑ | ˈmiːɯ.ʔʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːj.mɑ woːn ˈtʰʷɒ.ɹɑ | sʉː ‖ ʉːɹnʷ ˈwøː.tɑ.lʷu.ʔin ˈɑ.ɹeː.i woːj ˈkʰej.ɹe.tɬɑ ˈeː.ʔɑ ˈmɨː.ɹeːɹ | ʔeːx | ˈwø.ŋin ˈwo.ɹʷʉ.ɹɑj ˈɯ.ɹʷu.ɹi.ɹʷu.kɑɹ ˈwo.wy.ɹe.ʔʷo ɨːɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːi ]
* PST.PERF-speak Shéŋan-NPOS.ERG mighty-NPOS.ERG king-NPOS.ERG, king-NPOS.ERG Khwálh-POS.NSP.OBL, brother-NPOS.ERG sun-POS.NSP.OBL and moon-POS.NSP.OBL, this-NPOS.OBL: before PST.IMPF-sit 1SG-OBL on throne-POS.NSP.OBL of father-POS.SP.OBL, alas! COP.PST.IMPF PL-foreign all.PL-kingdom PL-hostile to 1SG-OBL

'''[[Arie]]''' (c. 4500 YP)

* ''Wùen Shehŋan arirù jurun, arirùai Kwohlh, mihùai arem won twà: ynw wetalwùin are woi keretl è my are, ehx! Wehŋ ihrarirù rwaurai xihreu y are.''
* [ ˈwṵ.ʔen ˈʃɛ.ŋɑn ˈʔɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ ˈjɯ.ɹun | ˈʔɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ.ʔɑj kʷɔɬ | ˈmi.hṵ.ʔɑj ˈʔɑ.ɹem won tʷ{{IPA|ɑ̰}} ‖ ʔɨnʷ ˈwe.tɑ.lʷ{{IPA|o̰}}jn ˈʔɑ.ɹe wɔj ˈke.ɹetɬ ḛ mɨ ʔɑ.ɹe | ʔɛx | wɛŋ ˈʔɪ.ɹɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ ˈrʷɑɤ.ɹɑj ˈxɪ.ɹeɤ ʔɨ ʔɑ.ɹe ]
* PAST-speak Shehŋan-ANP(1) king-ANP mighty king-AP Kwohlh-ANP brother-AP sun-ANP and moon-ANP: before PAST-sit I-ABS on throne-ANP of father-AP I-ABS, alas! PAST-be all-king-ANP foreign hostile to I-ABS
</div>

==== Central Dāiadak ====
'''[[Aθáta]]''' (Rathedān, c. 1000 YP)

* ''Áfsian sif Síncan, θíscesor, θíscān Câθlas, méxθāx Sáma 'n Θálo: Ílnu ápin of-pacátiān mésein, ése θísclas rúlas ir écon ilín.''
* [ ˈav.ʒan ʃɪf ˈʃɪŋ.kan ˈθɪs.ce.zɔɾ ˈθɪs.kaːn ˈkaːð.las ˈmeʝ.ðaːx ˈsa.man ˈθa.lo ‖ ˈɪl.nu ˈa.pɪn ɔf.paˈka.caːn ˈme.zeɪn ˈe.ze ˈθɪs.klas ˈɾu.las ɪɾ ˈe.cɔn iˈlɪn ]
* speak-IMP-3SG thus Síncan king=great king-3SG Cāθ=land brother-3PL Sun and Moon: before sit-HAB-1SG on throne-3SG father-1SG all country foreign be-PERF hostile to-1SG

<div class="3g-daiadak">
'''[[E'át]]''' (Milīr valley, c. 1600 YP)

* ''Avlavan shif Shinkan, shiscazar, shisken Kelas, mlaka’en sam an sal: Aplin iln afpakáca’en mlazhin, ejavax shisklazax azhax rulazax akan ilín.''
* [ ˈav.lə.vən ʃif ˈʃiŋ.kən | ˈʃis.cə.zər | ˈʃis.keːn ˈkeː.ləs | ˈmla.kə.ʔeːn sam an sal ‖ ˈap.lin əf.pəˈka.cə.ʔeːn ˈmla.ʒin | ˈeːja.vax ˈʃis.klə.zəx ˈa.ʒəx ˈru.lə.zəx ˈa.kən iˈlin ]
* speak-PERF-3SG thus Shinkan, greatking, king-3SG Ke=land, brother-3SG sun and moon: sit-HAB-1SG before on-throne-3SG father-1SG, be-PERF-3PL country-PL all-PL foreign-PL hostile to-1SG-ACC

'''[[Yhát]]''' (c. 2400 YP)

* ''Tsínqan, tsískazar, tsísken Qáles, maláqan sám an sál, évvon tsif: Ilálpaj vin afpaqáken maládzin, aqóna hetsísklasa ádza rúlasa sin.''
* [ ˈʦiɴ.qən | ˈʦis.kə.zaʁ | ˈʦis.ken ˈqa.les | məˈla.qən sam an sal | ˈev.von ʦif ‖ iˈlal.paj vin əf.pəˈqa.ken məˈla.ʣin | əˈqo.nə heˈʦis.klə.sə ˈa.ʣə ˈʁu.lə.sə sin ]
* Tsínqan, greatking, king-POSS-3SG Qa=land, brother-POSS-3SG sun and moon, speak-PERF-3SG thus: SPRV-sit-INF 1SG-NOM on-throne-POS-3SG father-POSS-1SG, act.hostile-HAB-3PL PL-country-PL all-PL foreign-PL 1SG-DAT

'''[[Erhadzy]]''' (c. 3700 YP)

* ''Tşíşərheaƞ û, Kálesenə tşíşeaƞ û, saƞzál-məláʻeaƞ êwoƞ Tşíƞkaƞ tşy éulëıwoƞ: Məláınə pəkákufaƞ áıbiƞ íl, áınə sŏtógunio wíƞsaƞ əkónëıo.''
* [ 'ʨi.ɕə.{{IPA|ɹ̥}}ʰɛ.{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː ˈy | ˈkɑ.lɛ.sɛ.nə ˈʨi.ɕɛ.{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː ˈy | s{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ːˈzɑl.mə.ˈlɑ.ʔɛ.{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː ˈew{{IPA|ɔ̃}}ː ˈʨĩːk{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː ʨɨ ˈɛ.u.leː.w{{IPA|ɔ̃}}ː ‖ məˈlɑː.nə pəˈkɑ.ku.ɸ{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː ˈɑː.bĩː il | ˈɑː.nə səˈto.ɡu.ni.o ˈwĩː.s{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ː əˈko.neː.o ]
* great.king-ESS be-INF, Kalese-GEN king-ESS be-INF, sun.and.moon-brother-ESS be-PST-3SG Tşínkan-TOP thus say-HON-INF-HAB-PST-3SG: father-GEN throne-ADESS sit-HAB-1SG before-TOP, all-GEN foreign.country-NOM 1SG-DAT act.hostile-INF-HAB-PST-3PL
</div>

==== Ferahic ====
'''Adhāsth''' (Thāraspē, c. 1000 YP)

* ''Әr àḃiḃḃ şip, Şèınaċan, àeıen aċċ şèatşeıoac ḣèzoar, ən àeıen aċċ şèıatşeıoac ah làh ah Cáḣat, ən àeıen aċċ méċat ah zàmm ən ṫáll: Éılanŭ y ər àff əḃ ōfáċāţeıə ah mèşş aıj, èşş làh ḣèıl əċ ər ḃèʒy ḣéċon éıll ìn.''
* [ əɹ ˈɑβiβː ˈʃip | ˈʃ{{IPA|ẽ}}.nɑ.x{{IPA|ɑ̃}}n | ˈɑ.e.{{IPA|ɛ̃}}n ɑxː ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔk ˈɦɛ.zɔɹ | {{IPA|ə̃}}n ˈɑ.e.{{IPA|ɛ̃}}n ɑxː ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔk ɑh ˈlɑh ɑh ˈkɑː.ɦɑt | {{IPA|ə̃}}n ˈɑ.e.{{IPA|ɛ̃}}n ɑxː ˈmɛː.xɑt ɑh ˈz{{IPA|ɑ̃}}mː {{IPA|ə̃}}n ˈθɑːlː ‖ ˈeː.lɑ̃.nɯ ɨ əɹ ˈɑɸː əβ oːˈɸɑː.xɑː.ɕe.ə ɑh ˈmɛʃː æj | ˈɛʃː ˈlɑh ˈɦel əx əɹ βɛ.ʒɨ ˈɦɛː.xõn eːlː ˈĩn ]
* AFF=speak-AOR.HON thus, Sinacan, be.PST.SG-PTCP=3SG emperor great, and=be.PST.SG-PTCP-3SG emperor=POSS country=POSS Caghad, and=be.PST.SG-PTCP-3SG brother-POSS sun and moon: before 1SG=AFF=sit-HAB.SG ADESS=throne=POSS father=1SG, all country foreign 3PL=AFF=be.PST.PL-IMP hostile ALLAT=1SG

<div class="3g-daiadak">
'''[[Ayāsthi]]''' ([[Kingdom of Thāras|Thāraspē]], c. 1600 YP)

* ''Әr-àuıw şìp, Sìnacaṅ, àeıen’aċ şèatşeıoac ġèzoar, ən-àeıen’aċ şèatşeıoac’a làh’a Cáġat, ən-àeıen’aċ méċat’a zàma əṅ tsálo: Éılany àfeıen’aı əv-ōfáċāseı’a mèşş’aı, èşş làh ġèıl əċ-ər-vèʒy àfeıen’aċa ēıll-ìṅ as’-géċoṁ.''
* [ əˈɹɑ.wy.u ˈʃip | ˈʃi.nɑ.k{{IPA|ɑ̃}} | ˈɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔk ˈɦɛ.zɔ˞ | əˈnɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔ.kɑ ˈlɑ.hɑ ˈkɑː.ɦɑt | əˈnɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈmɛː.xɑ.tɑ ˈzɑ.mɑ {{IPA|ə̃}} ˈʦɑː.lo ‖ ˈeː.lɑ.nɨ ˈɑ.ɸe.ɛ.næ ə.woːˈɸɑː.xɑː.se.ɑ ˈmɛʃ.ʃæ | ˈɛʃː ˈlɑh ˈɦel ə.xəɹˈwɛ.ʒɨ ˈɑ.ɸe.ɛ.nɑ.xɑ eːlˈlĩ ɑsˈʔɛː.x{{IPA|ɔ̃}} ]
* 3SG-AFF-speak-AOR.HON thus, Sinacan, be.PST.SG-PTCP-3SG emperor great, and=be.PST.SG-PTCP-3SG emperor-POSS country-POSS Caghad, and=be.PST.SG-PTCP-3SG brother-POSS sun and moon: before sit-PTCP-1SG ADESS=throne-POSS father-1SG, all country foreign 3PL-AFF-be.PST.PL-IMP sit-PTCP-3PL ALLAT-1SG INST-hostile

'''[[A'gɑf]]''' (Republic of Fadah, c. 2500 YP)

* ''Åxø ødaɡanø xep Sinakha, dagdisakha øge gadoğ, dagdisakhahåxø øgølådåxø øgøxaxad, dagbaixåfåxok øgødåm åsø faul: åfenø øxø dødafåxø øgophakhathjahåxø øgøbaxøxø sol ailådø, ødaixodø daulåh agøxke nai.''
* [ ˈɑ.xø øˈdæ.gæ.nø xep ˈsi.næ.kʰæ | dægˈdi.sæ.kʰæ ˈø.gɛ ˈgæ.dɔɰ | dægˈdi.sæ.kʰæ.hɑ.xø ø.gøˈlɑ.dɑ.xø ø.gøˈxæ.xæd | dægˈbæɪ.xɑ.fɑ.xɔk ø.gøˈdɑm ˈɑ.sø fæʊl ‖ ˈɑ.fɛ.nø ˈø.xø døˈdæ.fɑ.xø øˈgo.pʰæ.kʰæ.tʰʲæ.hɑ.xø ø.gøˈbæ.xø.xø sɔl ˈæɪ.lɑ.dø øˈdæɪ.xɔ.dø ˈdæʊ.lɑh æˈgøx.kɛ næɪ ]
* 3SG PRV-speak-3SG.PRF thus Sinakha, ESS-king the great, ESS-king-POSS.3SG GEN-land-POSS.3SG GEN-Kaxad, ESS-brother-POSS.3PL GEN-sun and moon: sit-1SG.PRF 1SG DAT-top-POSS.3SG GEN-throne-POSS.3SG GEN-father-POSS.1SG when before, PRV-hostile-3PL.PRF rival.country all 1SG.DAT

'''[[Yïåf]]''' (c. 3200 YP)

* ''Èvön Sinhan, gierha garoï, gierha ögcahad, baïhåt öghèimènra årüö ögfaor årüö: gièzåt puöïåftün gièofhèr ögbah ngüö, råïauien aïac ögdaoråh nai.''
* [ ˈɛ.v{{IPA|ø̃}} ˈʃĩ.h{{IPA|æ̃}} | ˈʝeʀ.ɦæ ˈɡæ.ʀoɯ | ˈʝeʀ.ɦæ øɡ.ɡæˈhæd | bæɯ.hɑt øɡ.ɦ{{IPA|ɛ̃}}iˈm{{IPA|ɛ̃}}.ʀæ ɑˈʀy.ø øɡˈvæ.oʀ ɑˈʀy.ø ‖ ˈʝɛ.zɑt puˈø.ɰɑf.tỹ ˈʝɛ.of.hɛʀ øɡˈbæh ˈŋy.ø | ʀɑˈɰæu.jẽ æˈɰæk øɡ.dæˈo.ʀɑh næj ]
* speak-PST-PRF-3SG Sinhan, king great, king ADJ-Cahad, brother ADJ-sun yes ADJ-moon yes: INESS-time NEG-sit-PST-PRF-1SG INESS-throne ADJ-father 1SG-ERG, foreign.country every ADJ-enemy 1SG-DAT

'''[[Ghaf]]''' (c. 3900 YP)

* ''Hyep jevö Šihä, jerhä garoğ ghe, jerhä jeKähäd, baghat dühiymrä äryö, dufaor äryö: Rëzat, retähyö darsoyaftu yehyö jöfer rebähöh, räghävrefäk äghöd hïrëho nay.''
* [ ç{{IPA|ɛ́}}p ˈʤ{{IPA|ɛ́}}vœ ʃiˈh{{IPA|æ̂}} | ʤɛˈr̻{{IPA|æ̂}} ɡɑˈr{{IPA|ɔ̂}}ɰ ɣ{{IPA|ɛ́}} | ʤɛˈr̻{{IPA|æ̂}} ʤɛ.kæˈh{{IPA|æ̂}}d | bɑˈɣ{{IPA|ɑ̂}}t dy.hɪjmˈr{{IPA|æ̀}} æˈrʲ{{IPA|œ̂}} | duˈf{{IPA|ɑ́}}or æˈrʲ{{IPA|œ̂}} ‖ rʌˈz{{IPA|ɑ́}}t | rɛ.tæˈç{{IPA|œ̂}} dɑr.sɔˈj{{IPA|ɑ́}}f.tu jɛˈç{{IPA|œ̂}} ʤœˈf{{IPA|ɛ̂}}r rɛˈbǽ.hœh | ræ.ɣævˈr{{IPA|ɛ̀}}.fæk æˈɣ{{IPA|œ́}}d hɯ.rʌˈh{{IPA|ɔ̀}} náj ]
* thus SBJV-speak-3SG.PST Šihä, king[ABS] great DEF.SG, king[ABS] LOC-Kähäd, brother[ABS] DAT-sun and DAT-moon and: ABL-time ABL-REL SBJV.NEG-sit-1SG.MOD 1SG.ABS LOC-throne ABL-father=my, foreign.country[ABS]-PL all hostile 1SG.DAT
</div>

==== Khalanic ====
'''[[Mavakhalan]]''' (Khalanu, c. 1000 YP)

* ''Źnaką, źmêjenaka jêv-žzakǫ xezor, ǫ-jêv-śjąžzaka aźnla akoxaðą, ǫ-jêv-śjênmêka azama ǫ-aþolǫ, rovʼ śjêś: Ilan rope jê ov-źnôpokoťja aśjênmezej, roirapê eze śjêžzakalaso rula ate-hêkǫ ila-ję.''
* [ ˈʒna.k{{IPA|ɑ̃}} | ˈʒme.jɛ.na.ka jeβˈʒ̩.za.k{{IPA|ɔ̃}} ˈxɛ.zɔɹ | {{IPA|ɔ̃}}.jeβ.ʃ{{IPA|ɑ̃}}ˈʑ̩.za.ka aʒ.n̩ˈla aˈkɔ.xa.ð{{IPA|ɑ̃}} | {{IPA|ɔ̃}}.jeβ.ʃenˈme.ka aˈzɑ.ma {{IPA|ɔ̃}}.aˈθɔ.l{{IPA|ɔ̃}} | rɔβʲ ʃeʃ ‖ ˈi.lɑn rɔˈpɛ je ɔβ.ʒnoˈpɔ.kɔ.ʨa a.ʃenˈmɛ.zɛj | rɔiˈra.pe ˈɛ.zɛ ʃeˈʑ̩.za.ka.la.sɔ ˈru.la a.tɛˈhe.k{{IPA|ɔ̃}} ˈi.la.j{{IPA|ɛ̃}} ]
* Źnakan-NOM, live-PTCP-3SG ESS=king-ACC.SG great, and=ESS=DEF.ACC.SG-king-CONS GEN-DEF.ACC.SG-land-CONS GEN-Koxadh-ACC.SG, and=ESS=DEF.ACC.SG-brother-CONS GEN-sun-CONS and=GEN-moon-ACC.SG, IND-speak-HAB.SG thus: before IND-sit-HAB.SG 1SG.NOM ADESS=DEF.ACC.SG-throne-CONS GEN-DEF.ACC.SG-father-1SG ANTIBEN-sit-IMP.PL all DEF.NOM-kingdom-NOM.PL foreign INST=hostile DAT=1SG.ACC

==== Koyic ====
'''[[Kozado]]''' (Abukho/NW Khalanu, c. 1200 YP)

* ''Ze Senoko, ze šerú šazu, ze ðezoklo Kahodo ze šerú ok, ze Zom pa ze Thal ze mekot oka, ro abes sep: Ilo e ro o oth ze mez oz ze pakeþe ok apeža, ez ðezoklo rylo ro ba šeko il oz.''
* [ ze ˈse.no.ko | ze ɕeˈru ˈɕa.zu | ze ˈðe.zok.lo ˈka.ho.do ze ɕeˈru ok | ze zom pa ze tʰal ze ˈme.kot oka | ro ˈa.bes sep ‖ ˈi.lo e ro o otʰ ze mez oz ze ˈpa.ke.θe ok ˈa.pe.ʑa | ez ˈðe.zok.lo ˈrɨ.lo ro ba ˈɕe.ko il oz ]
* DEF Senoko, DEF king great, DEF land Kahod-ADJ DEF king 3SG.OBL, DEF sun and DEF moon DEF brother 3PL.OBL, AFF say-IMPF.SG so: before 1SG AFF be.PERF.SG in DEF father 1SG.OBL DEF throne 3SG.OBL be-VN, all land foreign AFF be.PERF.PL hostile to 1SG.OBL

==== Western Dāiadak ====
'''[[Kuyʔūn|Mešmo Koyʔōn]]''' (Xōron Eiel, c. 1200 YP)

* ''Šinnan, ececen liʔélociska, ececen licískaʔe liláh a-Kāʔan, ececen limīktakaq lilám on liyēpe, lawin ʔap: Yono ʔipáʔespiyeni onniyopākiska limeli, yapīkonti eu assaqōlała aylin.''
* [ ˈʃin.nɑn | ɛˌʦɛ.ʦɛn liˈʔɛ.loˌʦɪs.kɐ | ɛˌʦɛ.ʦɛn liˈʦɪs.kɐ.ʔɛ liˌlɑx ɐˈkɑː.ʔɑn | ɛˌʦɛ.ʦɛn liˈmiːk.tɐˌkɑq lˤɪˌlɑm ɔn liˈjɛː.pɛ | ˌlɑ.β̞in ˈʔɑp ‖ ˌjo.no ʔiˈpɑ.ʔɛs.piˌjɛ.ni ˌjɔn.ni.joˈpɑː.kɪs.kɐ liˈmɛ.li | jɐˈpiː.kɔn.ti jɛʊ ˌwɑs.sˤɑˈqɔː.lˤɑ.ɬɑ ˌɦaɪ.lin ]
* Šinnan, INS-be.VN DEF.SG-great-king, INS-be.VN DEF.SG-king-3SG.INAN DEF.SG-land ABL-Kāʔan, INS-be.VN DEF.SG-brother-3PL.ANIM DEF.SG-sun and DEF.SG-moon, EMPH-say-PERF.SG thus: before CL(LOC)-hold-PERM-VN-1SG LOC-DEF.SG-throne-3SG.ANIM DEF.SG-father-1SG, CL(FOE)-be.hostile-HAB.PL all ABL-DEF.PL-foreign.country 1SG.DAT

==== Eastern Dāiadak ====
'''[[Pencek]]''' (Tah Ici, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Si Sinkan, si tirk hazar, si tirk Kazcak, si nekat zanak o tharak, a pin sik raz: Hert aphenc asa phakacak nazi, aza tirkars runs, ak par henk then.''
* [ si ˈsiːn.kan | si ˈtiːɾk ˈhaː.ʂaɾ | si ˈtiːɾk ˈkaːʂ.ʈʂak | si ˈneː.ɡat ˈʂaː.nak ə ˈtʰaː.ɾak | a ˈpiːn sik ˈɾaːʂ ‖ ˈçeːɾt aˈˀpʰeːnʈʂ aˌsaː ˈpʰaː.ɡaːˌʈʂak ˈnaː.ʂi | aˌʂaː ˈtiːɾ.kaɾs ˈruːns | ak ˌpaɾ ˈçeːnk ˈtʰe:n ]
* this Sinkan, this king great, this king Kazc-POSS.3P, this brother sun-POSS.3 and moon-POSS.3P, 3SG say-PRF this-PL word: up.to-1SG sit-SUP on-3P throne-POSS.3P father-POSS.1SG, all country foreign be-PRF hostile towards-1SG
</div>

=== Ndok languages ===

==== [[Ndok Aisô]] ====
([[Lasomo]], c. 200 YP)

* ''Êtsdehad, ru dixêheu mêgeu, od ru mekeuta Aitol od Ngadagoi, od ru dixêheuxa Axôkseuhod, wisoideu ngugoi: Isleu i noi keutsa woi mege mpêd, egek lots tablik edeusas êb ê.''
* [ ɜʦ.deˈhaʔ | ɾu diˌʔɜː.hɛw ˈmɜːɣɛw | oʔ ɾu meˈkɛːw.ta ajˈtol oʔ ŋaˈðaː.ɣɔj | oʔ ɾu di.ʔɜˈhɛːw.ʔa a.ʔɞk.sɛwˈhoʔ | wiˌsɔːj.ðɛw ˈŋuː.ɣɔj ‖ ˈɪs.lɛw i nɔj ˈkɛːw.ʦa wɔj ˈmeː.ɣe m̩ˌpɜʔ | eˌɣek̚ loʦ̚ tabˌlɪk̚ e.ðɛwˈsas ɜɓ ɜ ]
* Êtsdehad, as king mighty[NOM.SG], and as brother-ANT Sun and Moon, and as king-ANT Axôkseuhod, speak-LEG.SG thus: Before 1SG.NOM on throne-ANT 1SG.GEN father sit-PFV.SG, all land foreign-NOM.PL act.hostile-IMPF.PL to 1SG.ACC

=== Kascan languages ===

==== [[Buruya Nzaysa]] ====
(Buruya, c. 300 YP)

* ''Nzɔ de’áxa Tsənaxa, ño lo sɛtsa’ɔk, ño lo de’áxa u Kasaga, ño lo mɛya ayru Tol o Əbe kwə, sa nzɔ xa mpaskale: Steyə rabɛ lu ñire lu mvunə poxe o lu pɛlɔ ah lo mɛwɛ axe, maxə ɔra latsi əbɔwə səyo.''
* [ ˌnzɔ deˈʔa.xa ˈʦʰə.na.xa | ˌɲo lo ˈsɛ.ʦaˌʔɔk | ˌɲo lo deˈʔa.xa ʔu ˈkʰa.sa.ɡa | ˌɲo lo ˈmɛ.ja ˌʔaj.ɾu ˈtʰoɫ o ˈʔə.be ˌkʷʰə | ˌsan zɔ xam ˈpas.ka.le ‖ ˌste.jə ˈra.bɛ lu ˈɲi.ɾe lum ˌvu.nə ˈpʰo.xe | ˌʔo lu ˈpʰɛ.lɔ ˌʔah ɫo ˈmɛ.wɛ ˌʔa.xe | ˌma.xə ˈʔɔ.ɾa ˌla.ʦi ˈʔə.bɔ.wə ˈsə.jo ]
* TOP.NOM king Tsənaxa, as.3 DEF.NOM emperor, as.3 DEF.NOM king of.3 Kasaga, as.3 DEF.NOM brother of.3.ANIM Sun and Moon with.3, NULL.AUX-3SG>3 TOP.NOM this.ACC announce: PROG.AUX-3 during.3 DEF.ACC until.3 DEF.ACC hold.VN for.1 at.3 DEF.ACC chair of.3 DEF.NOM father POSS.1, NEG.AUX-3PL>1 all foreign.land CESS.AUX be.hostile.

==== [[Delta Naidda]] ====
(Kasca, c. 170 YP)

* ''Stelor Cëñan, l-ja'a kåshom, l-ja'a om l-lå om Kasca, l-mïzå om l-yodol n l-cår, me gï'n: Sla pë'a kwïn l-spå om a'e mëvwë e, stewon l-or lasha si, sïlyon we.''
* [ ˈste.loɾ ˈʧɛ.ɲən | l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈʤa.ʔə ˈkɒ.ʃom | l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈʤa.ʔə om l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈlɒ om ˈkas.ʧə | l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈmɪ.ʒə om ˈljo.dol n̩ l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈʧɒɾ | me ˈgɪ.ʔn̩ || sla ˈpɛ.ʔə kwɪn l{{IPA|ə̆}}ˈspɒ om a.ʔe ˈmɛv.wɛ e | ˈste.won ˈloɾ ˈla.ʃə si | ˈsɪ.ʎon we ]
* AUX(NF-IMP)-he Cëñan, DEF-king great, DEF-king of.3 DEF-land of.3 Kasca, DEF-brother of.3 DEF-sun and DEF-moon, say thus: before.3 sit-AVN with.3 DEF-throne of.3 my father I, COP(NF-IMP)-they DEF-all country foreign, hostile for.1

<div class="2g-edastean">

==== [[Wippwo]] ====
(Kasca, c. 1475 YP)

* ''Šengã, lo žah košõ om lo lo om Kaš; lo mužo om lo-šoudol ã lo šor, stei meiloa git: Sla peha γin lo spo om ahei meββe ei, steβõ oa laša hi, hullõ wei.''
* [ 'ʃɛŋ.ɡɐ | lɔ ʒaː 'kɔ.ʃɔ̃ ɔm lɔ lɔːm kaʃ | lɔ 'mu.ʒɔːm lɔ ʃo.dɔl ã lɔ ʃɔr ste 'mel.wə git || sla pɛ.hɐ ɣin spɔːm a.he mɛ.ʙɛ 'e | 'ste.ʙɔ̃ 'ɔa 'la.ʃɐ hi | hu.ʎɔ̃ we ]
* Šengã, DEF-king great, DEF-king of DEF-land of.3 Kasca, DEF-brother of DEF-sun and DEF-moon, AUX(NF-IMP) say-he thus: Before.3 sit-AVN with.3 DEF-throne of my father I, COP(NF-IMP)-they DEF-all country foreign, hostile for.1
</div>

=== Fáralo languages ===

==== [[Fáralo]] ====
([[Huyfárah]], c. 100 YP)

* ''Siš Siənčæn ebí, kraš lu-diágə æm lu-laš Kazəgad ouwa lu-meokát æm lu-iodol luŋ-iəboun, sip: Isə lu-epén i na epélo æm æč badew, ædešei ege lu-klaš heil iəm čosk.''
* [ siʃ ˈsi.ən.ʧæn ɛˈbi | kraʃ lu.diˈa.ɡə æm luˈlaʃ ˈka.zə.ɡad ˈo.wa lu.meɔ̯ˈkat æm luˈiɔ̯.dɔl luˈŋi.ə.bon | sip ‖ ˈi.sə lu.ɛˈpɛn i na ɛˈpɛlɔ æm æʧ ˈba.dɛw | ˈæ.dɛ.ʃe ˈɛ.ɡɛ luˈklaʃ hel ˈi.əm ʧɔsk ]
* NULL.AUX Siənčæn speak, brave the-Edák.ruler to.it the-land Kazəgad and the-younger.brother to.them the-sun the-moon-and, thus: before the-sit-PST I in chair to.him my father, stay-PST.PL all the.PL-land foreign to.me hostile

<div class="2g-edastean">

==== [[Namɨdu]] ====
(Southern Huyfárah, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Sis Sɨntsen, kros atsak yelos Akozyad, wa amekot yelɨdoł wa yeluñɨb, me bi: Isłu hyeppen i mu lepeło yebodde i epe, sed yak kasyoł ɨm uro esnek.''
* [ sis ˈsɨn.ʦɛn | kʰɾʌs ɐˈʦʰak jɛˌlʌs ɐˈkʰʌz.jad | wɐ ɐˈmɛ.kʌt jɛˈlɨ.dʌʟ wɐ jɛˈlu.ɲɨb | mɛ bi ‖ ˈis.ʟu ˈhjɛp.pɛn i mu lɛˈpʰɛ.ʟɔ jɛˈbʌd.dɛ i ˈɛ.pɛ | ˈsɛd jak kɐˈsjʌʟ ɨm ˈu.ɾɔ ˈɛs.nɛk ]
* NULL.AUX Sɨntsen / brave APP-king DAT-land APP-Kozyad / and APP-younger.brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon / speak QUOT / before start-PAST I on throne DAT-father I sit / NULL.AUX-IMPF all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile act-PL

==== [[Farwo n-Abebbu]] ====
(Azbǽbu, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Pyatta Seinthen, kras thaik yemwas na-Kažžai, wau myekat yemweidou pyan lunyei, bi dyun: Issarma heppen i noupello yembaddei yeth radda, sei yak kasyou eim thask oddek.''
* [ ˌpʰjat.tɐ ˈsɛɪn.θɛn | krʌs ˌθɑːɪk jɛˌmwɑs nʌˈkʰaʒ.ʒɑɪ | wɑʊ ˌmjɛː.kʌt jɛˌmwɛːɪ.dɔʊ pjan ˈlʊn.jɛɪ | bi ˈdjuːn ‖ ɪsˌsɑɾ.mɐ ˌhɛp.pɛn i nɔʊˈpʰɛl.lɔ jɛmˌbɑd.dɛɪ jɛθ ˈrɑd.dɐ | sɛɪ ˌjak kʌˌsjɔːʊ ɛɪm ˈθɑsk ˌɔd.dɛk ]
* EMPH.AUX Seinthen / brave king DAT-land GEN-Kažžai / and younger.brother DAT-sun with moon / say this / before.when.REL start-PAST I GEN-throne DAT-father GEN.my hold / NULL.AUX-IMPF all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile be-IMPF.PL

==== [[Fallo na Mendia]] ====
(Mæmedéi, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Piatta Sinthen, kras thak na lu las yem Kazziad, wa mekat na üdol pian ib, ebi sip: Isa sišuama hebben i lu epello na yeth badde rodda, sised ega akhial im thoš oduk.''
* [ piˌat.tɐ ˈsɪn.θɛn | kʰɾas θak nɐ lu las jɛm ˈkʰaz.zi.ɐd | wɐ ˈmɛ.kɐt nɐ ˈy.dɔɫ pi.ɐn ˈɪb | ˌɛ.bi ˈsɪp ‖ ˌi.sɐ si.ʃuˌa.mɐ ˌhɛb.bɛn i lu ɛˈpɛl.lɔ nɐ jɛθ ˈbad.dɛ ˌrɔd.dɐ | ˌsi.sɛd ˈɛ.ɡɐ a.kʰiˌaɫ ɪm ˈθɔʃ ˌɔ.dʊk ]
* EMPH.AUX Sinthen / brave king GEN DEF land APP Kasadgad / and younger.brother GEN sun with moon / speak thus / before when.REL start-PAST I DEF throne GEN my father hold / NULL.AUX-IMPERF all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile be-PL

==== [[Woltu Falla]] ====
(Oltu valley, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Sīnčen, čašum lu-jaga emblu-laš en-Kažžad ōa lu-mekat emblung-üdol ōa emblung-īb, siš-abi sip: Isa sižrūm i na-lung-epela em-až-badö habben-ape, yega hel lu-llyaš čwoš īm wodud.''
* [ ˈsiːn.ʧɛn | ˈʧa.ʃum lʊˈʤa.ɡɐ ɛm.bluˈlaʃ ɛŋˈkaʒ.ʒɐt ˈoː.ɐ luˈmɛ.kɐt ɛm.bluŋˈɡyː.dɔl ˈoː.ɐ ɛm.bluŋˈɡiːp | siˈʃa.bi sip ‖ ˈi.sɐ siʒˈɾuːm i na.luŋ.ɡɛˈpɛ.lɐ ɛ.maʒ.bɐˈdøː hɐb.bɛˈna.pe | ˈjɛ.ɡɐ hɛl luʎˈʎaʃ ʧwɔʃ iːm ˈwɔ.dʊt ]
* Sīnčen / mighty the-Ndak.king of.the-land of-Kažžad and the-younger.brother of.the-sun and of.the-moon / NULL.AUX-speak thus / before when.REL I on-the-throne of-my-father start.PST-sit / all foreign the-country.PL.NOM hostile to.me be.IMPF

==== [[Cəssın]] ====
(eastern Isthmus, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Sep Şancan, Kargaram mlava kån aksacuk, ova loyorolam å lunyamam agımlokat, oşuŋ ivişşeneş: Ellö epennälin eşperyöm löyöpelnä, eŋ herrin löglinni yam coskıvo urvı.''
* [ zɛp ˈʐɑɳ.ʈɑɳ | ˌkɑɾ.ɡɑ.ɾɑm ˌmlɑ.vɑ ˌkɒɳ ɑkˈsɑ.ʈuk | ˌo.vɑ loˈjo.ɾo.lɑm ˌɒ luˈɲɑ.mɑm ˌɑ.ɣɯmˈlo.kɑt̪ | ˌo.ʐuŋ iˈviɕ.ɕe.nɛɕ ‖ ˌel.lø eˌpɛn.næ.lin eɕˌpe.ɹœm løˈjø.pɛl.næ | eŋ ˌxɛr.rin løˌɡlin.ni jɑm ˈʈɔs.kɯ.vo ˌuɾ.vɯ ]
* thus Şancan, Kargan-GEN famous brave 3POSS.SG-emperor, and DEF.SG-sun-GEN and DEF.SG-moon-GEN 3POSS.SG-brother, this.ACC say-AOR-EMPH-PAST.3SG>3SG / before sit-PROSP-DESID-PAST.1SG 1POSS.SG-father-GEN DEF.SG-throne-LOC, all foreign DEF.PL-country 1SG.GEN enemy PRED.PAST.PL
</div>

=== [[Komejech]] ===
(Dagæm islands, c. 100 YP)

* ''Ejepe-as zef Zinega, ju teidi djege, ju djege ech lu las ech Kezakas, ju mechas ech Cou o Ibei: Ža feibi izei ta ru mepelo ech lu meibi eje, keg-adeižach-e eze ro fojach ras begor.''
* [ ˌe.je.pe.as zɛf ˈzi.ne.ɡa | ju ˌtɛɪ.di ˈdje.ɡe | ju ˌdje.ɡe ɛx lu ˌlas ɛx ˈke.za.kas | ju ˌme.xas ɛx ˈtsɔʊ o ˈi.bɛɪ ‖ ʒa ˈfɛɪ.bi ˌi.zɛɪ ta ru meˌpe.lo ɛx lu ˈmɛɪ.bi ˌe.je | ˈke.ɡaˌdɛɪ.ʒa.xe ˌe.ze ro ˈfo.jax ras ˌbe.ɡor ]
* speak.PFV=3SG thus Zinega, as great king, as king of DEF land of Kezakas, as brother of Sun and Moon: before sit.PFV 1SG.EMPH into DAT.DEF DAT-throne of DEF father of.1SG, push.back=be.PST.IMPF.3PL=1SG.ACC all PL.DEF foreign-PL PL.land serve

=== [[Qedik]] ===
(northern coast, c. 100 YP)

* ''Fe.hu.fizud xizi.d, Feke xiuf beqzi, zudiq xu Kifig'id xu fe.fizud*, fe.hu.fiqu fe.hu.zibdu xu mizkiq*: Zif hehek ke.ƒgizbi* xu hu.xik.ub ig'i mpi*, hehek ig'i ixi zukzi.q hu.zudiq hixqu.''
* [ ɸə̃huɸiʒud ʢiʒid | ɸə̃kə̃ ʢiuɸ bə̃qʒi | ʒudiq ʢu kiɸiɠid ʢu ɸə̃ɸiʒud | ɸə̃huɸiqu ɸə̃huʒibdu ʢu miʒkiq ‖ ʒiɸ hə̃hə̃k kə̃(ƒ)giʒbi ʢu huʢikub iɠi mpi | hə̃hə̃k iɠi iʢi ʒukʒiq huʒudiq hiʢqu ]
* AGR-the-king great-AGR, Tsinakan thus spoke, land of Kasadkad of AGR-king, AGR-the-sun AGR-the-moon of brother / that I my-father GEN the-throne-on before sat, me to all foreign the-country hostile

Variant readings: *''fe.fizud'' ~ ''fexizud''; *''mizkiq'' ~ ''humizkiq''; *''ke.ƒgizbi'' ~ ''kiƒgizbi''; *''ig'i mpi'' ~ ''mpi ig'i''

== See also ==
*[[Edastean languages]]
*[[The horse and the sheep]]
*[[The north wind and the sun]]
*[[The fisherman and the fish]]
*[[The young lion]]
*[[The chief and the mouse]]

[[Category:Languages|*]]
[[Category:Edastean languages|*{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Corpus|*{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Sample texts]]

Numerals of Akana

2026-08-03T04:47:56Z

Inzan:

A page tries to compare numerals in languages of Akana

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" |
! one
! two
! three
! four
! five
! six
! seven
! eight
! nine
! ten
! one hundred
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Ndak Ta
| ke
| ngi
| wos
| bu
| dau
| ets
| mam
| sudn
| nil
| ro
| imbi
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Adāta
| ke
| ia
| zō
| bu
| dō
| es
| man
| huda
| nil
| ro
| iphi
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Ndok Aisô
| ke
| ngi
| wos
| bu
| doi
| ets
| mab
| sud
| nil
| reu
| tsima
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Buruya Nzaysa
| kɛ
| ñe
| wo
| bu
| du
| si
| mɔ
| sud
| nəl
| rɔ
| əbe
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Delta Naidda
| kë
| ni
| wo
| bo
| du
| ïshï
| mëm
| son
| nïl
| ro
| ?
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Fáralo
| če
| ŋi
| wos
| bu
| dou
| eš
| mæm
| hude
| nil
| ro
| iəb
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Proto-Xoronic
| ki
| kiki
| o:hi
| ipuhi
| ətohi
| ettəki
| ettəkiki
| taməmo:hi
| liski
| lo
| eppi
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Proto-Isles
| sí
| sí huy sá
| tayq
| katah
| katah huy sí
| katah huy sá
| katah huy tayq
| sí katah huy sá katah
| sí katah huy sá katah huy sí
| sí katah huy sá katah huy sá
| kákakatah huy sá kákatah huy katah
|}

= Tuysafa =
'''Dumic'''

Proto Dumic is reconstructed with a Base 10 system with an additional word for a hundred.

*kada “1”
*miki “2”
*pira “3”
*data “4”
*pigi “5”
*sima “6”
*tatu “7”
*kupun “8”
*numti “9”
*kagan “10”
*tiki “100”

{{stub}}

Timeline/Before -2000

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Inzan: /* Before -4000 */

<noinclude>{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline 0}}</noinclude>
= Before -4000 =
{{Event|WTuysafa|c. -15000|[[Primundic]] peoples reach [[Tuysáfa]] via the [[Ttiruku Arc]].}}
{{Event|WTuysafa|c. -8000–-7500|Second wave of migration to Tuysáfa: Arrival of the [[Mediundic]] peoples.}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -7000|Beginnings of [[Aiwa Valley Neolithic|agriculture]] in the [[Aiwa]] valley.}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -7000|Beginnings of [[Yima Valley Neolithic|agriculture]] in Xšalad.}}
{{Event|Sumarushuxi|c. -7000|Domestication of the dog; development of pottery. Probably in [[Sumarušuxi]].}}
{{Event|ETuysafa|c. -7000–-6000|Mediundic peoples reach the eastern end of Tuysáfa.}}
{{Event|Siixtaguna|c. -6000–-5000|[[Canoe Culture]] develops in northeastern [[Peilaš]].}}
{{Event|Huyfarah|c. -4500|[[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] is spoken, presumably in the region between the lower Aiwa and the [[Oltu]].}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -4300|Earliest copper artifacts (found near Buruya).}}
{{Event|Sumarushuxi|c. -4000|Canoe Culture reaches Sumarušuxi.}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -4000|Domestication of cattle in the [[Bwimbai]] valley. Probably by the [[Proto-Macro-Edastean]]-speaking people}}

= -4000 – -3000 =
{{Event|Kasca|c. -4000–-3600|Beginnings of [[Ngauro]] civilization in [[Kasca|Kasadgad]].}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -3800|Invention of bronze by the Ngauro.}}
{{Event|WCorridor|c. -3500|[[Proto-Western]]ers domesticate the pig.}}
{{Event|WTuysafa|c. -3500–-3000|[[Ultimundic]] peoples (presumably descended from the Canoe Culture) reach Tuysáfa.}}
{{Event|WCorridor|c. -3200|Domestication of the horse by [[Western languages|Western]] peoples.}}

= -3000 – -2000 =
{{Event|Kasca|c. -3000|Old Ngauro is the first [[Oryziform|written]] language in [[Peilaš]].}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -3000|[[Miwan languages|Proto-Miwan]] speakers spread up the [[Aiwa]], and [[Talo-Edastean languages|Talo-Edasteans]] settle the [[Bwimbai]] valley.}}
{{Event|Rathedan|c. -3000|[[Gezoro]] migrate into the [[Rathedān]].}}
{{Event|WSteppe|c. -3000|Western peoples spread northwards into the steppe.}}
{{Event|WTuysafa|c. -3000–-2500|Tuysáfa Fishing Culture.}}
{{Event|Isthmus|c. -2800|Domestication of the goat in [[Proto-Isthmus|Isthmus]] territory.}}
{{Event|Siixtaguna|c. -2500|[[Proto-Núalís-Takuña]] spoken on the eastern coast of [[Siixtaguna]].}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -2500|Foundation of the [[Old Kingdom]] in the Yima valley (Xšalad).}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -2400|Ngauro control the Aiwa valley as far as the Bwimbai, ruling over the southern Talo-Edasteans (pre-Ndak).}}
{{Event|Lasomo|c. -2300|Ngauro rule declines. Ndak kingdom of [[Lasomo|Latsomo]] established; several Ndak-Ngauro wars follow.}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -2200|Ndak conquer Kasadgad; [[Ndak Ta]] begins to replace Ngauro as the dominant spoken language of the Aiwa delta.}}
{{Event|Rathedān|c. -2200|[[Gezoro]] develop iron metallurgy.}}
{{Event|Kasca|c. -2200–-2000|Ndak conquered once by northern hill tribes, twice by western nomads.}}
{{Event|Xshalad|c. -2100|[[Xšali]] invade the Yima valley and destroy the Old Kingdom.}}

Aedade

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Inzan: Redirected page to Æðadĕ

#REDIRECT [[Æðadĕ]]

History of the Isthmus region

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Inzan:

This series of maps attempts to visualize the ethnic/linguistic history of the Isthmus region between -3000 and +1200 YP.

[[Image:Isthmus history 01 -3000.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 02 -2400.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 03 -1800.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 04 -1200.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 05 -800.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 06 -400.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 07 1YP.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 08 +400.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 09 +800.png|800px]]

[[Image:Isthmus history 10 +1200.png|800px]]

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Maps]]

Ndak logosyllabary

2026-08-02T01:45:46Z

Inzan: Redirected page to User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary

#REDIRECT [[User:Cedh/Ndak logosyllabary]]

Empotle7á

2026-08-01T08:42:53Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
'''Empotle7á''' was a [[Western languages|Western language]] spoken along the west coast of [[Peilaš |Peilaš ]]. This grammar describes the language spoken around -2000 YP, give or take a few centuries. One known descendant of Empotle7á is [[Melì |Melì ]], spoken in the same area about a thousand years later.
{{Language
| color = green
| language = Empotle7á
| phonetic = [œ̀m.pò.tɬè.ʔá]
| date = -2000 YP-??
| place = Coastal Corridor
| speakers = c. 500,000
| script = attested in Lukpanic script
| family = Western  Valley   Empotle7á
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Arzena|Arzena]]
}}

=Context=

The Coastal Corridor ('''Tlonaone7á''' 'Land of the Long Sunset') is located on the western coast of the Peilaš continent, directly west of Tjakori and north of the [[Kipceʔ_desert|Kipceʔ Desert]]. The Corridor holds a special place in the philology of Akana because it was the urheimat of the speakers of [[Proto-Western|Proto-Western]]. The language has been dated to c. -3500 YP and is thought to have diversified into separate branches by -2000 YP. '''Empotle7á''' and, the Valley Languages of the Western family of languages more broadly, refers to the dialects spoken by the tribes that remained in the Coastal Corridor, not participating in the great migrations of the Proto-Westerners.

The people who spoke Empotle7á had no singular term for themselves. If pressed for a name for themselves that went beyond the bonds of tribe or clan, they would answer with ''Kotsóámakaná'', 'the people of ''kotsú'' (virtue, strength)'. If asked for a language, they would reply with ''7empotle7á7ó mélí'', 'the language of our tribe', which gave rise to '''Empotle7á''', the name of the language in Akanaran philology.

The tribes of the Kotsoamakana practiced a subsistence agricultural lifestyle, supplementing their crop yields with food from hunting and gathering.
Across their history in the Coastal Corridor, they came to rely increasingly on agriculture over hunting and gathering. The Corridor, during the wet season, provided watered valleys and highlands that supported garden farms. Innovations in water storage, terracing and canals (from an apparent Wellawi origin) drew water from the perennial streams and springs in the region. The tribes that did not control a permanent source of water migrated to the coast when the dry season came. The bounty of the sea and trade with foreigners such as the Tmaśareʔ and the Lukpani, too, supported a sizable, permanent maritime population

The religious views of the tribes were, like that of their Proto-Western ancestors, based on ''kotsú'' (etym. PW. '''kwacu'''), the spiritual essence of
every being. Bodily fluids, like blood and semen, as well as the organs contained heavy concentrations of ''kotsú''. Like the Proto-Westerners, the tribes practiced ritual cannibalism as a first stage of ancestor worship to absorb the spiritual essence of the departed. ''Kotsú'' was a revered substance, so much in fact that virtue and holiness were considered to be states of an abundance of ''kotsú''.

Unlike their ancestors, the tribes came to believe in a feminine counterpart, called '''tawotsú''', to the masculine ''kotsú''. This development (even though ''tawotsú'' remained defined in terms of ''kotsú'') opened considerable vistas in terms of cosmological and moral thought. With this development, women gained a space within spiritual practice that was hereto rather male-dominated. Furthermore, the idea emerged that that the spirit world contained an infinite amount of ''kotsú''. Using a whole
host of psychedelic drugs, trances, and meditations, shamans ('''lákathéo''') were believed to be able to travel to the spirit world and intercede
to the spirits and the ancestors for ''kotsú''. The spirits and the ancestors, in turn, could bestow their blessings and good fortune with ''kotsú'' or demonstrate their ire and withhold the precious substance.

Philologists of Akana believe, based on linguistic and genetic evidence, that the speakers of Empotle7á were most related to the speakers of Tmaśareʔ. The evidence comes in the ample exchange of loanwords between the two languages and shared semantic and lexical development from the time of Proto-Western that are without cognates in other branches of the larger Western language family.

In relation its sister languages, Empotle7á shares features with the [[Western_languages|Steppe]] and [[Western_languages|Lake Languages]] like Iŋomœ and Çetázó: rounded (albeit allophonic) vowels. With Iŋomœ, it shares a second personal plural pronoun from PW '''*la-du'''. From Proto-Coastal-Western there are loan words such as ''topu'' 'stubborn' and ''yetsa'' 'test'. Speakers of Proto-Lukpanic from the city of Doanu also contacted the Corridor tribes. They exchanged words relating to the ocean: ''lú'' 'ocean, sea', ''kitíwo'' 'whale', ''lipí'' 'crab', ''Póló'' 'sea goddess'; sailing: ''téwo'' 'tide', ''kikesá'' 'tack', ''taoŋa'' 'rudder'; and civilization: ''étú'' 'brick', ''popá'' 'wine', ''kum'' 'city', ''mawa'' 'salt'.

Other influences in Empotle7a come from Wellawi and Tulameyan sources. In the absence of detailed knowledge of these languages, philologists have tended to assign unexpected loanwords, syntatical and morphological developments to these sources.
==Sound Changes from [[Proto-Western]]==

The following are the sound changes posited from Proto-Western to Empotle7á.

From stages 1 through 3 tonogenesis occured. Vowels in open syllables gained high tone, while vowels in closed syllables or next to */b d dz dž γ γʷ w/ received low tone. Furthermore, the presence of low tone in words like ''kotsú'' descending from PW */kʷatsu/ suggests that, in the PW dialect that gave rise to Empotle7á, /kʷ/ was realized as [gʷ], causing low tone. This is aided by the reflex of PW */kʰakʷʰa/ as ''kháwó'', implying that /kʷʰ/ was realized as [kʷ].

===''1. Vowel Shift''===

/u/→ [o] if /a/ is in the preceding or following syllable

/i/→[e] if /a/ is in the preceding or following syllable

/V1ʔV1/→[V:]→[V+high tone]

===''2. Semivowel, Labiovelar + Vowel''===

*Kʷ=any labiovelar

/wa/→[o]

/Kʷa/→[Kʷo]

/we/→[o]

/Kʷe/→[Kʷo]

/wi/→[u]

/Kʷi/→[Kʷu]

/wo/→[w] /_V

/wu/→[w]: _V

/ja/→[é]

/ji/→[é]

/je/→[é]

/jo/→[é]

/ju/→[í]

===''3. Nasals''===

/Ṽ+alveolar consonant/→[n]

/Ṽ+labial consonant/→[m]

/Ṽ+labiovelar, velar/→[ŋ]

/ŋn→ŋm/ → [mn]

/Ṽkʷ/ → [mn]: */mĩkʷa/→ [memkʷo→ memŋo→ memno→ mœm.nɤ]

''3.2 Denasalization''

/Ṽ/ → [Vm] : _#

''3.3 The Palatal Nasal''

/ɲ/→[ŋ]

===''4. Labiovelars''===

/kʷ/→[k], #_ : */kʷẽdu/ > [gʷõɾu > konu > kɤ.nɯ]

/kʷ/→[w], V_V : */ʔekʷẽdu/ > [ʔekʷẽdu > ʔegʷõɾu > ʔewonu > ʔøwonɯ]

/γʷ/→[w], #_, V_V : */γʷiwa/ > [wu.o > wo]

===5. /γ/===

/γ/→[w], _a, o, u : */daγa/ > [tawa]

/γ/→[j], _i, e : */γedže/ > [jetle], */γiya/ > [jé]

/γl/→[w]: */γlaʔta/ > [waʔá], */γlilĩpu/ > [wylymú]

===''6. Consonants''===

/l/, /ɬ/→[ɬ]

[+plosive -voice]ɬ→tɬʰ / #_

/b/, /d/→[p, t] /_ɬ

/pɬ/→[tɬ]

/ɬC/→[ɬɬ]

/ʔC/→[ʔ]

/ʔ/→[p, t, k] / m_,n_, ŋ_

/ʤ/→[ʣ]

/ʣ/→[tɬ]

/ʧ/→[ʦ]

/b/→[w]

/d/→[0] / V_V

/d/→[t]/ #_

/t, k/→[ʔ] /_($,#): */ek.ɬi/ > [eʔ.ɬi]

===''7. Tones''===

(C)V́CV́CV́→(C)VCV́CV́

C)V́CVCV́→C)VCVCV́

===Sporadic or Dialectal Sound Changes===
All of the dialects of Empotle7á share sound changes from Proto-Western up until the last three changes in (6). Here are some consonant sound changes that distinguished the dialects. Reconstructing tonal changes of dialects is ongoing.

/ɬd, ɬt/→[tɬ]: ''* kʰułda'' > ''khotla'' cf. dialectal ''kholla''

/jt/→[ʦ]: ''* kʷʰeyta'' > ''khótsá''

/kj/→[ʦ]: ''*čewkʰyu > tsotsú'', *''kyupʰe'' > ''tsúphé''

/d/→[r]/ V_V: ''*kuda'' > ''kora''; this was found in the southern dialects, hence [[Tmaśareʔ/Lexicon|Tmaśareʔ]] loan words with medial /r/

/Cʰ$Cʰ/ where $ = any space within the same lexeme --> [Cʰ$C]: ''*tʰawa-tʰãda'' > ''thothana'' > ''thotana''

Glottal stop and vowel cluster reduction, most noticeably in compound words: /*kʰa.ya.ʔu.ʔa.šẽ/ > /khé.a.ʔo.ʔa.sem/ > /khéoasem/; */nunéʔukhé/ > /nunúkhé/

=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! alveolar !! palatal!!velar !! glottal
|- align="center"
! stops
| p pʰ || t tʰ || || k kʰ|| ʔ
|- align="center"
! affricates
| || ts tsʰ || || ||
|- align="center"
! lateral affricate
| || tɬ tɬʰ || || ||
|- align="center"
! voiceless fricative
| || s || || ||
|- align="center"
! nasals
| m || n || || ŋ ||
|- align="center"
! lateral fricative
| || ɬ || || ||
|- align="center"
! approximants
| || || j ||w ||
|-
|}

/ɬ tɬ ŋ ts ʔ j/ will be written <l tl ŋ ts 7 y>

==Vowels==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Front!!Central!!Back
|- align="center"
! High
||i|| ||ɯ
|- align="center"
! Mid
||e|| ||ɤ
|- align="center"
! Low
|| ||a||
|}

Each vowel is realized as rounded when preceded or followed by a labial or /w/. Any vowel has no more than three potential allophones, with /i/ taking the total while /ɯ/ gets by with [u] as its single allophone.

'''/a/→[ɒ, ɔ]'''

'''/e/→[œ, ø]'''

'''/i/→[y, ʏ, ʉ]'''

'''/ɤ/→[o, ɞ]'''

'''/ɯ/→[u]'''

==Syllable Structure==
Syllable structure is limited to {(C)(w)V((N)l, ŋ)}, where N = the archiphonemic nasal.

Examples: /'''tɬa˩.ŋa˧'''/, /'''swo˩'''/, /'''tɬi˥Nɬ'''/, /'''kɒm˧.pœ˥'''/, /'''sa˥'''/, /'''ʔa˩ɬ.ɬa˨ɬ'''/, /'''ʔa˩.se˧.na˨ŋ'''/

==Suprasegmentals==

Empotle7á has a register tone system of two tones: high and low tones. The orthography marks the high tone by the acute accent while leaving the low tone unmarked. As allophones, a high tone is lowered, realized as a mid tone next to a syllable containing a low tone. Additionally, a consecutive sequences of HHH gradually falls to HM1M2 while a sequence of LLL rises via LM2M1.

The nasal that manifests itself at the end of syllables is best analyzed not as an individual sound - /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ - but as an archiphonemic nasal (transcribed as /N/). It becomes /m/ at a syllable coda and a nasal of the same point of articulation as a following consonant at a syllable boundary (while assimilating that consonant into itself).
*'''tlím''' 'bee.SG' /tɬi˥N/ > [tɬy˥m]
*'''tlín''' 'bee.dual' /tɬi˥Nɬ/ > [tɬi˥n]
*'''kámam-kulú''' 'fear-wolf' /ka˥.ma˨Nkɯ˨ɬɯ˥/ > '''kámaŋolú''' [kɒ̃˦.wɒ˧.ŋɤ˦.ɬɯ]

==Allophony==
Empotle7á tends to add obstructants to roots beginning with vowels: /a/ > [ʔa]; /e/ > [ʲe]; /ɤ/>[ʷo].
*/a.wo/ 'give, tribute' > [ʔa.wo]
*/e.mu/ 'mouth' > [ʲœ̃.wu]

The bilabial nasal /m/, medial and final position, and final /ɬ/ weaken, with /m/ becoming [w] with nasalization of the preceding vowel and /ɬ/ becoming aspirated [ɬʰ] even to the point of [h]:
*/ʔe.ɬːaɬ/ 'dozen' > [ʔeɬːah]
*/pʰɤ.a.jem/ 'chief's hall' > [pʰo.a.jœ̃w]

Vowels that fall between two aspirated stops, affricates, fricatives or any combination thereof become whispered. In a sequence of WV1WV2WV - where W indicates a consonant that triggers whispered vowels - only V2 becomes whispered :
*/e.tɬa.kʰa/ 'encouragement, inspiration' > [ʲe.tɬḁ.kʰa]
*/ka.tsʰe.ɬːɯ/ 'vice, dishonor' > [ka.tsʰe̥.ɬːɯ]

==Morphophonological Processes==
===Vowel Harmony===
A vowel harmony based on vowel height exists in Empotle7á. The vowel /a/ can only be followed or preceded with /e/ and /ɤ/. Therefore, if a suffix, prefix, or root that contains /i/ or /ɯ/ comes into contact with /a/ via morphology, those high vowels closest to /a/ will drop to /e/ and /ɤ/ respectively.
*woná7ú-->'''woná7ó'''
*láwulú-->'''lawolú'''
*wosúkhá-->'''wosókhá'''

===Consonant Gradation===
*An initial /k/ from Proto-Western */kʷ/ (realized as [gʷ] in the dialect that gave rise to Empotle7a) shifts to /w/ in the presence of a prefix.
{{gl|tawowuné laná|tá-kowu-né laná-Ø|NC2.ABS-cook-1sg.ERG egg.ABS}}
{{glend|I'm cooking an egg.}}

*An initial /t/ from Proto-Western */d/ elides in the presence of a prefix.
{{gl|oalam tá latloŋa?|o-talam tá latloŋa|NC1.ABS-swim 2sg why}}
{{glend|Why do you swim?}}

===Tone Dropping===
Prefixes containing a high tone will drop to low tone when next to a historically voiced consonant. E.g.:
*''*taγedže'' --> ''tayetle'', 'it runs', not *''táyetle''
*''*tabẽdza''--> ''tawena'', 'it cuts', not *''táwena''
*''tagʷegʷu''--> ''tawowu'' 'it is cooked', not *''táwowu''

Similarly, suffixes that originated in [[Proto-Western]] from a closed syllable (-CCV) or contained a voiced consonant triggered a low tone.
*'''7allá'''- 'anger' + -''tla'' 'stative verb suffix' (< PW *-''dza'') --> '''7allatla''' 'make angry'
*'''7óná'''- 'tooth' + -''llá'' 'dynamic verb suffix' (< PW *-''łpa'') --> '''7ónallá''' 'bite'

===Nasal Assimilation===
In verbal morphology, the initial consonant of any suffix or incorporated word assimilates to the nasal at its point of articulation to a verb stem ending in /N/ or another suffix with a coda nasal. Exception, /Nj/ where N=any nasal > [ŋ].

 {{gl|tákámaŋolóká 7empowolá7é|tá-kámam-kulú-ká 7empo-kolá-7í|NC2-fear-wolf-3sg.ERG our.IP-child}}
 {{glend|Our son is scared of wolves.}}

===Vowel Assimilation===
If a root ends in a vowel and a /V/ or a /ʔV/ suffix with the identical vowel is attached, the vowels assimilate. The product is a phonemically long vowel that is always high toned.

{{gl|'''meŋu'''+'''7ú'''-->'''meŋú''' |[mœ.ŋɯ́:]| 'sheep.CONS'}}

{{gl|'''lipí'''+'''7í'''-->'''lipí'''| [ɬy.pý:]| 'crab.ERG'}}

=Nominal Morphology=
===Case===

Empotle7á's nominal morphology is simple and straightforward. The language maintains the distinction between singular, dual, and plural like its ancestor while dropping the edible/inedible dichotomy. Three declension classes, vowel stems, m stems, and the -7 stem, separate the nouns. Like many other Western languages Empotle7á marks its nouns for the ergative, absolutive, and construct cases and indicates possession via head-marking. Sound changes from the proto-language eliminated the old plural, resulting in an innovated, head-marked plural morpheme.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c}}
!singular !! absolutive !! ergative !! constructive
|-
! vowel stem
| -Ø || -7Í|| -7Ú
|-
! -7 stem
| -Ø || -Í || -Ú
|-
! m stem
| -Ø || -pÍ || -pÚ
|-
|}

*'''swo''', '''swo7í''', '''swo7ú'''

*'''la7''', '''la7é''', '''la7ó'''

*'''tlím''', '''tlímpí''', '''tlímpú'''

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c}}
!dual!! absolutive !! ergative !! construct
|-
! vowel stem
| -l || -lÍ|| -lÚ
|-
! m stem
| -n || -nÍ || -nÚ
|-
|}

*'''swol''', '''swolí''', '''swolú'''

*'''tlín''', '''tlíní''', '''tlínú'''

Empotle7á created a new morpheme to indicate the plural: ''lá''-. It seems to come from a truncated form of ''*lana'' 'some' or from -''*la''- a fronted collective classifier.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c}}
!plural!! absolutive !! ergative !! construct
|-
! vowel stem
| lá- || lá-...-wo|| lá-...-wo
|-
! m stem
| lá- || lá-...-pÍ || lá-...-pÚ
|-
|}

*'''láswo''', '''láswowo''', '''láswowo'''

*'''látlém''', '''látlémpí''', '''látlémpú'''

===Possession===
Empotle7á distinguishes between alienable and inalienable possession. Alienably possessed nouns are simply preceded by their possessor, cast in the construct, whereas inalienably possessed nouns take an obligatory possessive prefix marking number and person of the possessor. The prefixes follow the plural morpheme '''lá'''-.

Speakers can add nuances to meaning by using or withholding the inalienable prefixes. For example, '''nawolá''' means 'my child' and implies a blood relation whereas '''ná7ó kolá''' means the same thing but does not imply the blood relation, hence an extended meaning of 'my nephew' or even 'my orphan/ward'. Some exceptions of alienable items marked by inalienable prefixes, as a matter of culture, include livestock, spiritual items, weapons, and horses

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c}}
! !! singular !! dual !!   plural  
|-
! 1st
| ná- || 7ená- || 7empo-
|-
! 2nd
| tsé- || tlé- || 7ie-
|-
! 3rd
| 7é- || lé- || ko-
|}

{{gl|lálewolá|lá-lé-kolá|PL-3.DU-child}}
{{glend|the children of those two}}

{{gl|nátlhó|ná-tlhó|1.SG-blood}}
{{glend|my family}}

{{gl|tó lané? Khel! Othwewo nálané nóké!!!|tá-7ó lané khel o-thwe-wo ná-lané nóké|2sg.CONS horse NEG NC1-become 1sg-horse EMPH}}
{{glend| '''Your''' horse? Of course not! This is '''my''' horse!}}

{{gl|éllí kolané|é-llí ko-lané|ANA-C2 3.PL-horse}}
{{glend|That is their horse}}

===Classifiers===

Classifiers in Empotle7á are used to overtly mark demonstratives and absolutive referents of verbs. Verbs agree with the classes of their A or E arguments, and modifiers agree with the classes of their head nouns. Here they are listed along with their characteristic suffixes. Due to substrate influence, the classifiers, when used as absolutive referent markers, are prefixed on to verbs. Empotle7á nonetheless maintains its Proto-Western roots in suffixing the classifiers to modifiers, demonstratives, and pronoun stems. They are glossed as 'NC1, NC2...

{| {{softtable}}
|-
| class="b" width="10%"| -o-
| humans, men, favored animals, predatory animals, other beings capable of speech: ''people, dogs, horses, bears, wolves, eagles, gods, spirits, demons, ancestors etc.''
|-
| class="b"| tá-/-llÍ
| organic substances and women: ''female humans, edible animals, plants, liquids; parts of the body etc.''
|-
| class="b"| -sé-
| intangible things: ''emotions, colors, wind, liquids, fire, ideas etc.''
|-
| class="b"| -wUm-
| solid, straight objects: ''sticks, weapons, arrows, fingers, penises, legs, arms etc.''
|-
| class="b"| -kU-
| inedible objects: ''rocks, stones, unripe fruit, groups and collections, non-food animals etc.''
|-
|}

NB: The two morphemes of the second noun class stem from a merger of PW *''-łki-'' and *''-ta-''. In Empotle7á, the latter is used as a verbal prefix marking absolutive referents while the former is used as a suffix elsewhere.

Usage notes: ''-o-'', ''tá-'', and ''-kU-'' are the dominant noun classes. Ie, when speakers use casual language or do not know what noun class to use for a given nominal, they will default to one of the three. Noun class 4 (''-wUm-'') finds more use as a derivational prefix, and, as a noun class marker, is nearly merged with (''-kU-''); noun class 3 (''-sé-'') remains in use, most clearly in set phrases and proverbs but is starting to merge with ''tá-''. There is an overall trend towards prefixation: ''-llÍ-'' has become a fixture of only the most careful speech, set phrases, and simple pronoun referents. The classifiers are beginning to expand further with ''tá-'' and ''wum-'' are beginning to emerge as nominalizers in derivational morphology.

Proto-Western placed an important morphological distinction on edibility. This continues in Empotle7a in the noun classes. Classes 2 and 4 carry meaning of edibility, with 2 referring to edible referents and 4 to inedible ones. However, the primary distinction seems to be intent towards eating the referent: for example, speakers refer to a group of edible things with noun class four (eg., in the following sentence the referent '''tilem''' 'mushroom' takes two referents at different parts of the story: '''''ku'''tluphuné tshú si látelem e7lí '''tá'''wowuká ku pampa'' - 'I gathered two mushrooms yesterday that daddy cooked').

===Modifers===

Modifiers and adpositions follow their head noun.

{{gl|'''lané 7eallé'''|horse slow-NC2}}
{{glend|a/the slow horse}}

{{gl|'''Laŋatsompú ''tawe'' sépheolláwo kotsú'''|spirit.world-CONS on NC4-reside-GENEV kwacu}}
{{glend|Kotsu lives in the spirit world}}

Multiple adjectives referring to a single nominal serialized the adjectives by combining them into a single lexeme. The noun classifer fell on the 'last' adjective added to the sequence. If speakers chose not to serialize adjectives, they generally then followed the form ADJ '''tsá''' ADJ; three or more simple tacked on '''tsá''' 'and' to the last adjective.

1. {{+|
{{gl|kulú tlámá tsá ŋallollí|wolf red and stupid-NC2|}}
{{glend|the dumb, red wolf}}
}}

2. {{+|
{{gl|kulú tlámáŋallollí|wolf red-stupid-NC2|}}
{{glend|the dumb, red wolf}}
}}

3. {{+|
{{gl|kulú tlámá opi ŋallollí tsá|wolf red wet stupid-NC2 and|}}
{{glend|the dumb, red, and wet wolf}}
}}

4. {{+|
{{gl|kulú tlámáopiŋallollí|wolf red-wet-dumb-NC2|}}
{{glend|the dumb, red, and wet wolf}}
}}

==Derivation==
{{collapsible||
Here are twenty-one derivational suffixes and prefixes found in the Empotle7á language. In my notation, ''U'' means that the vowel harmonizes between /u/ and /o/ and ''I'' means that the vowel harmonizes between /i/ and /e/. Low tone caused by historically voiced consonants or closed syllables is noted

===Null===
This category contains common nouns derived from a verb.
*''khatla'' 'shake'-->'earthquake'
*''7awo'' 'rain'-->'rain'
*''7áló'' 'smell'-->'odor, smell, stench'

Some verbs conflate multiple transitivities into a single lexeme:
*''pemí'' 'hide' (intransitive), 'cover' (monotransitive)
*''pósí'' 'request' (monotransitive), 'ask so. for sth.' (ditransitive)
*''sopam'' 'itch' (intransitive), 'scratch' (monotransitive)

===Verbalizers===
-'''7é''' Derives a 'stative' verb from a nominal. Abbreviated as STAT in glosses.
*''thana-'' ' 'cold'-->''thana7é'' 'be numb, indifferent, unfeeling'
*''tamo-'' 'thick'-->''tamo7é'' 'be stubborn/ thick-headed; have an erection'
-'''llá''' Derives a 'dynamic' verb from a nominal, whose meaning is related to the base. Lowers adjacent vowel tone.
*''7óná-'' 'tooth'-->''7ónallá'' 'bite'
*''tlhó-'' 'blood'-->''tlhollá'' 'bleed'
-'''tla''' This suffix increases the valence of a verb by one- creating causatives and transitives. Lowers adjacent vowel tone.
*''7allá-'' 'anger'-->''7allatla'' 'become angry, to anger so.'
-'''ká''' From the postposition ''ká'' 'on behalf of'. Creates a verb with the meaning of 'seeks to achieve X', often paired with -''tla'' and -''llá''.
*''kulú'' 'wolf' --> ''kulóká'' and ''kulotlaká'' 'seek to become a wolf' (overtones of spiritual journey, hardship, self-actualization)
*''tlho-'' 'walk' --> ''tlhoká'' 'strive for, give support to so.'
-'''7ellá''' This suffix indicates that the motion of the root is towards the "focus" point (which is often, but not always, the speaker).
*''kotsú-'' 'kotsú' -->''kotsú7ellá'' 'become infused with kotsú'
-'''7atlo'''; This suffix indicates the opposite of the preceding, motion away from the focus point.
*''tlho-'' 'walk'-->''tlho7atlo'' 'walk away, leave, lose interest'

===Agentives===
-'''Í'''; Derives agent-nouns from verbs. Infrequent use by the time of this grammar.
*''tluphú-'' 'hunt'-->''tluphúí'' 'hunter'
*''latséká''-'ride'-->''latsékáé'' 'rider, horseman'
-'''o-'''; a prefix, produces agents with an absolutive agency. Productive
*''yetle-'' 'run, dash' --> ''oyetle'' 'messenger, courier'; ''tísí'' 'write' -->''otísí'' 'scribe, writer' (writing is perceived as an absolutive activity because most writing is dictation by an illiterate person to a scribe, hence the writer is not an active agent).
-'''lo'''; Added to nominals, this suffix produces agent nouns or persons who have a relation to the base. Productive.
*''lellá-'' 'heal'-->''lellálo'' 'healer'; ''woné'' 'island'-->''wonélo'' 'islander'
-'''tsoŋé'''; Signifies an inhabitant of a certain region, nation, or tribe.
*''Newásetlhuyem''-'Bright Bay'-->''Newásetlhuyenoŋé''- a man of the Bright Bay clan.
*''7atono'' - 'the Lukpani people' --> ''7atonotsoŋé'' - 'a Lukpani person'

===Tools and Processes===
-'''tlUm'''; Added to verbs, this suffix produces a nominal indicating the tool by which the base process is carried out. Lowers adjacent vowel tone.
*''wa7á-'' 'milk (an animal)'-->''wa7atlom'' 'udder, teat'
*''7wollá-'' 'vomit' --> ''7wollátlom'' 'poison'
-'''lá'''; Added to verbs, this produces a nominal indicating the result of a verb.
*''thumú'' 'have sex'-->''thumólá'' 'orgasm'
*''koa-'' 'sleep'-->''koalá'' 'sleep'
-'''tsUm'''; suffix derived nominals indicating a collection of bases.
*''laŋa-'' 'spirit'-->''laŋatsom'' 'spirit-world'
*''lané-'' 'horse'-->''lanétsum'' 'herd of horses, corral, stable'
*''kulú-'' 'wolf'-->''kulútsum'' 'pack of wolves, pack'

===States and Composition===
-'''tÚ'''; This suffix derives nominals from other nominals, the resulting word being an abstract nominal. Something like English -ness.
*''7ayé-'' 'frightening'-->''7ayétú'' 'fear'
*''lané-'' 'horse'-->''lanétú'' 'horse-ness' i.e., a person with a mercurial personality.
-'''tléu'''; See above. One proposed etymology is a metathesized variant of PW *wetlu 'liver'.
*''awo-'' 'give' --> ''awotléu'' 'gift-giving, hospitality, generosity'
*''éká-'' 'not work, play, have fun' --> ''ékatléu'' 'play, free time, fun'
-'''khá'''; Added to nominals, this suffix produces nominals which have a relation in some way to the base word.
*''7imé-'' 'name'-->''7imékhá'' 'identity'
*''phéotla-'' 'inflate'-->''phéotlakhá'' 'tall tales, braggadocio'
-'''llÚ'''; Added to nominals, this suffix indicates an object which is made of the referent of the base word.
*''phélí-'' 'tree'-->''phélíllú'' 'wood, lumber'
*''khatla-'' 'shake'-->''khatlalló'' 'cheese' (shaking leather bags of milk to start formation of curds)
-'''wum-'''; a prefix derived from the fourth noun class; its concrete meaning is of a straight, solid object; more abstractly, it conveys a sense of completeness or excessiveness of a nominal or verb. Does not trigger nasal assimilation.
*''thowa-'' 'root' --> ''wumthowa'' 'a thick, nutritious tuber'; ''wotla-'' 'give birth to' --> ''wumwotla'' 'fertile, fecund'; ''otá-'' 'turn' --> ''wumotá'' 'reorient, find one's way'

===Groups and Classes===
-'''U'''; Derives honorifics. Lowers adjacent vowel tone.
*''phoa-'' 'chief'-->''phoao'' 'sir chief'
*''phoayé-'' 'chief's children'--> ''phoayeu'' 'chief's chosen heir for succession'
-'''U'''; Denotes a single out of a collective, chiefly used for animals and plants; relic of PW edible suffix ''*-γ''
*''willí-'' 'millet'-->''willíu'' 'a grain of millet'
*''yemó-'' 'pine'-->''yemóu'' 'a single pine tree' cf. ''láyemó'' 'a definable quantity of pine trees'
-'''tá-'''; a prefix; a borrowing from the second noun class, gives 'feminineness' to the nominal: ie, diminuatives, feminine equivalents of masculine base nouns, some abstract nominals.
*''kotsú'' 'kwacu' > ''tawotsú'' 'feminine energy, yin'
*''tá-kIm'' > ''tákem'' 'a vulgar word for women lit. 'female thing''
-'''wU'''; Derives diminutives.
*''tlámá'' 'flower'-->''tlámáwo'' 'bud'
-'''woyé''' A pejorative suffix
*''kolá'' 'child'-->''koláwoyé'' 'brat'
*-''woyé'' 'id' > ''woyé'' 'idiot, bastard, knob, dummy'
-'''kIm'''; Derived the female equivalent of a masculine base nominal; restricted to animals and archaic words for human professions
*''matle-'' 'bear'-->''matlekim'' 'she-bear', ''
*''kulú-'' 'wolf'-->''kulúkim'' 'she-wolf'-->''mikúlu7'' (through taboo-avoidance speech)
*''wotla-'' 'give birth' -->''wotlakem'' 'midwife'
-'''yé''' Added to nominals, this suffix indicates a descendant or offspring of the base.
*''lané-'' 'horse'-->''lanéyé'' ‘foal'

===Places===
-'''yem'''; Derives nominals indicating location, either the location of an action or another nominal. Lowers adjacent vowel tone.
*''másé-'' 'shine'-->''máseyem'' 'moon'
*''phoa-'' 'chief'-->''phoayem'' 'chief's residence, authority'
*''7wé-'' 'pain'-->''7weyem'' 'wound, injury (literal)'
-'''pá'''; similar to above; place where action occurs or happens. Back-derived from ''ethá-pá''.
*''éthá''- 'grow, garden'-->''ethápá'' 'garden, vegetable patch'
*''koa'' 'sleep'-->''koapá'' 'bed'
*''7wé-'' 'pain'-->''7wépá'' 'wound, injury (chiefly metaphoric)'
-'''ne7á'''; marks geographic regions characterized by the root.
*''étú-'' 'brick' --> ''Étúne7á'' 'the Lukpanic Coast (Brickland)'

===Prenominals===
Prenominals are a category of lexemes in Empotle7á that function on par with adjectives and adverbs in other languages, though, Empotle7á itself makes no explicit distinction between the two.

-'''tsÚ'''; This derives prenominals from nominals and verbs.
*''tamo-'' 'thick'-->''tamotsú'' 'stubborn(ly)'
*''thana-'' 'cold'-->''thanatsó'' ‘coldly'
*''kháló-'' ''tie up'--> ''7ékhálótsú'' 'his tying up'
-'''laŋ'''; Derives prenominals that indicate a kind of manner. From PW ''-łãγa'' 'spirit'
*''lá-'' 'man'-->''lálaŋ'' 'manly, like a man'
*''7ásem-'' 'woman'-->''7ásenaŋ'' 'womanly, like a woman'

===Compounding===
Another process of derivation that survived from Proto-Western was compounding of modifier and nominal. Classifiers were not included in this process.

Pronominal and Pronominal
*''tlamá-'' 'red' ''kulú'' 'wolf'-->''tlamawolú'' 'maverick'
c.f.
*''kulú tlamállé'' 'red wolf'

Construct Phrase
*''émáomá'' 'east, sunrise, dawn' < ''émá-7ú-má'' sun-CONS-place
*''nunúkhé'' 'bonfire' < ''nuné-7ú-khé'' evening-CONS-fire

===Reduplication===
Reproduction was extent to a limited degree in Proto-Western. The dialect that gave rise to Empotle7á generally used it to derive causative or intensive meanings from a root verb; however, it is no longer productive in the language.
*''*bẽdza'' 'know' --> ''*bẽbẽdza'' 'understand' > ''wena'', ''wemena''
*''*besa'' 'cut'--> ''*bebesa'' 'gash, split, dismember' > ''wesá'', ''wewesá''
*''*łaña'' 'be empty'-->''*łałaña'' 'hollow out, dig, remove' > ''láŋá'', ''lálaŋá''
*''*lũpa'' 'kiss' --> ''*lulũpa'' 'seduce' > ''lulomá'', cf. Tmaśareʔ ''lǫpa'' 'kiss'

Southern dialects (those closest in proximity to speakers of Tmaśareʔ) adopted reduplication of the initial syllable to mark quantifiable plurality:
*''khotla'' 'boat'--> '''''khoko'''tla'' 'boats' cf. '''''lá'''khotla'' 'a mass of boats, fleet'
*''tákatlom'' 'rope' --> '''''tátá'''katlom'' 'ropes'
*''talana'' 'bird' --> '''''taa'''lana'' (< *''dadalãta'') 'birds'
*''ko'' 'tail' --> '''''kow'''o'' 'tails' (< *''kʷakʷadu'')

===Sound Symbolism===
The resulting affect of this system on a root creates a diminuitive of its meaning. The process affected nominals more productively than verbs, of which only a limited class could be altered; ie, verbs created by other derivational processes were blocked from sound symbolism consonant reduction. In cases of homophony created by the change in consonants, the lexeme was reduplicated with the altered lexeme as the second element in the phrase.

*''kulú''-> ''ŋulú''-> ''yulú''; 'wolf' > 'wolfy' > 'pup'
*''lané'' -> ''lané wané''; 'horse' > 'horsey'
*''koa''-> ''ŋoa''-> ''yoa''; 'sleep' > 'nap' > 'catch some z's'
*''pósí'' -> ''mósí'' -> ''wósí''; 'ask' > 'ask in a cutesy way' > 'uwu pwease'

===Phrases===
Another means was the formation of nominals from phrases and the nominalization of verbs. The former process was not as productive as the latter process, and the origins of these compounds are sometimes opaque.
*''oyetle'' 'he runs' --> 'messenger, runner, courier'
*''otísí'' 'he writes' --> 'intelligent, smart'
*''é7óná'' 'its tooth'--> 'arrow, spear tip'
*''eolá''< ''éo7ú lá'' 'his man' --> 'brother'
*''twolláthá'' < ''tá-7wollá-thá'' 'it causes vomiting' --> 'scorpion'
*''láola'' < ''7ellá-7o la7'' 'under the hand' --> 'palm'

===Avoidance/Taboo Speech===
Avoidance and taboo speech was used by the speakers of Empotle7á to refer to people, animals, and things worthy of respect and fear and reverence. The form of avoidance language used in the language was done simply by saying the word backwards. Some taboo words show sound changes from Proto-Western, indicating that this was an active process in the protolanguage. The taboo language, on the other hand, tolerates syllable structures (final stops for instance) not ordinarily allowed in the daily language. Some speakers, though, shift taboo words according to the following rules that bring taboo words in line with phonological rules of the regular language: all final stops are reduced to glottal stops or add the preceding vowel; affricates do not change order (ie. /ts/ does not become /st/); /i/ is added after any final /s/ and /o/ after any /K/, /tK/, or /ts/
*''7ayé-'' 'fear, frightening' --> ''éya7-''
*''kulúkim'' 'she-wolf'-->''mikúlu7''
*''kulú'' 'wolf'-->''úlu7'' or ''úluku''
*''sawelo'' 'warrior'-->''olewasi'' 'The Warrior (a constellation)'
*''lané'' 'horse'-->''énalo''
*''khatla'' 'shake;-->''7atlakh''+ ''u'' 'honorific --> ''7atlakho'' 'epilepsy'
*''maná7'' 'death' itself a taboo inverse of ''7ánam'', which is itself a taboo inverse of Proto-Western ''*tʰãda'' 'cold'
}}

==Determiners==
The class of determiners in Empotle7á includes demonstratives and quantifiers. Both obligatorily use the noun classifiers as suffixes, the classifier agreeing with the referent which is being determined.

Additionally, Empotle7á determiners partook of the nature of phoric pronouns, in that in addition to determining another nominal, they can also stand alone with anaphoric/cataphoric reference.

{{gl|Látákhésallá|lá-tá-khésallá|PL-NC2-defecate}}
{{gl|phámá7ó|phámá-7ó|every.place-CONS}}
{{gl|saŋ|saŋ|in}}
{{gl|phállé|phá-llí|all-NC2}}
{{gl|látwatwa|lá-twatwa|PL-dog}}
{{gl|yámá|yámá|but}}
{{gl|tátsééká|tá-tséé-ká|NC2-want-3.ERG}}
{{gl|pháo7í|phá-o-7í|every-NC1-ERG}}
{{gl|éllí.|é-llí|ANA-NC2}}
{{glend|All dogs shit everywhere, but everyone wants one.}}

===Phoric Pronouns===
Simple copula sentences used the anaphoric ('''ku'''-) and cataphoric ('''é'''-) pronoun stems. Speakers began speaking about new subjects with the latter (glossed as CAT) and switched to the former (ANA) for the remainder of the dialogue. Since the pronoun takes the noun class referent, adding it on the modifier was redundant for same referent. Different referents in the same sentence required that the noun class markers stay on the modifiers.

{{+|
{{gl|7ea7éllé|7ea-7é-llí|slow-STAT-EVID.NDBT}}
{{gl|ku|ku|ANA}}
{{gl|lané|lané|horse}}
{{gl|tsá|tsá|and}}
{{gl|ŋallo7éo|ŋallo-7é-o|dumb-STAT-NC1}}
{{gl|éllí7ú|é-llí-7ú|CAT-NC2-CONS}}
{{gl|latsékáé|latséká-í|rider}}
{{glend|This horse is slow, and its rider is dumb!}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|7ea7étli|7ea-7é-tli|slow-STAT-EVID1}}
{{gl|éllí?|é-llí|ANA-NC2}}
{{glend|Is it slow?}}
}}

When speakers wished to discuss the past or future, the phoric pronouns could be combined with verbs like -'''thwé'''- 'become' or -'''é7ellá'''- 'come' though this was not mandatory.

{{+|
{{gl|Métáthwéwo|mí-tá-thwé-wo|PAST-NC2-become}}
{{gl|Kulótlámá|Kulótlámá|Kulotlama}}
{{gl|lané|lané|horse.ABS|}}
{{gl|7eallé|7ea-llí|dumb-NC2}}
{{glend|Kulotlama was such a dumb horse}}
}}

Indeed, in such cases, '''ku''' and '''é''' were fronted with the subject of the sentence and often functioned more as discourse particles signifying 'This is a new statement' (glossed as TOPIC) and 'This is something we were talking about' (glossed as SUBJECT) respectively.

{{+|
{{gl|Ku|ku|TOPIC|}}
{{gl|pampa|pampa|grandfather.ABS}}
{{gl|ŋé|ŋé|always}}
{{gl|oé7ellámó|o-é7ellá-mú|NC1.ABS-become-EVID}}
{{gl|ékálaŋo|éká-laŋ-o|play-spirit-NC1}}
{{glend|Grampa was always a playful spirit}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Yámá|yámá|but}}
{{gl|é|é|SUBJECT}}
{{gl|pampa|pampa|grandfather.ABS}}
{{gl|omíolláŋémóká|o-mí-olláŋé-mú-ká|NC1.ABS-PERF-discipline-EVID-3sg.ERG}}
{{gl|ko|ko|NEG}}
{{gl|tá|tá|2sg.ABS}}
{{gl|khel|khel|NEG}}
{{glend|But he never disciplined you!}}
}}

===Demonstratives===
Empotle7á showed a two way deixis in its demonstratives: visible '''tle''' (glossed as VIS), and non-visible '''ta''' (NONVIS). They followed their head and took their head's noun class suffix. Reduplication of the prefix increased the distance from the speaker (glossed as DIST). They were also utilized for existential sentences. The non-visible demonstrative '''ta''', in particular, was used to refer to entire past chunks of discourse; cf. lexicalized '''tlemá''' 'here' (lit. 'this place') and '''tletle''' 'over there' and '''tamá''' 'there'.

1.{{+|
{{gl|Ku|ku|TOPIC}}
{{gl|láTsemeswiwo|lá-Tsemeswi-wo|PL-Tsemeswi-CONS}}
{{gl|lákemó|lá-kemó|PL-village}}
{{gl|sésékamam|sé-sékamam|NC5-stand-}}
{{gl|tamá|tamá|there}}
{{gl|oyelláwo|o-yellá-wo|NC1-listen-EVID}}
{{gl|ná|1SG.ABS}}
{{gl|ta|ta|over there}}
{{glend|I heard about that, that the huts of the Tsemeswi are to be found there...}}
}}

2.{{+|
{{gl|séseo|séseo|star}}
{{gl|tletlesé|tletle-sé|vis~DIST-NC3}}
{{glend|That star}}
}}

3.{{+|
{{gl|othwéwam|o-thwé-wam|NC1-become-EVID3}}
{{gl|kulú|kulú|wolf.ABS}}
{{gl|tao|ta-o|non.vis-NC1}}
{{glend|There was a wolf somewhere around here}}
}}

4.{{+|
{{gl|séyéllíné|sé-yé-llí-né|NC5-hear-EVID4-1sg.ERG}}
{{gl|kusé|ku-sé|CAT-NC5}}
{{gl|sétlatséwaná|sé-tlatsé-wam-ná|NC5-say-EVID4-2sg.ERG}}
{{gl|yámá|yámá|but}}
{{gl|sé7ámallampelné|sé-7ámallá-mpel-né|NC5-agree-EVID3-1sg.ERG}}
{{gl|ko|ko|NEG}}
{{gl|ta|ta|non.vis.deixis}}
{{glend|I heard what you said but I don't agree with that.}}
}}

===Numbers===
Empotle7á has retained the octal counting system of its ancestor. Counting is performed by counting the spaces between the fingers and the thumb, then by counting the non-thumb (which are used as placeholders for units of 108) fingers themselves. This results in a total of sixteen units.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! cardinal
! ordinal
|-
! 1
| tawo-
| tawó
|-
! 2
| sí-
| siu
|-
! 3
| natló-
| nallo
|-
! 4
| mená-
| menao
|-
! 5
| 7otla-
| 7otlao
|-
! 6
| míní-
| míniu
|-
! 7
| ŋallé-
| ŋalleu
|-
! 108
| ŋawo-
| ŋawao
|-
|}

Other numbers:
*2(108) -- '''waneŋawo''' from PW *''γãdže-ñaγʷa'' 'great 108' and '''senal''' 'two hands'
*(108)²--'''ŋamawo''' < dissimulation of *''ŋa-ŋawo''
*10008 -- '''ipipo''' from Proto-Lukpanic *''iub iub'' 'a great quantity of shells (ie., used as currency)'

The ordinal form of 108, which is homophonous to its cardinal form, has analogized along the lines of other ordinals ending in -'''ao'''. Multiples of 108 are formed by prefixing '''ŋa'''- to the root number. Other cardinal numbers are formed by the function {(multiple of 108) tsá (ones digit)}.
*'''ŋaméní tsá 7otla''' '658'

Sound changes from [[Proto-Western]] produced near homophones in *'''mená''' 4 (< *''mẽca''-) and *'''mení''' 6 (< *''mẽči''-); *'''nalló''' 3 ( < *''nałtu''-) and *'''nallé''' 7 (< *''nalši''-). The irregular outcomes for these numbers are interpreted as efforts to distinguish the numbers in counting.

Unlike other determiners, cardinal numbers preceded their noun head and did not take its class marker (or after 108 the plural prefix),; however, ordinal numbers did take noun classes.
*'''mená la7''' - 'four men'
*'''ŋallé láoyetle''' - 'seven runners'
*'''látálawalláné ŋaméní tsá 7otla kítiwo!''' 'I see sixty five whales!'
*'''ótláwam éo ''míniuo'' lá.''' 'He's the sixth man to die.'

Speakers, however, did use class markers to clear ambiguity and to mark ordinal and determinal numbers:

*'''Koye koláyéwu. ''Sío'' tsá ''senallé'', ŋallowu.'''
*'No, you brat. ''Two'' (of a referant that takes NC1) and ''sixteen'' (of a referant that takes NC2), dummy.'

*'''tátsééné siullí'''
*tá-tséé-né siu-llí
*NC2-want-1sg.ERG second-NC2
*I want the second one.

==Pronouns==

The personal pronouns explicitly refer to the speaker and to the addressee. Both are distinguished in number between singular and plural; dual forms have been lost. Replacing them is the construction '''sí''' ''two'' + ''pronoun''. The second person shows a T-V distinction in its plural form.
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!   absolute   !!   ergative   !!   construct  
|- align="center"
! 1st singular
| ná || ná7é || ná7ó
|- align="center"
! 1st plural
| sá || sá7é|| sá7ó
|- align="center"
! 2nd singular
| tá || tá7é || tá7ó
|- align="center"
! 2nd formal/plural
| lao || tu7í || tú
|-align="center"
|-
|}

*The 2nd person formal/plural is from PW. *''la-du'', with the case forms eliding the initial ''la-''.
*Casual or rapid speech reduces the pronouns from the pattern ''Cá7é'' and ''Cá7ó'' to ''Cé'' and ''Có''.
===Third Person===
There are two 3rd person pronouns: anaphoric '''é''' (things already mentioned) and cataphoric '''ku''' (things not yet mentioned). They take noun class to mark their referents. Their plural stems do not form with '''lá'''- and are the irregular '''ek'''- and '''kuk'''- respectively.
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!   é-   !!   ek-   !!   ku-   !!   kuk-  
|- align="center"
! 1st noun class
| éo || eko || kuo|| kuko
|- align="center"
! 2nd noun class
| ellí || e7lí || kullí || ku7lí
|- align="center"
! 3rd noun class
| ésé || e7sé|| kusé || ku7sé
|- align="center"
! 4th noun class
| éwum || ewum||kuwum || kuwum
|-align="center"
! 5th noun class
| éku || e7ku || kuku || ku7ku
|-
|}

{{+|
{{gl|Láomésáwénem sá7é eko.|lá-o-mí-sáwé-nem sá7é ek-o|PL-NC1.ABS-PAST-fight-1.ERG.PL we.ERG ANA.PL-NC1.ABS}}
{{glend|We fought them.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Osáwewaná kuo|o-sáwé-wam-ná ku-o|NC1.ABS-EVID3-fight-2.Erg CAT-NC1.ABS}}
{{glend|So, you fought this guy...}}
}}

===Indefinite===

The indefinite pronoun in Empotle7á is '''phá'''-, it takes noun class.

{{+|
{{gl|Othásená sallem pháo.|o-thásé-ná sallem phá-o|NC1.ABS-do-sing surprisingly indef.-NC1}}
{{glend|Surprisingly, anyone can sing.}}
}}

===Fourth Person===

For generic, indefinite, and unknown referents

To express natural states, such as the weather and other natural phenomena, a verb was marked with the absolutive class marker -'''sé'''-
{{+|
{{gl|Sékhatlalo!|sé-khatla-lo|}}
{{glend|There's an earthquake! (lit. It shakes!)}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sé7awotli tshú tsá oéya7thamóká ésé ná!|sé-7awo-tli tshú tsá o-éya-7thamó-ká ésé ná|}}
{{glend|It rained yesterday which frightened me!}}
}}

The anaphoric pronoun '''ku''' is used for generic, indefinite, and unknown referents.

{{+|
{{gl|Oméla7áká kuo7í lásaŋkhá.|o-mí-la7á-ká ku-o-7í lá-saŋkhá|NC1-PAST-steal-3sgERG ANA-NC1-ERG PL-thing}}
{{glend|Someone stole my things.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Támékámané ko kotá.|ta-mí-kamam-né ko ku-tá|NC2-PAST-fear-1sg.ERG NEG ANA-NC2}}
{{glend|I wasn't scared of those beasts!}}
}}
*(notice the speaker's hypercorrection of NC2 -''llÍ''- to -''tá''-) in the last example.

=The Verb=
Empotle7á is an ergative-absolutive language. The verb is marked for participant reference, evidentiality, and tense.

==Structure==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c padded}}
|- class="bg2"
| I || II || III || IV || V || VI || VII
|-
| ''(absolutive) [marked by noun class]''
| ''(tense)''
| '''stem'''
| ''(incorporated noun)''
| ''(secondary ergative = causative)''
| ''(evidential)''
| ''(primary ergative)''
|}

A modal verb: "We will make them eat the crab meal".
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg c padded}}
|- class="bg2"
| I || II || III || IV || V || VI || VII
|-
| ''látá''
| ''oté''
| '''kowu'''
| ''lipí''
| ''thá-nem''
| ''tli''
| ''kam''
|}

The result, after vowel harmony, nasal assimilation, and consonant gradation, is:

:'''Látáotéwowulipéthánenekam'''.

==Referent Markers==
===Absolutive===
Nouns in the absolutive are simply marked by their corresponding noun class marker. Plurals place the '''lá'''- before the noun class. If a group of nominals with conflicting noun class markers are absolutive objects of a verb, speakers tend to default to the "highest" ranking class in a hierarchy of animacy (that is, trees and stones are subordinate to animals which are subordinate to humans etc); in a pinch, speakers will default to noun class 1:'''o'''-.
*'''sé7awollí''' 'It's really raining'
*'''láotlemétli kathéo láwolú tsá'''' 'The shaman and the wolves dream together'

===Ergative===
The position of the ergative referent markers on the verb complex is position VII. The referent markers for the ergative case differ depending on the type of verb stem.

In the presence of verb stems or morphemes ending in a nasal, such as '''kámam''' or '''-wam-''', the ergative endings are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! person
!  singular 
!  plural 
|-
!  1st 
| -'''né'''
| -'''nem'''
|-
!  2nd 
| -'''ná'''
| -'''nam'''
|-
!  3rd 
| -'''ŋá'''
| -'''ŋam'''
|-
|}

*'''o-kámam-ŋam ná'''-->'''okámaŋam ná''' 'They're scared of me.'

The 2nd. person absolutive endings were appropriated to the ergative case after -*/čʰe/ and -*/čʰẽ/ merged with -*/ne/ and -*/nẽ/ in the presence of nasal consonants.

For a vowel stem, in either verbs or morphemes, the endings are as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
! person
!  singular 
!  plural 
|-
!  1st 
| - '''né'''
| - '''nem'''
|-
!  2nd 
| - '''tshé'''
| - '''tshem'''
|-
!  3rd 
| - '''ká'''
| - '''kam'''
|-
|}

*'''o-tlemé-né tá'''-->'''otleméné tá''' 'I'm dreaming of you'

==Nominal and Verbal Incorporation==

The incorporation of a nominal imparts a meaning to the verb incorporating the noun. It increases the indefiniteness and generic nature of the statement.

cf.
{{+|
{{gl|Tákámamoká||tá-kámam-wo-ká|NC2-fear-EVID6-3sg.ERG}}
{{gl|7empowolá7é|7empo-kolá-7í|1pl.pos.-child-ERG.}}
{{gl|kulú|kulú|wolf.ABS}}
{{glend|Our child is scared of the wolf}}
}}

vs.
{{+|
{{gl|Okámamowulú|o-kámam-wo-kulú|NC1.ABS-NC2-fear-EVID6-wolf}}
{{gl|7empowolá7é|7empo-kolá-7í|1pl.POS-child-ERG}}
{{glend|Our child is afraid of wolves}}
}}

Similarly, when two verbs are incorporated, the meanings are conflated. The dvandva forms by placing the first verb in the construct state with -''7ú''-; one of the most common such verbs - ''tséé'' 'want' - has the special dvandva form -''tséu''-:
{{+|
{{gl|otséuyelláwo|o-tséu-yellá-wo|NC1-want.CONS-listen-GENEV}}
{{gl|tá?|tá|2sg.ABS}}
{{glend|Do you want to listen?}}
}}

==Evidentials==

Verbs had system of of evidentiality markers which denoted the origin of the speaker's evidence for a statement. There were eight categories of evidentiality, marked by suffixes occurring directly following the verb's root if a causative
was not present. Speakers of Empotle7á considered evidentials to be a more important source of information than tense: Two verbal morphemes -'''mí'''- and -'''oté'''- function akin to tense and mark perfective and future non-perfective aspects, respectively. Speakers tend to avoid them, however, in favor of evidentials and explicit adverbs of time (ie. yesterday, tomorrow, last year, etc), and a verb unmarked for evidentiality was considered to be indicative of an irrealis mood.

===The Senses===
The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via the senses. There were three such markers: -'''tli'''-/-'''é'''-, which denotes that the speaker felt, heard, or witnessed the action visually. Men characteristically used -'''tlI'''- while women used -'''é'''-. This evidential was avoided with verbs of explicit perception like 'see', 'touch', 'hear', etc; -''mú''- was preferred instead. Next is -'''pUm'''-, which denotes that the speaker smelled the evidence, and -'''mpel'''-, which donates the speaker tasted the evidence. Speakers also used -''mpel''- to emphasize their statements.

{{+|
{{gl|otlamátle|o-tlamá-tlI|NC1-fart-EVID1}}
{{gl|tá||tá|2sg.ABS}}
{{glend|You farted (I know because I heard it).}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|otséuyellámpelné|o-tséu-yellá-mpel-né|NC1-want-hear-EVID3-1sg.ERG}}
{{gl|tá|tá|2sg.ABS}}
{{glend|I want you to listen to me!}}
}}

===Experience===
The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers: -'''wam'''-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate (glossed as HEARS), and -'''llÍ'''-, indicating that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received (glossed as NDBT). Story-tellers often use -''wam''- throughout narration, reserving -''llÍ''- for their story's moral or climax.

{{+|
{{gl|ótlawam|o-ótlá-wam|NC1-die-HEARS}}
{{glend|They say he died.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|É Etsatlówal othwélléká tle7á7ó 7empokathéo|é Etsatlówal o-thwé-llí-ká tle7á-7ú 7empo-kathéo|ANA Etsatlówal NC1-become-NDBT-3sg.ERG ANA-NC1
tribe-CONS 1pl.POSS-shaman.ABS}}
{{glend|That's why Mixes-the-Smoke is our tribe's shaman.}}
}}

===Quotative===
The morpheme -'''ké'''- served as a quotative evidential marker on the verb stem. It conveys that the speaker is quoting someone else:

{{+|
{{gl|Ótlaké kulú|o-ótla-ké kulú|NC1-die-QUO1 wolf}}
{{glend|"The wolf died" }}
}}

When quoting a specific source, the quotative ergator was placed after the ergative or absolutive subject of the quoted verb:

{{+|
{{gl|Ótlaké kulú phoao7í|o-ótla-ké kulú phoao-7í|NC1-die-QUO wolf chief-HON-ERG}}
{{glend|"The wolf died," said Sir Chief}}
}}

A combination morpheme -'''kéwam'''- indicated that the news was heard second-hand:

{{+|
{{gl|ótlákéwam Etsatlówal |o-otlá-kéwam Etsatlówal|NC1-die-QUO2 Etsatlówal.ABS}}
{{glend|Etsatlówal died (so I've heard second hand).}}
}}

===Inference===
The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from degrees of evidence. There were three of these markers: -'''lU'''-, which indicated that there was physical evidence (glossed as PHYSEV); and -'''wo'''-, which indicates that the information comes from a past event, is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations, or that the information is general knowledge (glossed as GENEV); and -'''mÚ'''- which indicated that the speaker directly participated in the event (glossed as PRTEV).

===-''wo''-===

{{+|
{{gl|Pampa, sémásewo émao latloŋa?|pampa sé-másé-wo éma-o latloŋa|papa NC4-shine-PHYSEV sun-ABS-HON why}}
{{glend|Papa, why does sun shine?}}
}}

===-''lU''- and -''mÚ''-===

{{+|
{{gl|Tátlophúmúné tshú kulótlená|tá-tluphú-mú-né tshú kulótlená|NC2-hunt-PRTEV-1sg{ERG} yesterday bear{ABS}}
{{glend|I went hunting for a bear yesterday (not that I got anything).}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Tátlophúluné tshú kulótlená|tá-tluphú-lu-né tshú kulótlená|NC2-hunt-EVID5-1sg{ERG} yesterday bear{ABS}}
{{glend|I went hunting for a bear yesterday (and here's the pelt).}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Othwélu tótlaŋalo; tu7 táwowumúnem otlú|o-thwé-lu tótlaŋalo tu7 tá-kowu-mú-nem otlú|NC1.ABS-become-PHYSEV ancestor.ABS | therefore NC2-cook-PRTEV-1pl.ERG liver.ABS}}
{{glend|He became an ancestor; therefore we cooked his liver (I participated in the event).}}
}}

==Negation==
Empotle7a innovated three negation particles - ''ko'', ''khel'', and ''koyé'' - from the reconstructed Proto-Western phrase *''kʷe ye'' X ''kʰełka'', lit. "but not a stone".

The first word of the phrase *''kʷe'' gives the common negator for verbs: '''ko'''.

{{+|
{{gl|óteotlellé ko phoa.|o-ote-otle-llí ko phoa-Ø|NC1-FUT-die-EVID5 NEG chief.ABS}}
{{glend|The chief will never die.}}
}}

*'''otamoyétli ko ná!''' 'I don't have an erection!'

The original Proto-Western phrase appears with the use of the other negative particle, ''khel'', after the object (which does not take a noun classifier in this case) of the negated verb, topicalizing the negated element. In this construction it is glossed as TOPIC...NEG

{{+|
{{gl|Támewowu7ónam ko otlú khel.|tá-mí-kowu-7ú-nam otlú-Ø khel|NEG NC2-PAST-cook-EVID6-1pl.ERG TOPIC liver.ABS NEG}}
{{glend|We didn't cook the liver.}}
}}

In pausa speakers used ''koyé'', from the first two elements of the Proto-Western phrase:
*'''Olinimpuwoká lamno7ú ná? ''Koyé'''''
*'Does the priest dislike me?' ''No.''

It has four general realizations - [kɤ˧.je˧] [kɤi˨] [ke˨] [kœ˩] - spread across speakers.

The last part of the Proto-Western negation phrase, *''kʰełka'', enters Empotle7á, too, as the negation particle ''khel''. Whereas ''ko'' follows its head, ''khel'' by contrast preceded it and negated nominal phrases:
*'''Khelo phoao tamá'''
*'The chief isn't here'

*'''Khellí lálané tlemá yámá tletle'''
*'The horses aren't here but over there').

Proto-Western's original negating particle ''*ye'' survived in Empotle7á as '''é'''. It was considered archaic and preceeded its head:
*'''é tlho so tlhó'''
*Not walking but family (a proverb)

*'''É séwenatlekam láphétlowo kotsú wokútú lálanétsum'''
*'The humans do not know the swiftness of horsekind'

==Lané tsá Lámeŋu/[[The horse and the sheep]]==

''Látátselláwamo wóé7ú tawe lané7í lámeŋu. Khuwésáwaŋá 7ásempí tawó meŋú thólá. Táwa7áwaŋá kolá7é siu meŋu. Táotletlawaŋá lá7é nallo meŋu. Tawowowaŋam éo7ú khé7ú na7 menao meŋu.

''Támétawatlawamo lané7í tásé meŋu: "O7wetlawokam láphétlowo kotsú tsá látátháthálo7ekam láwótsú lámeŋu."

''Ométlatséwamo meŋú meŋutsum: "Otséuyellámpel ná, laneo nó! Tápháphaékútlekam láphétlowo kotsú lané wokúllí tsá o7wetlawokam ná. É séwenatlekam láphétlowo kotsú wokútú lálanétsum, yámá láotéwenawo oto7am láphétlowo kotsú tsá pham otéthwémpel tá7é eko7ú wollu!"

''Tsá sémíyéllío tasé tsá omíyetle7atlollí lané7í tákatle7ú ké''.

*linguistic notes: The narrator uses an older form of ergative marking with the nominal classifiers. Note that, as story characters, the horse and the sheep have been elevated to the rank of humans with the classifer -''o''-: ''látátsellá'''o''''' and cf. reconstructed Proto-Western *''čeldawata''. In contrast, the opening to ''The Horse and the Sheep'' in current speech would be ''látátsellá'''ká'''''. Other archaic linguistic features of this speech include the negative ''é'' and the use of ''ko'' in its original sense of the conjunction 'but'.

=Lexicon=
[[Empotle7á/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Western languages|Empotle7a]]

Melì

2026-08-01T08:42:18Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
'''Melì''' is a language in the Valley group of the [[Western languages|Western language]] family, spoken along the coastal corridor, a thin strip of land between the sea and the Western Plateau on the west coast of [[Peilaš |Peilaš ]]. It is a direct descendant of a dialect of [[Empotle7á|Empotle7á]], which was spoken in the same region around 2000 BP.
{{Language
| color = green
| language = Melì
| phonetic = [mɛ˥li˥˩]
| date = -1200 - -900 YP
| place = Coastal Corridor
| speakers = unknown
| script = none attested
| family = Western  Valley   Melì
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = ERG-ABS
| author = [[User:Mouse-tache|Mouse-tache]]
}}

=Context=
The prestige dialect of Melì, the one described in this grammar, is spoken in and around the small town of Kesàmade around 1100 BP. Kesàmade, sometimes known as Topaḍi was founded as a trading post for vessels hailing from the Lukpanic city-states early in their explorations of the coastal corridor and the Kipceʔ further to the south. These traders brought a more advanced society along with their superior technology, and the elites of Kesàmade have built a hybrid culture that draws considerably from Lukpanic society. Melì is unwritten, as the Lukpanic languages were at this early stage.

The local name for the coastal corridor is Asodeá. It is unclear how far from the town Melì is spoken, or whether it is mutually intelligible with other Valley dialects in the region, but the elites of Kesàmade clearly see it as their own sphere of influence in their dealings with traders from the north. The ruling family is alternately known as Tamazinò or Masìm, their adopted Lukpanic name (there is no evidence for this name in any Lukpanic language, suggesting that it is a local calque).

Religion at Kesàmade is highly syncretic. The indigenous concept of kozú, or life essence, is the focus of personal hygiene and moral purity, but cannibalism has disappeared completely. Instead worshipers appeal to a series of deities to guide them in cultivating their kozú, most of whom have transparently Lukpanic origins. Buckwheat never took root in the coastal corridor, but some new crops have become an important part of local agriculture, such as figs and Lukpanic varieties of beans. Millet is by far the most important source of calories, with strained yogurt and leafy herbs rounding out most meals. The region's sole contribution to agriculture is a local herb with edible seeds tasting something like a mix of coriander and fennel.

=Sound Changes=
These are the sound changes from Empotle7á. It's not entirely clear what dialect of Empotle7á Melì derives from, and some of the later changes on this list are dialectal or incomplete.
==Loss of Glottal Stop==
ʔ → 0
==Merger of Back Vowels==
ɯ/u → 0 / N_#, ʔ_#, l_#

ɯ/u → ɨ/ʉ → i/y / _N, _j

ɯ/u → ɤ/o
==Loss of Allophonic Rounding==
ɤ → o

y → i

ø → e

ɒ → a
==Loss of Voiceless Laterals==
tɬʰ → tʰ

tɬ → t

ɬɬ → s

ɬ → l / V_, N_
==Loss of Labiovelar Approximant==
wa → o

wo → u

we, wi → y

oo → o (only within morphemes)
==Secondary vowel rounding==
im → ym / _#
==Vowel Deletion==
o, u → 0 / Vl_C
==Consonant Shift==
p → b / V[low]_

t → d / V[low]_

ts → dz → z / V[low]_

k → g / V[low]_

p → b / N_

t → d / N_

k → g / N_

pʰ → p

tʰ → t

tsʰ → ts

kʰ → k
==Hiatus Dissimilation==
(propagates from the left to the right)

o → a / _o, _u

u → o / _u
==Tonal Stress==
V...V˥...V˩ → V˥...V˥˩...V˩

V...V˩...V˥ → V˩...V˩...V˥

V...V˥...V˥ → V˥...V˥...V˥˩

V...V˩...V˩ → V˥˩...V˩...V˩

V˥...V˥ → V˩...V˥ / #(C)_

V˩...V˩ → V˧...V˩ / #(C)_
==Nasalization==
N → ŋ / _#

ŋ → ˜j / _V

j → ˜j
==Elision of High Vowels==
i[-stress], u[-stress] → 0 / #s_C(C)V
==Lenition of Stops==
b → β / V_
==Simplification of Vowel Clusters==
i[-stress], e[-stress] → ˜j / V_V

u[-stress], o[-stress], a[-stress] → β / V_V

i[-stress], y[-stress] → yβ / _y
==Lateralization==
t → tɬ / _a

=Phonology=
==Onsets==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial!! alveolar!! palatal!! velar
|- align="center"
! stops
| p b || t d || || k g
|- align="center"
! affricates
| || ts || ||
|- align="center"
! fricatives
| || s z || ||
|- align="center"
! nasals
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! approximants
| || l|| j||
|-
|}

The lateral approximant is realized as a voiceless fricative ɬ word-initially. The voiced plosives b is realized as voiced fricative β after vowels. The palatal approximant j causes nasalization on the preceding vowel within the same word. None of these alternations are reflected in writing, though when these or other alternations occur in an example there will be a phonetic transcription.

The alveolar stop t is pronounced tɬ before the vowel a. This is optional, and some speakers continue to use t. In either case the change is not written.

==Vowels==
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Front!!Central!!Back
|- align="center"
! High
||i y|| ||u
|- align="center"
! Mid
||e|| ||o
|- align="center"
! Low
|| ||a||
|}
==Syllable Structure==
Melì has a simple syllable structure of (C)V(N,l), where N is a homorganic nasal. At the end of a word this nasal is pronounced ŋ and written n.

Every word belongs to one of a finite set of stress patterns. Stress patterns are not contrastive on words of one syllable, and all syllables before the last three can be predicted from the last three.
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! no pattern
| a ... a ... a
|- align="center"
! rising pattern
| a ... a ... á
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 1
| a ... a ... à
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 2
| a ... à ... a
|- align="center"
! falling pattern 3
| à ... a ... a
|-
|}
Words of the rising pattern have an acute mark on the stressed syllable, which is always final. The stressed syllable has a high tone, while all previous syllables, except sometimes the first, have a low tone. In words of more than two syllables the first syllable will have a medium tone. The penultimate syllable is often pronounced long.

The falling patterns have a stressed syllable among the last three syllables, with a grave mark. The stressed syllable has a falling tone, while all previous syllables, except sometimes the first, have a high tone. If two or more unstressed syllables precede the stressed syllable, then the first syllable has a low tone. All syllables after the stressed syllable have a low tone.

Some suffixes impact word stress. These suffixes are marked with a circumflex in this grammar, e.g. the evidential marker '''ê'''. After adding such a suffix, words with no pattern or falling patterns 2 or 3 take a rising pattern, while words with a rising pattern take falling pattern 1, and words with falling pattern 1 remain unchanged. Suffixes without a circumflex simply add unstressed vowels to the end of the word, changing rising or falling pattern 1 to falling pattern 2, falling pattern 2 to falling pattern 3, and falling pattern 3 to no pattern.

=Word Formation=

Nearly every root in Melì is one to three syllables. Besides verbs, nouns, and adjectives, there are two classes of adpositions, personal pronouns, demonstratives, numerals (collectively treated under Modifiers), adverbs, pronouns and demonstratives, and discourse particles. Verbal roots are classified by their inherent transitivity (either transitive or intransitive; thereare no ditransitive roots), but they also have other features that may be mentioned in the lexicon. For example some verbs of motion are inherently perfective or imperfective. A small closed class of nouns are inalienably possessed, and must carry a possession prefix. Adpositions come in two varieties: free and affixed. Free adpositions precede the head noun, and are uninflected. Affixed adpositions appear at the end of the noun phrase and affix to the final word in the phrase. In addition to their inherent meaning, roots can take on non-predictable meanings through derivational suffixes. Several derivational suffixes have been inherited from Empotle7á, many of which have become nearly obsolete. The chart below is not exhaustive, and only shows the most common examples.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !! !!Nominalizing
|- align="left"
||Root||Suffix||Meaning
|- align="left"
||verb||null||an instance or example of an event
|- align="left"
||verb||lo||agentive, "-er"
|- align="left"
||noun||kin||added to animal names to specify a female
|- align="left"
||verb||jen||associated location
|- align="left"
||noun||pâ||associated location
|- align="left"
||verb||lâ||result
|- align="left"
||noun||one||augmentative
|- align="left"
||noun||u||diminutive
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !! !!Verbalizing
|- align="left"
||Root||Suffix||Meaning
|- align="left"
||verb||ado||intensive, emphasis on completion or finality
|- align="left"
||verb||da||makes causative transitives from intransitives
|- align="left"
||noun||kâ||to seek or become something
|- align="left"
||noun||ê||to be something
|- align="left"
||noun||sâ||to do something
|- align="left"
||noun||lan||to be similar to something
|}

=The Verb=

Compared to Proto-Western, or even Empotle7á, Melì has a very simple, mostly agglutinative verbal morphology. The only obligatory part of a grammatical verb other than the stem itself is a prefix that agrees with the gender of the absolutive argument. The structure of the Melì verb is as follows:

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
|Agreement||(Tense)||Verb Stem||(Incorporated Stem)||(Evidentiality/Aspect)||(Antipassive)
|}

==Agreement==
Agreement prefixes agree with the absolutive argument of the verb, regardless of the number of arguments or the transitivity of the verb. They are identical to noun classifiers and have the same meaning.
'''o'''- denotes male humans and large or impressive animals.
'''ta'''- denotes female humans and small or domesticated animals
'''ko'''- ('''ka'''- before the future tense marker or a root starting with o) denotes everything else.
For some animals, like horses, the prefix matches the sex of the animal, as it would for humans. When it comes to supernatural referents, agreement is a mix of logical and lexical. The prefix used for animal spirits and clan totems may match the sex of the animal, or default to '''o'''-. Most deities are of Lukpanic origin, and use '''o'''- except for a small number of masculine deities which confusingly use '''ko'''-. Ideas and other nonphysical things generally use '''ko'''-, but a closed class of nouns, mostly having to do with traditionally feminine work, use '''ta'''-. The names of people almost always match the sex of the person, not the etymological root, but there are exceptions among mythical figures and heroes. Places that do not have a lexically transparent origin use '''ko'''-; place names that do have an obvious meaning will usually use '''ko'''-, but in some cases will use the marker appropriate to the etymological root.

'''kotaè'''

AGR-make-EVID

It is done. (literally "It is made")

'''obosisì'''

AGR-ask-EVID

They (said they) asked him/her. (absolutive could be a man, or possibly certain goddesses)

'''koní'''

AGR-reach

I have arrived. (literally "I have reached it")

==Tense==
The only tense marker is the optional future tense, marked with -'''ode'''-. The non-future is unmarked, but the absence of a tense marker does not rule out the possibility of a future interpretation. Generally marked future tense indicates uncertainty or intention, not definite facts about the future, though ironically it is often used with the evidential suffix -'''u''' to emphasize things that will surely come to pass. It is also used in interrogative sentences for polite requests.

'''taodàu'''

AGR-succeed-EVID

She will (obviously) succeed. (casual certainty about an accepted fact)

'''taodeodá'''

AGR-FUT-succeed

She will probably succeed. (intention or prediction of future facts)

'''taodeodàu'''

AGR-FUT-succeed-EVID

She will definitely succeed. (emphatic assertion of fact)

==Incorporation==
Nouns and verbs can be incorporated into a matrix verb, but this process is not productive, and some combinations are not predictable. Some patterns of incorporation could be classed more as a form of derivation than syntax. For these reasons, incorporations are dealt with primarily in the lexicon.

==Evidentiality/Aspect==
Evidential suffixes are not mandatory for all finite verbs, but most main verbs will have one in a typical discourse. Some of the suffixes also carry aspectual information.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !!Adverbs
|- align="left"
||-ê||direct experience, perfective
|- align="left"
||-mbel||direct experience, imperfective
|- align="left"
||-sî||indirect knowledge, perfective
|- align="left"
||-on||indirect knowledge, imperfective
|- align="left"
||-u||gnomic
|}

Direct experience suffixes mark direct sensory input, usually sight or sound. This implies that the speaker was present when the event occurred. They are almost never used in combination with -'''ode'''. Indirect knowledge suffixes mark reported speech or hearsay, whether dubious or certain. The gnomic suffix marks inferred or obvious information, and is often used for emphasis or to indicate a conclusion. By extension, it is also used to indicate controversial or surprising information, or sarcastically to indicate something highly dubious. Perfective suffixes mark events that have a clear ending, while imperfective suffixes mark events that are inherently atelic, or ongoing. The null suffix is also very common. It is used when the speaker does not consider any of the above information important, or when the same information would be repeated many times. The null suffix is also the most commonly used when the speaker is a participant in the event they are describing.

'''obué laná'''

[I saw that] he cooked eggs.

'''tàbuon'''

[They say that] she cooks.

'''kaodesàmau'''

It will obviously end.

==Antipassive==
The antipassive causes the agent of a normal transitive verb to become the subject of an intransitive verb, marked in the absolutive as usual. More information about transitivity and omitted arguments appears in the Arguments section.

'''kaozòu uzí'''

AGR-eat-EVID fish-ABS cat-ERG

cats eat fish

'''kaozouná uzí taé'''

AGR-eat-EVID-ANTIP fish-ABS also

Fish also eat.

=Arguments=

Melì uses an absolutive-ergative system. The subject of intransitive verbs and the patient of transitive verbs (with some exceptions below) take the unmarked absolutive case, while the agent of transitive verbs takes the ergative suffix -'''î''' (or -'''bî''' after nasals). The vowel in the ergative suffix lowers to -'''ê''' when the previous syllable has a low vowel. The absolutive is also used for genitives and objects of adpositions.

'''koìbida nèma'''

AGR-float ship

The boat floats.

'''aozó Alsenaé ùsae'''

AGR-eat Alsèna-ERG fig-ABS

Alsena ate a fig.

'''aozó ùsae Keda'''

AGR-eat FIG-ABS Keda-ABS

He ate Keda's fig.

'''olabè Alsenaé eòna najolá'''

AGR-steal-EVD Alsèna-ERG chest-ABS POS-brother-ABS

Alsena stole my brother's chest.

Intransitive verbs can take absolutive arguments, or no arguments, but never ergative ones. The absolutive argument, or subject, can have a variety of roles depending on the verb, but usually functions as an experiencer. Transitive verbs can take absolutive and ergative arguments, or none. If a transitive verb has an ergative argument, then it must also have an absolutive argument, but the absolutive argument may appear alone. In this case the verb has a passive or intransitive meaning. If the speaker wishes to supply the agent but not the patient of a transitive verb, the antipassive -'''nâ''' is used. Any omitted argument usually implies that the information is unimportant, unknown, or previously established and not worthy of repetition.

'''olaosàu Suma'''

AGR-see-EVID Suma-ABS

[He] saw Suma.

'''olaosauná Suma'''

AGR-see-EVID-ANTIP Suma-ABS

Suma saw [it].

The last lexical class is split verbs, which are transitive and take arguments that use the same markings as transitive verbs, but with opposite meanings: the "ergative" is actually an agent and the "absolutive" is actually a patient. As with any other verb, the argument marked "absolutive" can appear alone (in which case the verb has a stated agent and an implied patient), but the "ergative" cannot. These verbs are indicated in the lexicon, but the terms "ergative" and "absolutive" will be used throughout this grammar.

'''taòdeda ne kimé'''

AGR-kill me-ERG shark-ABS

I killed a shark. (normal transitive)

'''tàsay na kimeì'''

AGR-fight me-ABS shark-ERG

I fought a shark. (split transitive)

'''tàsay na'''

AGR-fight me-ABS

I fought.

Canonical word order is VOS or VSO. Absolutive arguments have a tendency to appear before ergative arguments, and new or emphasized information has a tendency to appear later among the arguments. Adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses follow a free word order, but rarely appear between the subject and object of the clause in which they appear, and never split up other phrases. Arguments can be emphasized and moved in front of the verb with no morphological change. Nouns that are not subject or object may also appear before the verb to establish new topics, but in this case the noun phrase usually takes the orientative affix -'''â'''.

'''ta kadagomé'''

ANAP-ABS AGR-important

That is what's important.

==Nested Clauses==

Entire clauses can behave like arguments. There are two ways to do this grammatically. One is with substantives, made by combining the cataphoric pronoun with a relative clause, and then treating the cataphoric pronoun as an argument. The other is to use a normal, unmodified clause. The latter is fairly restricted, mostly limited to psychic action, reported speech, or knowledge.

[example: "tell her what happened."]

[example: "forgot that..."]

==Adverbs==

Adverbs are any words that modify verbs, but not as subjects or objects. The semantic line between adverbs and nouns is thin (and a small set of roots can be both without derivation or changes in syntax, such as tso and soda), which is why they are both listed under “arguments.” Adverbs primarily provide information about time or manner. They generally appear immediately after the main verb or at the beginning or end of the clause, though they can appear almost anywhere that does not split a phrase. Nouns accompanied by an adposition can act like adverbial phrases. Entire clauses can also fill this role. Some common adverbs and a few examples of other adverbial constructions are given below. Note that some adverbs listed here function also as a type of conjunction linking clauses together. In these cases normal syntax applies; the adverb does not need to appear exactly between two clauses, since they are not true conjunctions (formally there are no clause conjunctions in Melì that cannot be explained as adverbs or particles, so they are not mentioned anywhere in this grammar).

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="left"
! !!Adverbs
|- align="left"
||ja||although even though
|- align="left"
||tso||yesterday
|- align="left"
||soda||tomorrow
|- align="left"
||ne||always
|- align="left"
||saezae||sometimes, rarely
|- align="left"
||etỳ||irrealis (marks hypotheticals and conditions)
|- align="left"
||mède||yet, still
|- align="left"
||màlta||already, anymore
|- align="left"
||taé||also
|- align="left"
||sin||and then
|- align="left"
||sàmosan (sàmo+san)||to completion
|- align="left"
||tolaosá||looking forward, planning for the future
|}

'''ne aozàon luigàe sàmosan'''

always AGR-eat(transitive)-EVID meat-ABS completely

He always eats up all the meat.

'''aozàon sàmosan ne luigàe'''

AGR-eat(transitive)-EVID completely always meat-ABS

Someone keeps eating up all the meat.

==Adpositions==

Adpositions have split into two groups. The first have remained as separate words and appear before the head noun, becoming prepositions (listed as “free” in the chart below). The second have stayed at the end of the noun phrase, but suffixed to the previous word, becoming clitics (listed as “affixed” in the chart below). The first class is larger and perhaps not entirely closed, while the second class is very small and closed. The suffix kê can change the stress pattern of the word.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Affixed
|- align="left"
||-san||locative, used spatially, temporally, or metaphorically
|- align="left"
||-â||orientative
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Free
|- align="left"
||amà||with (for people)
|- align="left"
||kambé||towards, until, facing, before
|- align="left"
||kotsó||after, behind, from (for space or time)
|- align="left"
||mèlan||along (an edge), during
|- align="left"
||tay||on, at, in (used mainly for places and containers)
|- align="left"
||naokè||(rising) up to
|- align="left"
||taza||similar to
|- align="left"
||sekè||down to, as far as (for distance)
|- align="left"
||èel||in order to, following
|- align="left"
||èdo||resulting in
|}

'''sekè une làugo'''

as_far_as island near-AGR

...as far as the nearest island

'''une laugoá'''

island near-AGR-ORI

...by navigating around the near island

'''kotsó kumo'''

from magistrate

...from the magistrate

'''saisan'''

god-in

...officially, by civic authority

=Modifiers=

This section generally deals with words, phrases, and clauses that modify, or in some cases replace, nouns and noun phrases. Many of these words require agreement suffixes. These are the same as the agreement prefixes of verbs: -'''ô''', -'''ta''', and -'''go''' (-'''ko''' after a grave mark). The same ambiguity exists as among agreement prefixes. The suffix for male humans may also be used for female goddesses and some animals, while the female suffix can be used for a wide variety of humans, animals, and in some limited cases other things. Whenever a noun's agreement is not obvious, it is specified in the lexicon.

The order of modifiers after a noun is: adjective, genitive, number, relative clause. Attributive pronouns are classed as adjectives, but they may also appear after genitives or numbers to emphasize the limiting effect of the pronoun.

==Adjectives==

Adjectives are their own part of speech, separate from nouns and verbs, although semantically there are stative intransitive verbs that function like predicate adjectives. The syntax of adjectives and quantifiers is identical, so they are treated together. Both types of modifier follow the head noun, and take an agreement suffix. The only real distinction between them is that quantifiers are mutually exclusive with cardinal and ordinal numbers. Partitive constructions like “a few of the ten people” use a longer construction with the anaphoric pronoun, which takes an otherwise defunct partitive prefix '''la'''-. Numbers are treated in more detail later in this section.

'''kòtagon kená tongo kòbogyn'''

AGR-important horn-ABS long-AGR cow-ABS

The cow's long horn is important.

'''ko la oneó lanaò'''

man-ABS big-AGR many-AGR

There are many big men.

==Pronouns==

There are six pronouns in Melì: the anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns, two indefinite pronouns, and two personal pronouns. All of them can take the place of nouns or, in their attributive form, modify nouns. The anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns are the main demonstratives in the language. They are especially important in copular and relative clauses.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Anaphora!!Cataphora
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||ta||ko
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||taé||koí
|- align="center"
! Attributive
||eò/età/èko||koó/kodá/kogo
|}

Indefinite demonstratives come in two forms, '''pa''' and '''tada'''. The former is used for specific things unknown to the listener or hypothetical things, while the latter is used for comparisons or to indicate free choice. Both can be used in questions or conditional clauses using the irrealis '''etỳ'''.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!Indefinite 1!!Indefinite 2
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||pa||tada
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||paé||tadaé
|- align="center"
! Attributive
||paó/padá/pago||tadaó/tadadá/tàdago
|}

The personal pronouns do not have attributive forms. For alienably possessed nouns, personal pronouns follow the modified noun in the absolutive to show possession, like a genitive noun. Inalienably possessed nouns take obligatory possessive prefixes '''na'''- and '''ta'''-. The forms in parentheses in the table below are more formal, mostly reserved for speaking to or about elders and people of high social status.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|-
! !!1st Person!!2nd or 3rd person
|- align="center"
! Absolutive
||na||ta (sa)
|- align="center"
! Ergative
||ne||te (se)
|}

==Relative Clauses==

Relative clauses follow the noun they modify, but need not immediately follow it if another core argument is found in the matrix clause. The verb in a relative clause has no special marking, but the argument within the relative clause that matches the modified noun in the matrix clause will always be the anaphoric demonstrative. The cataphoric demonstrative may also stand in for the modified noun, creating a substantive.

'''le kaozú soban taí'''

snake-ABS AGR-eat mouse-ABS ANAP-ERG

The snake that ate the mouse.

'''soban kaozú leì ta'''

mouse-ABS AGR-eat snake-ERG ANAP-ABS

The mouse that the snake ate.

'''kaodeozó ne ko kabu ta te'''

AGR-FUT-cook me-ERG CATP-ABS AGR-cook ANAP-ABS you-ERG

I will eat what you cook.

==Numbers==

The Melì number system is a hybrid of native Western and adopted Lukpanic numbers. Cardinal numbers up to eight precede the head noun, while cardinal numbers above eight and all ordinal numbers follow the head noun. All numbers up to eight use native roots, while numbers above eight use Lukpanic roots. There are two exceptions to this rule: the native word '''jalesé''' (sixty four), used only as a cardinal number, and the Lukpanic word '''niun''' (five), used as a cardinal or isolated number only for non-human referents. Very often '''jalesé''' is used metaphorically to mean “a large number.”

The number system hides a great deal of synchrotism and compromise. The suffixing attributives of Lukpanic languages are unknown in Valley languages, and the Lukpanic suffixes attach to agentives '''sab''' and '''tab'''. The latter is also used optionally for native ordinal numbers when used in isolation. The use of '''tab''' allows the complete absence of Lukpanic '''u''', and '''nu''' has also disappeared in recent times. The description given here is the most common system used in '''Asodeá''', but many competing standards exist up and down the coast. Some Valley speakers use native or Lukpanic numbers exclusively. Others use only native numbers for people and only Lukpanic numbers for everything else. Some have a hybrid system similar to Melì, but with one or more terms reanalyzed (one common strategy is to use '''senal''' to mean ten when counting people, replacing it with Lukpanic terms for non-humans). Phonologically, the numbers are subject to numerous irregular sound changes, specifically vowels and tones changing to match those of an immediately adjacent number. The word '''eḍá''' should by '''oḍá''' according to regular sound changes, but is presumably influenced by nearby '''mená'''.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Cardinal !! Isolated !! Ordinal
|- align="center"
! 1
| tau - || tabó / tausí / tàugo || (ta) taù
|- align="center"
! 2
| si - || siò / sisì / sìgo || (ta) sio
|- align="center"
! 3
| nasó - || nasoò / nasosì / nasògo || (ta) naso
|- align="center"
! 4
| mená - || menaò / menasì / menàgo || (ta) mènao
|- align="center"
! 5
| (edá) - niun || edaó / edasí / èdago / niun || (ta) èdao
|- align="center"
! 6
| minì - || miniò / minisì / minìgo || (ta) mìnio
|- align="center"
! 7
| jasé - || jaseò / jasesì / jasègo || (ta) jàseo
|- align="center"
! 8
| senal - || senaló / senasí / sènaso || (ta) jào
|- align="center"
! 9
| - sàdu niun || sàdu niun || tàdu niun
|- align="center"
! 10
| - mìbai || mìbai || ta mìbai
|- align="center"
! 11
| - sàsu mìbai || sàsu mìbai || tàsu mìbai
|- align="center"
! 12
| - sàmi mìbai || sàmi mìbai || tàmi mìbai
|- align="center"
! 13
| - sàbul mìbai || sàbul mìbai || tàbul mìbai
|- align="center"
! 14
| - sàdu mìbai || sàdu mìbai || tàdu mìbai
|- align="center"
! 15
| - ùlai || ùlai || tabùlai
|-
|}

'''mená kesá'''

four stones

'''kesá mènao'''

the fourth stone

'''tazeè menàgo'''

I want four.

'''oadalu na tau poalé nasó lada'''

AGR-accuse-EVID me-ABS one people-ERG three PART-ANAP

One of the three made accusations against me.

[[Category:Western languages|Melì]]

History of Akana

2026-08-01T08:34:20Z

Inzan:

This page attempts to give a general overview over the history of Akana, listing only general developments, approximate dates, and the most important historical events.

* For a detailed chronology see [[Akana timeline]].
* For meta information on the history of the Akana project see [[AkanaWiki:External history]].
* [http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=tPm0KJZO2qL6Z49X2a3Y_qQ&output=html A Google Docs version of this page].

{| {{graytable|lightgraybg c}} style="font-size:smaller;"
|-
!
! Kipceʔ desert
! Coastal corridor
! Lukpanic coast
! Western steppe
! Wañelin
! Xšalad
! Tjakori
! Rathedān
! High Xōron
! Low Xōron
! Middle Aiwa
! Upper Bwimbai
! Lasomo
! Lower Milīr
! Upper Milīr
! Ici Forest
! Tæm Hou
! Buruya
! Kasca
! Mɨdu
! Huyfárah
! Lu Tal
! Isthmus
! Doroh
! Affalinnei
! Lotoka
! Dagæm
! NE coast
! Tymytỳs
! Siixtaguna
! Mûtsinamtsys
! Sumarušuxi
! Fmana-hŋ-talam
! Mrisaŋfa
! Ttiruku
! SW Tuysáfa
!
|-
! -10000
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| Primundic peoples
! -10000
|-
! -9000
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! -9000
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! -8000
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| 2nd Wave (Mediundic peoples)
! -8000
|-
! -7000
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| Yima Valley Neolithic
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| Aiwa Valley Neolithic
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| Aiwa Valley Neolithic
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| (dog, pottery)
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! -7000
|-
! -6000
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| (Proto-Canoe)
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! -6000
|-
! -5000
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| bgcolor="#ddd"| *Proto-Tæm-Hou
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! -5000
|-
! -4500
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| Western Neolithic
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| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| (kiln, copper)
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
|
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! -4500
|-
! -4000
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| bgcolor="#008080"| Proto-Macro-Edastean (cattle)
|
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|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Ngauro civilisation (bronze)
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
|
| (Southwest Canoe Culture)
|
| (Northwest Canoe Culture)
|
| (Northeast Canoe Culture)
|
| bgcolor="#cff"| (Southeast Canoe Culture)
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"| Pre-Peninsular peoples
|
|
! -4000
|-
! -3500
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Proto-Western (pig)
|
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|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Pre-Meshi
|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Proto-Hitatc
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
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| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
| bgcolor="#cff"| 3rd Wave (Ultimundic peoples)
! -3500
|-
! -3000
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| (horse)
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Proto-Xoronic
| bgcolor="#f99"| Pre-Meshi
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Western Hitatc
| bgcolor="#930"| Proto-Miwan
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Eastern Hitatc
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| (writing)
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Proto-Isthmus (goat)
|
|
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|
| bgcolor="#cff"| Sumarušuxi Culture
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -3000
|-
! -2500
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| Old Kingdom
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Proto-Talo-Edastean
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Proto-Núalís-Takuña
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"| Tuysáfa Fishing Culture
! -2500
|-
! -2400
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f33"| Ngauro
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Pre-Talo
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Isthmus
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2400
|-
! -2300
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"| Pre-Lukpanic peoples
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Western Isthmus
| bgcolor="#f90"| Eastern Isthmus
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2300
|-
! -2200
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro (iron)
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2200
|-
! -2100
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| Xšali invasion
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak
| bgcolor="#f33"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Pre-Ferogh
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
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| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2100
|-
! -2000
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Sánhilu:pyl (Iŋomœ)
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Çetázó
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
! -2000
|-
! -1900
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| 1st Xšali Empire
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Gezoro
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Wan
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Mlir
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Faraghin & Feråjin
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Proto-Isles
! -1900
|-
! -1800
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tmaśareʔ
| bgcolor="#ff9"| Proto-Coastal-Western
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"| Ndak Empire
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#ddd"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1800
|-
! -1700
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Wan
| bgcolor="#008080"| Antagg
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Proto-Peninsular
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1700
|-
! -1600
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"| Proto-Lukpanic
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
! -1600
|-
! -1500
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#cff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Isles peoples
|
! -1500
|-
! -1400
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Hitatc Empire
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| HItatc Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Isles peoples
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1400
|-
! -1300
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| warring kingdoms
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Faraghin
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1300
|-
! -1200
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#66c"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo (saddle)
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1200
|-
! -1100
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Siixtaguna culture
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1100
|-
! -1000
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Satnímʔa / Nāuṣḍandva
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tjakori
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Meshi Empire (stirrup)
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f99"| Meshi Empire
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"| Komejech
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -1000
|-
! -900
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| 2nd Xšali Empire
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Anheshnalåks
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f99"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -900
|-
! -800
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| nomad Mohudza
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| settled Mohudza
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| (Hitatc Wan)
| bgcolor="#9cf"| (Hitatc Mlir)
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"| Kascan city-states
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Siixtaguna culture
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -800
|-
! -700
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Ndok
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Fáralo
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"| Ferój
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -700
|-
! -600
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff9"| Ishe
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Maśăś Mel (Hośər) (?)
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -600
|-
! -500
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Wañelinlawag
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Dāiadak city-states
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Damak
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"| Lotoka
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"| Mûtsinamtsys
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Thokyunam
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Kigibül / Mernesha
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -500
|-
! -400
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#fc0"| Anheshnalåks
| bgcolor="#fc0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Fáralo conquest
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Sútapaj
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -400
|-
! -300
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"| Habeo Empire
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Etúgə religion
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -300
|-
! -200
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#ff0"|
| bgcolor="#ff0"| Tjakori Empire
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#f60"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#3f3"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -200
|-
! -100
|
|
|
|
|
| 3rd Xšali Empire
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#c0c0c0"| Gaadràmarneš
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
|
! -100
|-
! 0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Zārakātias
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Coastal Hitatc
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Sošunami
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Ppãrwak
|
! 0
|-
! 100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Ngahêxôldod
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"| Máotatšàlì
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 100
|-
! 200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Ktacwa
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"| Affalinnei
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 200
|-
! 300
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Empire of Athalē
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#930"| Forest Miwan
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#008080"| Tlaliolz
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#999"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#0ff"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 300
|-
! 400
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"| Oigop'oi-bauxeu
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Epuonim
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| Kennan
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 400
|-
! 500
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Lewsfárah
| bgcolor="#993"| civil war
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| Doroh
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"| Huyfárah
|
|
|
! 500
|-
! 600
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"| Takuña pirates
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
| bgcolor="#999"|
|
|
|
! 600
|-
! 700
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
| bgcolor="#3cc"|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"|
|
|
|
|
|
! 700
|-
! 800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#f90"| barbarian invasions
|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
| bgcolor="#f90"|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#c9f"|
| bgcolor="#0cf"| Kozzaŋ Fasa
|
|
|
|
|
! 800
|-
! 900
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9cf"| Uplands Hitatc
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 900
|-
! 1000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Thāraspē
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Thāraspē
| bgcolor="#cfc"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Læsomo
| bgcolor="#6b6"| (Aθáta)
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Tactak
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"| Mɨdu
| bgcolor="#993"| Woldulaš
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 1000
|-
! 1100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
| bgcolor="#9c0"|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| Kuyʔūn
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#993"| Kuaguatia
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
| bgcolor="#993"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 1100
|-
! 1200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#396"| Wï'makwå
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 1200
|-
! 1300
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#6b6"| invention of printing
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor="#396"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
! 1300
|-
|}

[[Category:History|*]]

Western languages/Expansion

2026-08-01T08:30:17Z

Inzan:

This series of maps attempts to visualize the presumed spread of the [[Western languages]]. Each color represents a distinct subdivision of the language family, starting with a map showing the approximate homeland of [[Proto-Western]] c. -3500 YP. The subsequent maps follow in an interval of roughly 500 years. The striped areas on the fifth map indicate where [[Gezoro]] continued to be spoken as a minority language after the Ndak conquest.

Animated version:

[[Image:Western-expansion.gif]]

Individual maps:

[[Image:Wlang01.png]]

[[Image:Wlang02.png]]

[[Image:Wlang03.png]]

[[Image:Wlang04.png]]

[[Image:Wlang05.png]]

[[Image:Wlang06.png]]

[[Category:Western languages]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Maps]]

Tmasare?

2026-08-01T08:25:20Z

Inzan: Redirected page to Tmaśareʔ

#REDIRECT [[Tmaśareʔ]]

Languages of Akana

2026-07-30T10:27:15Z

Inzan:

{{Article}}
:''Note: Language families are sorted by continent, according to where most of the relevant languages are spoken.''

= Northern Peilaš =
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Northern Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east: 
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

== [[Isles languages]] ==
{{/Isles}}

== [[Macro-Edastean languages]] ==
=== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ===
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-edastean-100.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of Edastean languages around 100 YP. Labels in the local languages.]]
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-daiadak-1200.png|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of the Dāiadak languages around 1200 YP. Labels in the local languages.]]
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

=== [[Xoronic languages]] ===
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: [[Proto-Habeo]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 100 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 900)}}
*** Plains Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 1100)}}
*** River Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 700)}}
** [[Damak]]

== [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] ==
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

== [[Western languages]] ==
{{/Western}}

== [[Lukpanic languages]] ==
{{/Lukpanic}}

== Tulameya languages ==
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Lokud languages ==
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Tæm-Hou languages ==
=== [[Peninsular languages]] ===
{{/Peninsular}}
=== [[Hitatc languages]] ===
{{/Hitatc}}

== !Ho languages ==
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Old Xšali]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -1200 YP - [[User:Xshalad|Xshalad]])}}
*** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
*** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

== Núalís-Takuña languages ==
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

<hr />

= Tuysáfa =
[[Image:TuysafaY0.PNG|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of languages on Tuysáfa around 0 YP.]]
== [[Ronquian languages]] ==
{{/Ronquian}}

== [[Leic languages]] ==
{{/Leic}}

== Wendoth languages ==
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

== Mbingmik languages ==
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

== Muyan languages ==
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

== [[Dumic languages]] ==
{{/Dumic}}

== [[T1 languages]] ==
{{/T1}}

== Macro-Anatolionesian languages ==
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Northeastern Tuysáfa languages ==
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

<hr />

= Zeluzhia =

== Kopian languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Damo-Tingreya languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

<hr />

= Southern Peilaš =

== Island-Highland languages (Team B) ==
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Akam Chinjir|akam chinjir]])}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13)}}
* [[Jarang]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Kʰajlun]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Pʰeśin]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Tomē Nilōyi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - dhok)}}

== Southern languages (Team A) ==
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP - Moose-tache)}}
* [[Màpxèracáma|Màpxèracáma]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Kodane, a.k.a. kodé)}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Delta Naidda

2026-07-30T01:09:32Z

Inzan:

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naidda}}
{{Language
| language = Naidda (Delta dialect)
| phonetic = [ˈnai.ɾə]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = [[Kasca]]
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted [[Fáralo alphabet]]
| family = [[Edastean]]  Eastern   Naidda
| word-or = V1; nonconfigurational
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = direct
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

= Sketch of Delta Naidda =

Herein begins a sketch of the Delta dialect of Naidda, the language of the land of [[Kasca]]. The dialect is spoken in the delta of the Ya river, and though it is not the prestige dialect, it has far more speakers than any other. This sketch also represents a major revision of the original version of the Naidda language, which was intended to be the Southern dialect but also needed a great deal of repair.

Thus you may see ΔNaidda or ΔN from time to time as a punning abbreviation of "Delta Naidda" - ΔX representing, in math and physics, "change in X".

[[Culture of Kasca]]

[http://www.almeopedia.com/Kasadgad Description of early Kasca]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda%20sound%20changes.txt Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Delta Naidda]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/Naidda_dictionary2.html A dictionary of Delta Naidda]

== Standardization Note ==

Unlike Fáralo or Adāta, no variety of the Naidda language has been codified into a written standard in over a millennium. Furthermore, Kasca is a region where dialects are continually contaminating each other; the speech of any one person will reflect wordforms that originated in multiple dialects, and in many cases more than one form of a given word will be in common use even within the same town. Complicating this picture further is that sound changes have originated in different parts of Kasca and spread to some but often not all of the rest, so that the speech varieties of any two given towns will have had sound changes that applied only in one, or else in both but in different orders, resulting in even more lexical variation.

The bottom line is that the Delta Naidda dictionary should not be taken as a standardized word list for any particular location. Instead it tries to reflect most-common forms for the Delta dialect overall, and it shouldn't be neglected that variant forms will also exist for numerous words.

Among the biggest points of variation is vowel losses. Word-initial vowels were very frequently dropped in Delta Naidda words of three or more original syllables, and trisyllabic words often dropped medial vowels as well, or instead. But numerous wordforms have been imported from or influenced by other dialects that retained these vowels. Various consonant clusters also show a range of outcomes, but a full description of even just the major variations would be a massive task, and is beyond the scope of this grammatical sketch.

To summarize: it is ''not'' safe to assume that the following grammar and the entire dictionary are adequate descriptions of any single person's speech. Your Mileage May Vary.

= Genealogy =
Naidda is descended from the eastern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], forming part of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]], which in turn belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. Sister languages of Naidda include [[Fáralo]], [[Adāta]], [[Ndok Aisô]], [[Buruya Nzaysa]], and [[Komejech]]. Of these, it is most closely related to Fáralo and Komejech, with which it comprises the Eastern subbranch of Edastean, and especially to Buruya Nzaysa, which is even classified as a dialect of Naidda by some scholars. Naidda has one known descendant, [[Wippwo]].

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

== Dialectology ==

[[Image:Naidda dialects.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialect map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

There are five principal dialects of the Naidda language.

* Delta. This the is dialect covered in this sketch, and is spoken in the [[Aiwa|Ya river]] delta. This variety may be considered the "core" version of Naidda, though it has less prestige; its range is central in Kasca and it is spoken by more people than any other variety.
* Southern. Spoken in [[Kasca#P.C3.A5we|Påwe]] and environs. This is the second-largest and most prestigious variety of Naidda, but is almost completely mutually intelligible with Delta speech. {{context|[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda.html A deprecated sketch of Southern Naidda]}}
* Momuva'e. A sub-variety of the Delta dialect, spoken in the city of [[Momuva'e]] and its immediate vicinity. Main article [[Mësting Momuva'e]].
* Coastal. This variety of Naidda is fairly divergent, as it has had stronger interference from [[Fáralo]] than other dialects. Spoken in the coastal towns of Kasca.
* Buruyan. The variety of Naidda spoken in Buruya is the most divergent, and is not really mutually intelligible with other dialects - so it may well be considered a separate language, were it not traditional to classify it as part of Naidda. Main article [[Buruya Nzaysa]].

= Phonology =

== Phonemes ==

The 22 consonants of Delta Naidda are as follows:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Postalveolar
| Palatal
| Velar
| Glottal
|-
| Voiceless Plosive
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| ''' ' ''' /ʔ/
|-
| Voiced Plosive
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| Voiceless Affricate    
|
|
| '''c''' /ʧ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Affricate
|
|
| '''j''' /ʤ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiceless Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Fricative
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /ʒ/
|
|
|
|-
| Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
| Tap
|
| '''dd''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Trill
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Approximant
| '''w''' /w/
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|}

Delta Naidda has eight vowels:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ï''' /ɪ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| Mid High    
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o ''' /o/
|-
| Mid Low
| '''ë''' /ɛ/
|
|
|-
| Low
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''å''' /ɒ/
|}

== Rules and Distributions ==

=== Consonants ===
* Naidda words never end in obstruents (plosives, fricatives, or affricates), only in vowels or sonorant consonants.
* Voiceless plosives and affricates ('''p t c k''') occur only in initial position, or after '''s''' or '''sh'''.
* Voiced plosives and affricates ('''b d j g''') occur only in initial position and between vowels. They contrast with their voiceless counterparts only initially.
* The velar nasal occurs only at the ends of words, in which position it contrasts with all three other nasals. The other three ('''m n ñ''') occur with no such restriction.
* '''r''' and '''dd''' contrast only intervocalically, where they are a trill and a flap, both dental or alveolar. In all other environments, there is only a tapped '''r''' (a slightly different phone from the flap). This often weakens to an approximant in codas.
* '''ly''' is realized as [ʎ], a palatal lateral approximant. This sound is analyzed in this sketch as underlyingly being a cluster of '''l''' with '''y'''.
* '''z''' is normally postalveolar [ʒ] in most regions of the Delta, but for some speakers may occur in free variation with dental [z]. In a few areas only the dental pronunciation occurs.
* Medially within words, all fricatives and sonorants ('''s sh v z m n ñ l r w y''') can form consonant clusters with each other, in any order. None of them but '''s''' and '''sh''' can cluster with plosives and plosives cannot cluster with each other. Clusters of more than two consecutive consonants do not occur.
* All clusters beginning with a fricative, that are legal medially, can occur in initial position as well. A few other clusters can also occur initially, such as '''mw''', '''tw''', or '''py'''.
* The glottal stop clusters only with nasals, and only before them. These clusters can occur both medially and finally. In final position the nasal of such a cluster is syllabic. The glottal stop also occurs between vowels, but never initially or finally.
* '''f''' does not occur in this dialect of Naidda, though it does in others (but only in loanwords even there, mostly from Faralo '''f''' and '''h'''). Delta Naidda has generally imported such loanwords with '''p''' in initial position and '''v''' medially. Thus Huyfarah is called Fuifara in the Southern dialect and, borrowed from that, '''Pwivara''' in the Delta dialect.

=== Vowels ===
* All back vowels are rounded ('''u o å''') and all non-back vowels are unrounded ('''i ï e ë a''').
* There are no phonemic diphthongs, but adjacent vowels freely diphthongize in normal speech unless separated by a glottal stop. Except where noted below, the first of the two vowels tends to be the nucleus of such a diphthong, with the other forming an offglide. In careful speech the adjacent vowels may be separated into two full syllables.
* The vowels can be classed into two groups, "strong" and "weak". The strong vowels are '''i e u o''', which share the characteristic that they do not tend to be reduced in unstressed syllables. The weak vowels are '''a å ï''', which share the characteristic that in fully unstressed syllables they become schwa, thus neutralizing the distinction between them. In addition, in any vowel sequence consisting of a strong and a weak vowel, the weak vowel becomes the diphthong nucleus and the strong vowel becomes an offglide or onglide.
* '''ë''' behaves sometimes as a strong vowel and sometimes as a weak vowel. Its behavior in unstressed syllables and in diphthongs varies by rate of speech and from speaker to speaker.
* The realization of '''ï''' and '''å''' vary from town to town. The former is normally either [ɪ] or [ɨ], or occasionally [ə], and the latter can be [ɒ] or [ɔ] and in a few places has merged with '''a'''. Other vowels vary less than these do.
* '''u''' normally cannot be found at the ends of words; it becomes '''o''' instead. However, in a very few cases a '''u''' persists in this position, like '''du''' "four" and '''myu''' "stupid". These exceptions are rare and the ones that do occur are generally monosyllabic. However, the onomatopoeic '''uwu''' "owl" has it too.

=== Stress ===

The algorithm for assigning lexical stress in Naidda is as follows:

# Start by assigning the accent to the first syllable of the root (or the first root, in a compound word).
# For certain derivational prefixes, the accent is attracted to the first syllable of the prefix instead.
# If there are more than two syllables to the right of the accent, move it to the first syllable of the '''next morpheme to the right'' if there is one, even if its first vowel is epenthetic.
# Repeat step 3 until the accent is no earlier than antepenultimate position.
# Alternating syllables to the left and right of the accent gain secondary stress.

Some examples, with the period . indicating morpheme boundaries:

'''néshodën''' 
'''morvo.gáño''' 
'''Mómuva'e''' 
'''të.bédo''' 
'''po'mon.á'a''' 
'''të.gáyå.'a''' 
'''ma.jani.dá.'a'''

== Morphophonological Processes ==

The morphophonology of Naidda is relatively straightforward. The major processes are as follows:

'''Epenthesis''' - various types of consonant clusters are not legal in Naidda. If an illegal cluster would be formed morphologically, an epenthetic '''a''' is inserted at the morpheme boundary to hold apart the cluster.

'''Medial voicing''' - voiceless stops (including the affricate '''c''') are contrasted with voiced ones only in initial position. When a prefix is added to a word beginning with a voiceless stop, it becomes voiced - or, more specifically, the contrast is neutralized, and voiced and voiceless pronunciations occur in free variation when this happens. But in any case such stops are always ''written'' voiced. The exception is that after determiner proclitics voiceless stops continue to be written voiceless, as there is a stronger preference among speakers for the voiceless pronunciation here - though the two are still in free variation. Voiceless fricatives remain contrasted in medial position and are unaffected by this rule.

'''Vowel elision''' - there are two possible results of adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a stem ending with a vowel. If the vowel of the stem is unstressed, it is simply overridden by the suffix vowel. If it is stressed however, the two will instead co-exist, diphthongized, if they are sufficiently different from each other (e.g. '''e''' and '''ë''' do not readily co-exist this way, which is a particular problem when verbs ending in either vowel occur in the first person). If they are not, elision may happen anyway - although a new resolution to the problem has recently arisen in the delta: separating the two vowels with an epenthetic glottal stop.

'''Eng palatalization''' - when a word ending in '''ng''' takes a suffix, the velar nasal changes to a palatal nasal '''ñ'''.

'''S-devoicing''' - when '''s''' comes before a voiced stop or fricative due to morphological processes, the stop or fricative devoices in the following manner:
* '''sb, sd, sg''' -> '''sp, st, sk'''
* '''sv''' -> '''sp'''
* '''sj, sz''' -> '''sc'''

= Noun Phrases =

== Structure ==

The structure of a Naidda noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:

Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)

Naidda nouns are '''invariable in form'''.

== Determiners ==

Before the noun there are two positions which can be filled by determiners. In every NP at least one of these two slots ''must'' be filled.

A first position determiner may be a proclitic which serves as an article or deictic, or it may be a possessive pronoun. These two sets do not co-occur. Quantifiers, which may be either numbers or non-numeral quantifiers, occur in the second determiner position.

'''NOTE:''' see the "pronominal prepositions" section for a fuller explanation of the possessive pronouns and how not only possessive ones can be determiners.

=== Articles and Deictics ===
{|
|
| Clitic
| Meaning
|-
|
| l-
| the
|
|-
|
| u- or w-
| a, some
|-
|
| d-
| as for
|-
|
| g-
| this
|-
|
| c-
| that
|}

These clitics, if present, attach to the beginning of the next word and are written hyphenated.

'''l-a'a''' 
''the woman''

'''Clitic Morphophonology'''

The indefinite article consists of u- before consonants and w- before vowels. The other proclitics are pronounced before vowels as if they were part of the word. Before consonants, an epenthetic schwa intervenes, unless a legal initial cluster is formed.

=== Possessive Pronouns ===

There are only three possessive pronouns, one for each person.

{|
|
| Person
| Pronoun
|-
|
| 1
| a'e
|
|-
|
| 2
| airo
|-
|
| 3
| a
|}

=== Non-Numeric Quantifiers ===
{|
|
| Quantifier
| Meaning
|-
|
| wa
| a few, a minority of
|
|-
|
| nam
| some, however many
|-
|
| ova
| many, lots of
|-
|
| i'i
| most
|
|-
|
| me
| no, none of
|-
|
| or
| all, each
|}

=== Numbers ===
{|
| Number
| Native
| Fáralo
|-
| 1
| kë
| ce
|-
| 2
| ni
| --
|-
| 3
| wo
| --
|-
| 4
| bo
| bu
|-
| 5
| du
| --
|-
| 6
| ïshï
| --
|-
| 7
| mëm
| --
|-
| 8
| son
| ude
|-
| 9
| nïl
| --
|-
| 10
| ro
| --
|}

For the numbers 1, 4, and 8, both the native and the borrowed Fáralo numbers are in common use.

Multiples of ten are formed by suffixing -ro. Ordinals are formed by prefixing ï-, or in the case of six, y-.

=== Examples ===

'''l-di''' 
''the tree''

'''ova di''' 
''many trees''

'''l-ova di''' 
''the many trees''

'''airo di''' 
''your tree''

'''a'e ïshï di''' 
''my six trees''

'''l-ïboro di''' 
''the fortieth tree''

== Modifiers ==

Three main types of modifiers are discussed here: nominal modifiers, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. These follow the head noun in that order:

''Modifiers - Prepositional Phrases - Relative Clauses''

=== Nominal Modifiers ===

Naidda does not have a distinct class of '''adjectives''', ''per se''. Instead, nouns are modified by other nouns. There remains a marginal syntactic distinction; a number of nouns are used much more often in an attributive role than as the head of an NP. These are generally translated in the lexicon with English adjectives. Nevertheless, any noun can be the head of a noun phrase, and any noun can be used to modify another.

It is never difficult to tell which of the nouns in a noun phrase is the head: it is ''always'' first. Additionally, nouns never take determiners when used attributively, while NP heads always do.

'''l-di spe''' 
''the green tree''

'''l-spe di''' 
''the tree's green'' (or ''the greenness of the tree'' or ''the shade of green on the tree'')

'''l-wo di spe''' 
''the three green trees''

=== Heavy Modifiers ===

'''Prepositional Phrases'''

PPs come in two types: full phrases, and "pronominal prepositions" (or, if you prefer, "prepositional pronouns"). Both are explained in the Prepositions section.

Both types occur in the same position in a noun phrase when used in the "normal" way (see the prepositions section): after the noun and after any nominal modifiers, but before any relative clauses.

'''Relative Clauses'''

Formation of relative clauses is covered below. Relative clauses, if any, always occur at the tail end of a noun phrase.

== Personal Pronouns ==

The personal pronouns of Naidda distinguish person, number, and within third person, animate/inanimate in the plural and masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular.

'''Free (stressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| e
| ove
|-
| 2
| liño
| wiño
|-
| 3m
| loro
| wamar
|-
| 3f
| la'a
| wamar
|-
| 3n
| lojon
| wajon
|}

=== Usage ===

These pronouns are not required in transitive clauses, with verbal participant reference marking being sufficient. Thus, Naidda is a '''pro-drop''' language. Free pronouns, which always bear lexical word stress like any other full content word, are used for three main purposes: contrast focus, non-sentential speech acts (such as insults and one-word answers to questions), and to supply more information in an otherwise ambiguous clause. More information on these later.

In intransitive clauses personal pronouns are required, even if a full noun or a pro-form is also used. In this case, a reduced and unstressed form of the pronoun cliticizes to the end of the verb.

'''Enclitic (unstressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''Ñadawon.''' 
''They slept.''

= The Verb Complex =

== Auxiliaries ==

Naidda marks the time of a clause (tense and aspect) with a set of auxiliary verbs. Each AUX indicates one or more specific combinations of tense and aspect, except for '''ïna''' which makes a sentence imperative.

To use an auxiliary:
# Add the AUX to the beginning of the clause (before the verb, but after any left-dislocated information).
# Move the main verb to later in the clause, usually the end, if it isn't there already.
# Mark the AUX, but not the main verb, for participant reference.

'''Stån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s open 
''He is opening it.''

The auxiliary verbs are:

{|
|
| AUX
| time
| gloss
|-
|
| '''0'''
| preterite
| ---
|-
|
| '''ste'''
| nonfuture imperfect
| NF-IMPF
|-
|
| '''we'''
| future imperfect
| F-IMPF
|-
|
| '''steda'''
| nonfuture inceptive
| NF-INCP
|-
|
| '''weda'''
| future inceptive
| F-INCP
|-
|
| '''stevë'''
| nonfuture perfect
| NF-PRF
|-
|
| '''wevë'''
| future perfect
| F-PRF
|-
|
| '''cona'''
| aorist
| AOR
|-
|
| '''ïna'''
| imperative
| IMP
|}

=== Usage ===

'''Imperfects''' are used for actions that are or will be incomplete (depending on whether the future or nonfuture AUX is used), or for states that are or will be ongoing.

'''Inceptives''' indicate the beginning of an action, or onset of a state.

'''Perfects''' are very comparable to "I have done it" or "I will have done it" in English.

When there is no auxiliary at all, a '''preterite''' (past-perfective, or "narrative past") time is usually assumed. However, this is highly context-dependent: when several clauses in a row have exactly the same time, i.e. they would use the same AUX, often only the first one is marked and the subsequent clauses stand without auxiliaries, inheriting their time indication from the prior clause. This inheritance can continue indefinitely until the time of a clause needs to be different than that of the previous one.

The '''aorist''' is used mostly for states, rather than actions, and indicates that the state is generally true, or is true over an indefinitely long timespan. For example, "the sky is blue" would be translated with the aorist.

'''Imperatives''' are commands or instructions to do something.

''When no main verb appears in the clause, the auxiliaries become copulas.''

== Morphology ==

=== Participant Reference: Transitive ===

Naidda uses a complex system of suffixes to mark the person and number of both the agent and patient of the verb, if it is transitive. While these suffixes are patterned in ways that derive from the pronouns the suffixes originally came from, in this discussion we treat them as unanalyzable.

There are two exceptions to this, however. Reflexive suffixes occur for certain person-number combinations that either can or must indicate somebody performing the action on themselves. Reflexives are formed by suffixing '''-in-''' between the root and the rest of the transitive suffix. '''Italicized forms in the table are reflexive.'''

The other exception is that except for reflexives, suffixes denoting singular patients consist of the suffix for a plural patient, plus final '''-n'''.

The following table demonstrates these suffixes in use in the verb '''piño''', "to fear". The person and number of agent arguments are in rows, while the person and number of patient arguments are in columns. Thus, if "he" fears "all of you", the entry for 3sg-2pl is used: '''piñaddo'''.

{|
|
| me
| us
| thee
| ye
| him
| them
|-
| I/we
| piñoyin/''piñin''
| piñoyi/''piñini''
| piñeddon
| piñeddo
| piñoyån
| piñoyå
|-
| thou
| piñoron
| piñoro
| ''piñinolon''
| piñorol
| piñorån
| piñorå
|-
| you
| piñorwin
| piñorwi
| piñorilon
| ''piñinil''
| piñorwan
| piñorwa
|-
| he
| piñin
| piñi
| piñaddon
| piñaddo
| piñån/''piñinån''
| piñå
|-
| they
| piñain
| piñai
| piñaiddon
| piñaiddo
| piñiwan
| piñiwa/''piñinwa''
|}

*These suffixes are applied to the first verb in the sentence - whether it's the main verb or an auxiliary.
*There is no differentiation between 1sg and 1pl agents in these suffixes. Thus for 1-1sg and for 1-1pl, there is both a reflexive and a non-reflexive possibility.
*In the third person, specifically 3sg-3sg and 3pl-3pl, there are reflexive and non-reflexive forms. The REFL-3sg-3sg form means "he did it to himself" and the plain 3sg-3sg form means "he did it to (someone else)".

=== Participant Reference: Intransitive ===

As previously discussed, in intransitive clauses the verb - or the aux - is suffixed with an enclitic pronoun. For reference, here is the table again:

'''Enclitic Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''USAGE'''

Exactly who the enclitic pronoun refers to - an agent? a patient? - is a matter of some flexibility. A wide variety of apparently contradictory uses have been observed in Naidda, which, bewilderingly, appear to cause the speakers few difficulties. The grammatical analyst can at best state some general trends in what is observed, but with the caveat that any particular instance may disobey them.

* Verbs which nearly always take agents, like "to run": the enclitic pronoun refers to this agent.
* Verbs which nearly always take patients, like "to sleep": the enclitic pronoun refers to this patient.
* Verbs which can go either way, like "to hit": the pronoun ''usually'' refers to the agent (and the full nominal argument as well, if there is any; the pronoun and the nominal argument are '''always''' co-referential.) It can also refer to the patient, however. Where the referent falls on the animacy hierarchy is highly relevent: entities high on the hierarchy are highly likely to be agents, while entities low on the hierarchy are at least somewhat likely to be patients instead.

Simply put: if one reading doesn't make sense, try the other. If both make sense, assume the pronoun refers to an agent.

=== The Irrealis ===

In Naidda, a verb is made irrealis with a prefix that has multiple forms.

*Before vowels: e'-
*Before sibilants ('''s''' and '''sh'''): e-
*Before any other consonant: s-

'''E'odolor.''' 
IRR-come-he 
''He would come.''

'''Usage '''

Unlike participant suffixes, the irrealis prefix always appears on the main verb, even if an auxiliary is present. The irrealis marks that a statement is '''counterfactual'''. That is, while a realis clause makes a claim that the statement expressed in the clause is true, an irrealis clause makes no such claim at all.

The irrealis may or may not co-occur with a modal adverb. When it stands without such an adverb, an "if"-clause preceding or following the irrealis clause makes it conditional. When the irrealis appears with a modal adverb, the adverb specifies the modality of the clause.

=== Negation ===

A clause is negated by the prefix '''ma-''' (before consonants) or '''m-''' (before vowels). As with other prefixes, intial voiceless stops and affricates become voiced.

'''Usage'''

'''Negative concord''' is exhibited between main verbs and auxiliaries: if both are present, the negative prefix generally appears either on both, or on neither.

'''Mwevëlor modo.''' 
NEG-AUX(F-PRF)-he NEG-come 
''He will not come.''

The negative prefix and the irrealis prefix are mutually exclusive on the main verb, but if an auxiliary is present, it may still be negated while the main verb is irrealis. This occasionally necessitates re-wording so that an auxiliary may be used for carrying the negation.

'''Mastevëlor e'odo.''' 
NEG-AUX(NF-PRF)-he IRR-come 
''He would not come.''

=== Verbal Nouns ===

Naidda verbal nouns come in two flavors: active and passive.

{|
|
| suffix
| example
| gloss
|-
| active
| '''-'a'''
| '''ku'me'a''' "hitting"
| AVN
|-
| passive
| '''-sa'''
| '''ku'mesa''' "getting hit"
| PVN
|}

'''Gïmvin l-ku'mesa''' 
hurt-3s>1s DEF-hit-PVN 
''Getting hit hurt me.''

These suffixes create normal nouns from verb stems, and tend to fill roles that in other languages are filled by gerunds, infinitives, and participles. When used as the head of an NP they require '''determiners''' like any other noun. Note also that this is the only remaining trace of morphological passivity in Naidda. However, there is a periphrastic passive construction which uses the passive verbal noun.

You can also negate verbal nouns. When one is the head of a noun phrase, it takes the negative quantifier '''me''', but when used attributively, it instead takes verbal negation.

'''airo me cïna'a''' 
your NEG love-AVN 
''your heartlessness''

'''airo nïzri majïna'a''' 
your wife NEG-love-AVN 
''your unloving wife''

= Prepositional Phrases =

== Normal PPs ==

Conventional, full prepositional phrases in Naidda are straightforward and do not work significantly differently from those in English and many other languages. In short, a prepositional phrase consists of a P followed by an NP. Any noun phrase can be the object of a preposition, and the preposition is always in the third person. The one notable difference is that first and second person pronouns cannot appear after third person prepositions.

Prepositional phrases modifying nouns are placed late in the NP, normally after all one-word modifiers but before any relative clauses. Those modifying verbs can occur anywhere in the clause after the inflected verb or AUX.

Full clauses can also be the objects of prepositions; in this case, the clause is formed as a nominalized clause.

'''wo w-inzo''' 
for.3 INDEF-farmer 
''for a farmer''

== Pronominal Prepositions ==

Or, "prepositional pronouns", take your pick. Naidda prepositions are inflectable for person - first, second, or third - and these inflected prepositions are entire PPs unto themselves. The personal inflection specifies the object of the preposition. Or, if you look at it from another angle, these words are personal pronouns marked for a large number of grammatical cases.

=== Normal Usage ===

As an example, where in English we would say "to me", in Naidda we can say ''to.1'' and this is usually sufficient. However, whenever more information is desireable (such as the number of the referent), the preposition can take a personal pronoun as an object. This description is adequate for the first and second persons.

'''åddi''' 
to.1 
''to me'' or ''to us''

'''åddi ove''' 
to.1 us 
''to us''

In the third person, a preposition either has a full NP as its object (as described in the previous section), or it stands alone as an anaphor. That is, without an explicit object, it refers back to a noun phrase that has already been mentioned recently in the discourse. Similarly to the first and second persons, when in the third person more information about the preposition's referent is desireable, it can take a full pronoun as an object.

'''ådda''' 
to.3 
''to it/him/her/them''

'''ådda lojon''' 
to.3 him 
''to him''

=== Appositional Usage ===

First and second person prepositions can also take NP objects. In this case, the NP is ''apposed'' to the pronoun's referent.

'''we w-inzo''' 
for.1 INDEF-farmer 
''for me, a farmer'' (or ''for me as a farmer'')

=== Determiner Usage ===

The "possessive pronouns", previously discussed in the Noun Phrases section, are in fact the inflected possessive prepositions. As already covered, these can be used as determiners:

'''a'e båma''' 
of.1 wheat 
''my wheat''

Naidda distinguishes the determiner use of possessives from a non-determiner use:

'''g-båma a'e''' 
this-wheat of.1 
''this wheat of mine''

The latter construction is the normal, default use of a PP in Naidda, with the possessive prepositions doubling as possessive pronouns. That is how I have presented these things thus far, for the sake of simplicity.

However, it's not the whole truth. Actually, ''any'' inflected preposition can be a determiner the way the a possessive one can:

'''wodo myåsko''' 
for.2 party 
''the party for you'' (literally ''the-for-you party'')

This is a common device in Naidda, and is why the line between "preposition" and "pronoun" is blurry at best.

'''Cautionary Note'''

At first glance it may be difficult to tell determiner usages from appositional ones: how do you know if '''wodo myåsko''' means ''the party for you'' or ''for you as a party''?

Keep in mind that the determiner usage results in an NP while the appositional usage results in a PP. As such, as with any NP, prepositions used as determiners cannot co-occur with a determiner clitic - and that every NP ''must'' have at least one determiner. Therefore '''wodo myåsko''' cannot be appositional because there is no other determiner than '''wodo''' (not to mention that its meaning is bizarre). If you wanted to say this anyway, however, just bring in a proclitic: it makes completely clear that '''l-myåsko''' is the NP and that it is therefore the object of '''wodo'''.

== List of Prepositions ==
{|
| 1st
| 2nd
| 3rd/default
| ''meaning''
|-
| a'e
| airo
| '''a'''
| ''possessive''
|-
| we
| wodo
| '''wo'''
| ''"for", "concerning", ''at (directed towards)''
|-
| ume
| omvo
| '''om'''
| ''genitive (non-possessive association)''
|-
| ñwe
| ñudo
| '''ño'''
| ''essive, appositive; "as"''
|-
| kwëne
| kwïnzo
| '''kwïn'''
| ''comitative; "with"''
|-
| ale
| åro
| '''ål'''
| ''"without", "besides", "except for"''
|-
| pu'e
| poiro
| '''po'''
| ''"per", "for each"''
|-
| si
| sado
| '''sa'''
| ''ablative, "from"; instrumental, "with"''
|-
| ne
| nido
| '''ni'''
| ''"in", "into", "inside"''
|-
| åddi
| åddado
| '''ådda'''
| ''"to", "towards"''
|-
| wi
| wado
| '''wa'''
| ''"after", "since"''
|-
| ove
| ovro
| '''o'''
| ''"at (locative)", "near", "nearby to"''
|-
| sli
| slado
| '''sla'''
| ''"before", "by" (as in "by tomorrow")''
|-
| ñizedi
| ñizedo
| '''ñizi'''
| ''"until", "as far as", "as much as"''
|-
| råve
| råvëdo
| '''råvë'''
| ''"along", "via", "during"''
|-
| ledi
| ledado
| '''leda'''
| ''"between", "among", "throughout", "surrounding"''
|}

= Pronouns and Participant Reference =

== Role Disambiguation ==

As previously shown, the transitive participant markers for Naidda verbs are in some cases defective. They also do not supply as much information as personal pronouns do. In some cases, this can make it difficult to tell who is doing what to who. This is exacerbated by the tendency of speakers to avoid using full noun phrases to the extent they can get away with.

=== Animacy Hierarchy ===

The majority of such cases are clearly resolveable by context, primarily by means of an agency hierarchy (or "animacy hierarchy"). The hierarchy is a set of assumptions built into Naidda grammar about which of any two entities is most likely to be the agent, or source of the action. In general, the higher of any two entities on the following list is assumed to be the agent:

# 1st person
# 2nd person
# other people
# sentence topics (when marked with '''d-''')
# animals
# everything else

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-man 
''The man kicked the horse''

'''Coñïvån l-ro l-nalor.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-man DEF-horse 
''The man kicked the horse''

As one might guess, due to the transitive participant suffixes, cases in which the animacy hierarchy becomes important do not arise with extremely high frequency. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistently observed to resolve many clauses that might otherwise be ambiguous, when such situations do come up.

=== Use of Pronouns ===

In some cases even the animacy hierarchy will fail and a clause will remain ambiguous. This can happen for two reasons:

* both the subject and the direct object are at the same level on the hierarchy (both are people, or both are animals, etc.);
* the subject is meant to be the one that's ''lower'' on the hierarchy.

In either case, speakers will often simply tolerate the ambiguity, because the surrounding context is generally sufficient anyway. But if there is any doubt, a personal pronoun can be added to clarify. The pronoun is placed directly after the subject noun phrase, and refers to it; or if there is no NP, the pronoun will stand alone. This usage is syntactically identical to that of contrast focus.

'''Coñïvån l-nalor lojon l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse it DEF-man 
''The horse kicked the man.''

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-zivra lojon.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-sheep it 
''The sheep kicked the horse.''

In addition, a pronoun may simply be used to supply more information about its referent, even if grammatical roles are already clear:

'''Dëñëlyån ove.''' 
like-1>3s we 
''We like it.'' (without the pronoun, the sentence could also mean "I like it.")

== Gender and Animacy ==

The animacy system for Naidda personal pronouns is very straightforward. The 3-feminine and 3-masculine pronouns are used for human beings (and gods), as is the 3-animate in the plural, while the 3-neuter pronouns are used for everything else. However, in a number of narratives and folk tales, other entities - animals, even rocks - can be personified, in which case the animate pronouns are used.

Gender of pronouns is semantically rather than grammatically based: it varies by biological sex of the referent, as in English, and has nothing to do with any grammatical property of the antecedent noun.

The historical basis for all of the above is that the masculine and feminine personal pronouns derive from "the man" and "the woman" as a relatively recent development in Naidda (within the last five centuries). Indeed, the full form of the feminine pronoun '''la'a''' remains perfectly homophonous with "the woman", '''l-a'a''', and the masculine pronoun has diverged only slightly.

== Contrast Focus ==

Contrast focus, also called ''disjunction'', is one of the main uses of personal pronouns. It draws attention to the fact that the sentence subject itself, and not some other person or thing, is the source of the action.

In this usage, a pronoun is simply supplied as an overtly expressed clause subject, either on its own when no such subject is otherwise needed, or else in addition to a full noun phrase, especially a personal name. In the latter case, the pronoun always directly follows the noun.

'''Goñiyån.''' 
break-1>3s 
''I/we broke it.''

'''Goñiyån e''' 
break-1>3s I 
''I broke it myself.''

'''Goñinån Murisi loro.''' 
break-3s>3s NAME he 
''Murisi broke it himself.''

== Pro-forms ==

{|
|
| ''query''
| ''this''
| ''that''
| ''some''
| ''no''
| ''every''
|-
| '''thing'''
| gëa
| gåyë
| ceyë
| nayë
| mayë
| ëyë
|-
| '''person'''
| yaro
| gåro
| cero
| naro
| maro
| ëro
|-
| '''place'''
| malo
| gålo
| celo
| namlo
| malo
| ëlo
|-
| '''time'''
| sol
| gådol
| cesol
| nadol
| masol
| ëdol
|-
| '''way'''
| eba
| gï'n
| cï'n
| namï'n
|
|
|-
| '''reason'''
| nwa
|
| cïddo
|
|
|
|}

= Clause Types =

== Independent Clauses ==

=== Structure ===

The basic template for main clauses in Naidda is V1 - the verb comes first, and is followed by one or more other sentence elements, including nouns denoting agents or patients, and modifying information such as adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, or adverbs.

The order of these post-verb elements does not depend on the grammatical roles of subject or direct object, but instead on the principle "New Information Comes First" or ''NICF''.

NICF applies to all post-verbal constituents, not just noun phrases. For instance if the main new information in a clause is adverbial, it will precede any subjects or direct objects that are present.

Naidda can also be described as a "pronominal argument" language. The key notion of pro-arg is that the verb, including mandatory participant marking, is the core clause all by itself - everything else is oblique, including subject and object nominals.

'''Erån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the shell with a knife.''

If an auxiliary is present in the clause, it takes the V1 position at the beginning, and the main verb is moved to later in the clause - typically but not necessarily the end.

'''Stån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife open 
''He is opening the shell with a knife.''

=== Topicalization ===

While a noun marked as a sentence topic may be left in place after a verb, most often it will be dislocated to the beginning of the clause - before the verb. Nouns dislocated to left of the verb (or aux) are always marked as topics.

'''Erån d-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s TOP-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the'' shell, ''however, with a knife.''

'''D-wogïño erån kwïn u-gån.''' 
TOP-shell open-3s>3s with.3 INDEF-knife 
''As for the shell, he opened it with a knife.''

A noun can be extracted from just about any location and topicalized. Note that this works hand-in-hand with '''pronominal prepositions''' - when a preposition's object is moved to the front of the sentence, the P becomes a stranded anaphor.

'''D-gån erån l-wogïño kwïn.''' 
TOP-knife open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 
''As for a/the knife, he opened the shell with it.''

== Nominalized Clauses ==

In Naidda, most subclauses are handled by nominalization - subclauses fit into larger syntactic structures just as nouns would. Nominalized clauses are used for all of the following:

* complement clauses: clauses which serve as an argument (agent or patient) of the main verb
* objects of prepositions: prepositions, especially those with temporal meanings, can take nominalized clauses as objects just as they would regular nouns
* adverbial clauses: clauses which add more information to the main clause (this requires extra morphology)
* various other situations where in other languages you might find a subclause, infinitive clause, or something else along those lines

Nominalized clauses, except for adverbialized ones, are normal noun phrases and require '''determiners'''.

=== Formation ===

There are two types of nominalized clause formation: direct, and full.

'''Direct nominalized clauses''' are simple: word order is exactly like any other clause, and the verb is formed into a verbal noun. Note that verbal nouns cannot take participant marking, so pronouns - if any are needed - take their independent forms. Direct nominalized clauses are possible only when there is no AUX, and are problematic for transitive clauses. Nominalized transitive clauses tend to be of the full form, instead. Despite these limitations, direct nominalized clauses are usually preferred to the full form when possible.

'''wa l-ta'a loro''' 
after.3 DEF-die-AVN he 
''after he died''

'''Full nominalized clauses''' are more complex than direct ones, but offer more flexibility. The nominalizer '''ri''' (glossed as SUB) takes the verb-initial position and inflects like an AUX (including participant marking and negation), and the main verb is displaced to the end of the sentence just like it would be with any other AUX. If there is already another AUX, the nominalizer is prefixed to it.

'''wa l-rilor ta''' 
after.3 DEF-SUB-he die 
''after he died''

'''råvë l-ristån arå la'a skïn''' 
during.3 DEF-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-3s.3s evening.meal she cook 
''while she was making dinner''

There is little semantic difference between the two types, but full nominalized clauses tend to be associated with more formal and technical registers of speech, and occur less frequently in day-to-day chatter.

=== Adverbial Clauses ===

Adverbial clauses are also nominalized clauses, further modified by adding the adverbial prefix '''të-''' to the nominalizer; thus: '''tëri'''. This prefix is mutually exclusive with the negative prefix, so negative concord is broken, but the main verb remains negatable if it's not irrealis.

'''Tëriste kwïn omvo li, naive cån boda.''' 
ADV-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-I with.3 your year work-I greatly even.more 
''When I was your age, I worked even harder.'' (literally: ''(when) I was with your years, I worked even more greatly'')

Direct nominalized clauses can also take the adverbial prefix, which simply attaches to the verb:

'''Kåstalon l-tolo tëlila'a l-ånze.''' 
continue-it DEF-time ADV-flow-AVN DEF-river 
''Time passes as the river flows.''

Since adverbs and verbal arguments are on the same syntactic level in Naidda it should be no surprise that the line between a complement clause and an adverbial clause is blurry. Morphologically they are distinct, but whether a subclause in a given sentence takes the adverbial prefix will vary from speaker to speaker and day to day. Subclauses describing the '''time''', '''place''', or '''manner''' of the main sentence will usually take the adverbial prefix.

== Relative Clauses ==

Naidda relative clauses are embedded clauses modifying a nominal word that participates in the clause. They are formed with the relativizer '''rom'''. This works much like the clause nominalizer '''ri''', in that the relativizer takes the verbal participant marking and negative concord and the verb is moved to the end, as it would be with an auxiliary - and if there is another AUX already, the relativizer is simply prefixed to it.

Relative clauses follow the relativized noun, generally after most other modifying information.

'''l-ro romlor ta''' 
DEF-man REL-he die 
''the man who died''

'''l-ro maromastelor mada''' 
DEF-man NEG-REL-AUX(NF-IMP)-he NEG-die 
''the man who isn't dying''

The relativized noun does not appear within the relative clause, except for verbal participant reference, which takes care of role disambiguation just like it would in any other clause:

'''l-ro romyån ena''' 
DEF-man REL-1>3s see 
''the man who I saw''

'''l-ro romin ena''' 
DEF-man REL-3s>1s see 
''the man who saw me''

== Predicatives ==

Predicatives are those sentences using a copula, those which in English use the copular verb "to be". The Naidda copula is not a single verb, however; instead, it is the entire set of auxiliaries. A predicative clause in Naidda follows the same pattern: an auxiliary, the subject NP, then the predicated material. The latter can be another noun phrase, an attributive noun, a prepositional phrase, or in clefts even a relative clause.

important traits shared by predicative clauses:
* They lack full verbs (this is most immediately obvious difference from full clauses).
* They universally follow the order AUX - subject - predicate.
* A comma-pause normally can be found between the subject and predicate. This is important; without the pause, the syntactic boundary between subject and predicate would often be hard to discern. When there the subject is expressed only by an AUX suffix, rather than an NP, the comma-pause becomes even more important.
* Even if the time of the clause would normally not involve any AUX in a full clause, one is always required in a predicative clause.
* Although the copulas are identical to the auxiliaries in form and function, for clarity they are glossed as COP instead of AUX.

=== Predicate Nominals ===

A predicate nominal is a clause in which an NP is the predicated material. It must be a full proper Naidda noun phrase, requiring a determiner, to distinguish it from a predicate attributive. The usual uses of predicate nominals are for '''equation''', to equate one noun to another ("that man is my father") and '''proper inclusion''', to identify membership of the subject in a group or class ("that man is a Fáralo").

'''Conalor, u-lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he INDEF-friend 
''He is a friend.''

=== Predicate Attributives ===

Predicate attributives are clauses where the predicated material is a property or trait being ascribed to the subject, and which consists of a noun used attributively (i.e. outside of a noun phrase, with no determiner). This is often a verbal noun.

'''Conalor, lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he friend 
''He is friendly.''

Note that the difference between the predicate nominal and predicate attributive versions of this example is made simply by the presence or absence of a determiner.

=== Predicate Locatives and Possessives ===

A predicative locative is simply a clause where the predicated material is a prepositional phrase.

'''Stela Koili, o l-wïmlo.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-she NAME at.3 DEF-home 
''Koili is at home.''

Possessive clauses in Naidda come in two flavors: full clauses, in which a verb like '''båre''', "own", is used, and predicate locatives in which the prepositional phrase uses '''kwïn''', "with". The former type is semantically marked, and occurs roughly as often as we would use "own" or "possess" in English (and isn't a predicative clause at all); the latter type is more frequent and less marked, and roughly equivalent to when we'd use "have" in English.

'''Ste u-marsha båre.''' 
AUX(NF-IMP)-I INDEF-hammer own 
''I own a hammer.''

'''Ste, kwïn u-marsha.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-I with.3 INDEF-hammer 
''I have a hammer.''

=== Clefts ===

A cleft is a predicative clause with two special characteristics:
# the predicated material is a relative clause in which the subject NP is the relativized noun; and
# the subject is dislocated to the left of the copula and marked as a topic.

'''D-Murisi stelor, romin ena.''' 
TOP-NAME COP(NF-IMP)-he REL-3s>1s see 
''Murisi is who saw me.''

=== Zero predication ===

In formal or careful speech, an auxiliary stands as a copula for all predicative clauses, and speaking this way is never wrong. Nevertheless, an informal but very common construction exists that can be analyzed as using the zero-AUX as a copula. On the surface, these expressions take the form of straightforward noun phrases shorn of any clausal structure. However, the meaning is predicative in nature, implying a zero copula that would fit in perfectly with the use of the zero-AUX - especially because the implied tense-aspect (preterite, narrative past, or time inherited from prior clause) is the same.

'''l-wïmlo woli''' 
DEF-house full 
''the full house''

'''L-wïmlo woli.''' 
[0-COP] DEF-house full 
''The house was full.''

There is a very strong preference to avoid any complex material in a zero-copula clause; in general, they appear identical in form to simple noun phrases, and rarely involve subclauses, coordination, or other such complexities. The construction also tends to be limited to informa registers where less attention is paid to how one speaks, and may come across as "folksy", blunt, or clipped, though it does appear in some poetry as well.

= Other Syntax =

== Adverbs ==

=== Formation ===

Naidda adverbs come in two types: roots that are adverbs by default, and nominal stems adverbialized by means of the prefix '''të-'''.

'''cån''' 
''greatly''

'''tëde'o''' 
ADV-normal 
''normally''

Verb roots can also be made into adverbs, but the prefix can only be used with nouns, so the verb must first be formed into a verbal noun.

'''tëjïna'a''' 
ADV-love-AVN 
''tenderly''

=== NP usage ===

An adverb is used whenever a nominal modifier itself needs to be modified.

A nominal word occurring ''by itself'' after a head noun modifies it, unless it is marked as an adverb, in which case it modifies the nearest nominal word to the left (which itself is a modifier of the head noun).

'''l-tolïddo nabï''' 
DEF-sunset red 
''the red sunset''

'''l-tolïddo nabï cån''' 
DEF-sunset red greatly 
''the very red sunset''

Adverbs in this environment can also modify each other. In all such cases, an adverb modifies the word immediately to its left.

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a cån''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN greatly 
''a very tenderly spoken word''

This modification of the word immediately to the left applies to all simple adverb strings, in both the NP and clausal usages. When multiple adverbs together modify the head (the nominal word or the clause) instead, they must be '''listed''' - separated from each other by the conjuction '''n''', "and", or at minimum by a comma-pause:

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a, tëjå'e''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN ADV-soft 
''a softly and tenderly spoken word''

=== Clausal usage ===

Naidda adverbs - except for those appearing in noun phrases - are generally best considered to operate on the level of the whole clause, rather than "modifying" the verb. The main reason for this is that on the whole they do not show any preference for being placed after - or even necessarily anywhere near - the verb, though there are some limited exceptions.

Instead, Naidda adverbs - and adverbial clauses and prepositional phrases - behave as constituents on the same level as the clause's subject and direct object: all of these elements tend to be listed after the verb (or AUX) in an order primarily determined by NICF. In turn it is this behavior that leads some analysts to describe full-NP subjects and objects of the verb as oblique.

'''Ñade bo.''' 
sleep-I again 
''I slept again.''

Like with noun phrases, adverbs can be moved to the front of a clause. This may be used for emphasis that the adverb is a key point of the clause. Or, it can simply be done for stylistic purposes, imparting in some cases a sense of continuity or bridging from previous content.

'''Tëde'o, majonayå a kåve mavïñor.''' 
ADV-normal NEG-AUX(AOR)-1>3p their law NEG-respect 
''Normally, we do not respect their laws.''

=== Modal Adverbs ===

Modal adverbs in Naidda are used to impart modality, or ''grammatical mood'', to a clause. There are various modal adverbs, the most common of which are listed below. It is a small, closed class, and differs from more run-of-the-mill adverbs in that their placement in a clause is restricted to the position '''directly after the verb or AUX''' and that their functions are generally limited to imparting a specific modality.

Modal adverbs can be divided into two classes: those which govern the irrealis verb form, and those which do not. The former require the verb be made irrealis, and express a range of irrealis meanings; they are a majority of modal adverbs. There are only two modal adverbs that do not govern the irrealis, and they do not require the verb to be realis either; both options are possible. They are generally considered to be modal adverbs because their meanings and placement are as restricted as the irrealis ones.

'''Irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| va
| permissive
| '''E'ë'olrån va.''' - ''"You may take it."''
|-
|
| oso
| admonitive
| '''E'ë'olrån oso.''' - ''"You should take it."''
|-
|
| co'o
| obligative
| '''E'ë'olrån co'o.''' - ''"You must take it."''
|-
|
| oivre
| desiderative
| '''E'ë'olrån oivre.''' - ''"You would like to take it."''
|-
|
| oinae
| hortative, optative
| '''E'ë'olrån oinae.''' - ''"If only you would take it."''
|}

'''Non-irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| ïrnon
| futilitive
| '''Ë'olrån ïrnon.''' - ''"You are trying to take it."''
|-
|
| moiso
| antivolitional
| '''Ë'olrån moiso.''' - ''"You are forced to take it."''
|}

== Questions ==

=== Polar Questions ===

Like its sister language Fáralo, Naidda forms polar questions (those requesting a yes or no answer) in several ways.

Most often, questions are formed with tag words. The most common tags are '''lonzë''', "correct", and '''ca''', "yes", which seek confirmation that a sentence is true. '''Lonzë''' is the more formal of the two.

'''Talor, ca?''' 
die-he yes 
''He died, right?''

This pattern can be used with a negated sentence as well, to seek confirmation that the affirmative version of the sentence is ''not'' true. (compare English "He didn't die, right?") Alternatively, negative tags, most often '''sumo''', "wrong", can be used in conjunction with the irrealis, to much the same effect:

'''Stalor, sumo?''' 
IRR-die-he wrong 
''He didn't die, did he?"

In general Naidda speakers follow the confirmation-seeking approach to questions, but there are times when a neutral question that does not suggest its own answer is more desirable. In these questions, one offers the listener a choice by using two tags, one affirmative and the other negative:

'''Talor, lonzë, sumo?''' 
die-he correct wrong 
''Did he die?''

Finally, there is a highly formal question form, borrowed from Fáralo. In this type of question, one uses the irrealis and fronts the verb to before the AUX. (It cannot be used without an AUX.)

'''Sta wevëlor?" 
IRR-die AUX(F-PRF)-he 
''Will he die?"

=== Disjunctive Questions ===

A disjunctive question is one that requests the listener choose between two or more offered options, generally with the assumption that only one of them can be correct; compare English ''Do you you prefer large or small?''. In Naidda such questions are formed in a manner highly parallel to yes-no questions with two tags, in that both options are listed at the very end of the sentence and set off by comma-pauses just as tags would be:

'''Wevëliñ mura, gådol, cesol?''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-you decide now then 
''Will you decide now or later?''

The tagged options are quite often entire nominalized clauses. Similarly, when a disjunctive question is asking for which of two ''verbs'' is correct, they are formed into verbal nouns, leaving the clause without a main verb and thus converting it into a predicative clause:

'''Wevëliñ, kïña'a, orë'a?''' 
COP(F-PRF)-you walk-AVN run-AVN 
''Will you be walking or running?''

* Note that English "he is walking" does not otherwise have any grammaticalized analog in Naidda syntax, save that predicating one verbal noun to another (c.f. ''to live is to die'') is permissible. The syntactic resemblance in disjunctive questions is coincidental.
* Questions with more than two options also occur. The extra options are simply appended to the list of tags. In rare cases half a dozen or more options may be listed in such a question.

=== Content questions ===

Content questions are those which request the listener fill in the blank. Interrogative words are fronted; the clause is otherwise normal.

'''Gëa torwan?''' 
what eat-2s>3s 
''what did you eat?''

'''Yaro wabayån?''' 
who hit-3s>1s 
''who hit me?''

== Periphrasis ==

The Delta dialect of Naidda makes use of a number of periphrastic constructions for various grammatical purposes. Different types and uses of paraphrasis is one of the major points of variation between dialects; many of these do not exist outside the Delta area.

=== Passive ===

Fundamental Naidda does not have any manner of passive voice. Intransitive clauses appear with a single argument that can be the agent or the patient, and context is relied on to make the direction of action clear, via the animacy hierarchy. This remains the "educated" way to speak. However, in recent generations a passivizing construction has come into widespread and frequent use in the delta.

'''Characteristics:'''

* the semantic patient is the grammatical sentence subject
* the syntactic main verb of the sentence is "come"
* the lexical verb is formed into a passive verbal noun
* this verbal noun is made the object of the preposition "to"
* the semantic agent can optionally be specified by making it the object of "from"

'''Odolor ådda l-ïñosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-kill-PVN 
''He was killed.''

'''Odolor ådda l-kåirosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-make.welcome-PVN 
''He was made welcome.''

'''Wove ådda l-ïñosa sa odo.''' 
AUX(F-IMPF)-we to.3 DEF-kill-PVN from.3 come 
''We will be killed by it.''

=== Evidential verbs ===

Certain Naidda verbs can be added after the main verb to impart '''evidentiality''' to the clause - that is, how the speaker knows the information. In some ways this may look like a case of serial verbs, but Naidda has no other serial verb constructions, and in fact this is derived from the elision of grammatical material that would have made clear that it is actually a subclause embedded in a grammaticalized main clause.

'''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear he will ask you''

Let's take a look at how we build this clause.

First, consider the sentence "he asked you" - this would be '''kënaddon''' (ask-3s.2s). Now, consider the strategy English uses to add evidentiality; let's say this information is hearsay. In English we often mark this by making a subclause out of the action and embedding it in "I hear ...". Naidda has followed a similar approach. In historical writings we can find much the same construction:

'''Ste l-riaddon këno måddë.''' (archaic) 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-I DEF-SUB-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear that he asked you''

Next comes the elision. The AUX, its suffix, the article, and the clause nominalizer were always exactly the same between all of these evidential clauses, so over time it became common to simply omit them: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>addon këno måddë.''' This of course left a participant-reference suffix hanging unattached to anything, so it then migrated to the verb: '''Kënaddon måddë.'''

When the subclause already had an AUX, that problem didn't even arise: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>wevaddon këno måddë.''' --> '''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' The net result ended up just like tagging an extra verb word onto the end of a clause; it's as simple as that.

There are only four verbs used in this way for evidential marking:
* '''måddë''' (to hear) - the information is hearsay
* '''ena''' (to see) - the information is gained by direct sensory experience (even if that experience is auditory!) - '''Kënaddon ena.''' ''He asked you (I heard him do it).''
* '''må'n''' (to know) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively high confidence - '''Kënaddon må'n.''' ''He must have asked you.''
* '''nilïn''' (to suppose) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively low confidence; it is a guess - '''Kënaddon nilïn.''' ''I guess he asked you.''

==== with predicatives ====

At first glance, this might seem tricky: a predicative clause looks much like any other except that it ''lacks a main verb''. So what happens when we use a predicative clause with an evidential verb? It might sound like it would be hard to tell from a non-predicative clause. But in fact they always look different, because a predicative sentence is grammatically '''intransitive''' and the evidential verbs, when used as main verbs, are always '''transitive''' - so they use different participant reference suffixes. Plus, there is the usual comma-pause of a predicative clause that also helps mark it. Here is the closest the two constructions get to ambiguity:

* '''Conalor, u-lanång ena.''' ''"I see that he is a friend."''
* '''Conalån u-lanång ena.''' ''"He sees a friend."''

So once again, the advice to students of Naidda is: pay attention to commas! The transitive and intransitive suffixes are just as important, though, and there are often other clues as well - for instance, the aorist AUX '''cona''' is infrequently used with action verbs like "see" because of semantic incompatibility (seeing something tends to be a transitory action rather than an ongoing state).

=== Comparison ===

Naidda comparison is indicated with the adverb '''në''', which means "more" or "most". These two meanings, often called ''comparative'' and ''superlative'' respectively, are distinguished in Naidda not by morphology or the form or choice of the comparative adverb, but instead by whether the head of the noun phrase is indefinite or definite:

'''l-wïmlo pi''' 
DEF-house big 
''the big house''

'''u-wïmlo pi në''' 
INDEF-house big more 
''a bigger house''

'''l-wïmlo pi në''' 
DEF-house big more 
''the biggest house''

When the standard of comparison is already well identified to the discourse participants it is generally omitted from the comparison, as above. When mentioned, however, it takes the form of a prepositional phrase using the locative preposition:

'''u-wïmlo pi në o airo wïmlo''' 
INDEF-house big more LOC.3 your house 
''a bigger house than yours''

'''u-dïmve lize në o cero''' 
INDEF-child young more LOC.3 that.person 
''a younger child than that''

'''Conae, zewe në ovro.''' 
COP(AOR)-1s tall more LOC.2 
''I am taller than you.''

=== Causative Constructions ===

Naidda does not make use of any morphological causative. There are a few lexically causative verbs (e.g. '''ïño''' "to kill"), but the great majority of causation is expressed by either of two available periphrastic constructions, the direct causative and the indirect causative.

The semantic difference between these two constructions lies in the means of causation. The direct construction is prototypically used when the causer is immediately, directly, even physically responsible for the situation caused, and it selects a human causer. By contrast, the indirect construction is used when there is a greater degree of removal of the causer from the situation caused, and inanimate causers are freely allowed.

For example, if Isamïng hits Murisi because she was told to do so by Gado, one would ordinarily describe this with the indirect causative, whereas if Gado physically picks up her hand and hits Murisi with it, the direct causative becomes the obvious choice.

==== Direct Causative ====

The direct causative is a valency-increasing operation, in which the subject is demoted and replaced by the cause of the situation expressed. The treatment of the demoted subject depends on its semantic role; usually it becomes a direct object, but in the case where there already is a direct object and the demoted subject is an agent, it becomes the object of the instrumental preposition instead.

''' Examples '''

* intransitive - '''Ïddolor.''' - ''He fell.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Ïddoyån.''' - ''I made him fall.'' (literally: ''I fell him.'')

* intransitive - '''Avwalon a'e wïnlo.''' - ''My garden thrived.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Avwayån a'e wïnlo.''' - ''I made my garden thrive.'' (literally: ''I thrived my garden.'')

Notable is that the application of the direct causative to intransitive clauses is quite akin to what English does with its "middle verbs"; it's much the same relationship as between English ''"the window broke."'' and ''"I broke the window."'' One major difference is that Naidda's process is productive with most verbs, instead of restricted to a specific class of middle verbs. English examples with non-middle verbs - like ''"I volunteered her for the mission."'' - are marginal and quite idiosyncratic.

The transitive version, meanwhile, is essentially identical to a clause that indicates an instrument. Compare:

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sado.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I hit him with you.'')
whereas:
* '''Ku'mån l-bå'n.''' - ''The stick hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sa l-bå'n.''' - ''I hit him with the stick.''

==== Indirect Causative ====

Indirect causatives have a looser semantic relationship between the causer and the causee than the direct causative does, and a correspondingly looser syntactic relationship between them as well.

The caused situation is expressed as a nominalized clause, which is made the direct object of some verb, for which the causer is its subject. However, there is no single verb that simply means "to cause"; instead, a number of verbs can be used for this, and selection of the verb expresses information about the means and volitionality of causation. The most neutral choice is '''cåve''', "give".

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Cåveyån l-rirån ku'me.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I gave that you hit him.'')

Some other causative verbs are:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg l}}
|-
! verb !! means of causation !! volitional?
|-
| ''naive'' "work" || by working to bring it about || yes
|-
| ''cïrïm'' "discuss" || by persuasion or guile || yes
|-
| ''såvme'' "force" || by command or threat of force || yes
|-
| ''gaño'' "move" || by physical placement of objects involved || yes
|-
| ''lu'ï'' "try" || by testing, or trial and error || yes
|-
| ''åddë'' "stand" || by obstruction || sometimes
|-
| ''dë'' "touch" || by provoking a reaction || sometimes
|-
| ''stïn'' "lose" || by accident, happenstance || no
|-
|}

'''Cashae n dëyån l-po'mona'a l-li.''' 
sneeze-1sg and touch-1sg>3sg DEF-flee-AVN DEF-bird 
''I sneezed and scared the bird away.''

'''Cïrïmrån l-riån a muzeda ïm.''' 
discuss-2sg>3sg DEF-SUB-3s>3s his approach change 
''You persuaded him to reconsider.''

= Derivation =

== Compounding ==

Naidda often uses compounding to form new words. Following are some of the most productive types.

It should be noted that Naidda speakers have a penchant for deleting material around the morpheme boundary in a compound, generally to the left of it. Often this is nothing more than deleting the final vowel of the first root, but sometimes speakers will elide a whole syllable, or more.

=== Descriptive ===

Descriptive compounds are the most frequently occurring in Naidda. They usually consist of a head followed by a modifier (though in a few words of ancient vintage this order is reversed), and result in a noun. Descriptive compounds always name a more specific thing than specified by its parts - just as English ''blackbird'' names a specific bird and cannot be used for just any bird that is black. For this reason, descriptive compounds are listed in the lexicon, whereas instrumental and dvandva compounds tend not to be because their meanings are usually more compositional.

'''u-li'uwë''' 
INDEF-bird-water 
''a duck''

=== Instrumental ===

One type of compound is the instrumental. In this type, a noun compounded to a verb names the instrument used - much like English ''can-opener'' but without needing the final ''-er''.

'''l-kailïnåri'e''' 
DEF-wall-paint 
''the paintbrush''

=== Dvandva ===

A productive type of Naidda compounding is the '''dvandva''' - as an alternative to the conjunction of two nouns with '''n''', "and", they can simply be concatenated into a compound word. In particular, this is done with things that occur together naturally, and the dvandva provides a handy way to refer to them as a combined entity.

'''g-årobïlo''' 
this-wind-rain 
''this wind and rain ''

Sometimes the dvandva will contain a relic of the conjunction, between the two morphemes:

'''airo mëvwënomo''' 
your father-and-mother 
''your parents''

== Derivational Morphology ==

=== -lo and -vo ===

'''-lo''' is a '''nominal locative''', essentially meaning "place of". It is attached most often to verbs, but can sometimes be used with nouns. This suffix is very highly productive. 
'''me''' "speak" -> '''melo''' "stage, pulpit" (or other places where you speak from) 
'''sïm''' "cloud" -> '''sïmlo''' "sky"

'''-vo''' is a deverbal '''agent nominalizer''', much like English ''-er''. The modern productive usage always has the form ''-vo'' and always produces nouns referring to human beings, but numerous fossilized words have old allomorphs of this suffix (like '''-zo''' and '''-po''') and may refer to animals or other nonhuman things. 
'''uro''' "cure" -> '''uruvo''' "doctor" 
'''seddï''' "jump" -> '''seddïspo''' "frog"

Both '''-lo''' and '''-vo''' are so common they pervade the lexicon, and often you will find triplets of a root appearing bare and with both suffixes: 
'''kïmvål''' "denounce, complain" 
'''kïmvålo''' "tavern" (place where you complain) 
'''kïmvålvo''' "old woman" (person who complains a lot)

=== weakeners ===

'''-le''' tends to function as a verbal '''attenuative''' - it weakens the base meaning. Until recently this suffix saw mainly fossilized usage, and meanings of these words have often drifted from simple attenuation - but use of the suffix with a productively attenuative meaning or an ironical reverse meaning has found more popular favor in the last generation or so. 
'''pobo''' "dance" -> '''povle''' "twitch" 
'''numye''' "exaggerate" -> '''numyele''' "tell a whopper"

'''-l''' is a '''diminutive'''. It is mostly restricted to personal names, but occasionally appears on other nouns. Children's names (and nouns) are most often shortened before the -l is added; names of adults are not similarly clipped. 
'''bada''' "sweet" -> '''badal''' "berry" 
'''Maroshi''' (name of person) -> '''Marol''' or '''Maroshil''' "dear/sweet/little Maroshi"

The suffix '''-vwa''' is used productively with many attributive nouns naming one end of a spectrum or dichotomy, and indicates '''somewhat''' or a '''middle-of-spectrum state'''. 
'''vårïse''' "hot, humid" -> '''vårïsevwa''' "mild weather, moderate temperature" 
'''shalan''' "obese" -> '''shalanavwa''' "somewhat plump"

=== borrowed Fáralo morphology ===

'''-o''' serves as a '''patient and instrument nominalizer''', but it is not productive. It is restricted almost entirely to roots borrowed from Fáralo. 
'''sëbo''' "gift" (from Far. ''saepu'', "given thing")

'''ña-''' tends in Naidda to act as another '''participial nominalizer''', but it is also mostly restricted to Fáralo roots, and the exact effect of this prefix varies. 
'''ñagada''' "pleasant" (from Far. ''ngakada'', "pleasing")

=== other morphology ===

'''vo-''' (or '''vom-''' before vowels) is a type of '''causative''' seen on some noun roots, converting them into verbs. Its use is restricted mainly to color words and terms for emotional or physical states that can be experienced by people. 
'''lïsho''' "cold" -> '''volïsho''' "make cold"

'''-da''' has several uses. One of the major ones is to impart an '''inceptive or dynamic''' aspect to verbs (this can be accomplished grammatically with auxiliaries; the suffix offers a lexical alternative). It can also indicate a '''temporary condition'''. When applied to some noun roots, a new verb is derived meaning '''become X'''. This morpheme also appears in some fossilized nouns, with poorly predictable effects. 
'''bårë''' "own" -> '''bårëda''' "acquire" 
'''rålña''' "be insane" -> '''rålñada''' "go crazy" 
'''iddi''' "need" -> '''iddida''' "temporarily need" 
'''gåya''' "angry" -> '''gåyada''' "get mad" 
'''gom''' "life" -> '''gomada''' "culture"

'''ai-''' or '''ay-''' denotes '''membership''' in a thing, group, people, country, etc. 
'''Tolya''' (god of the sun-cult) -> '''Aidolya''' "Tolyism" or "Tolyist" (of-Tolya) 
'''Lashumo''' (toponym) -> '''Ailashumo''' "Lashuman"

'''-ïshmïl''' is a suffix indicating "knowledge of". It is used infrequently, but still productively. Somewhat equivalent to English ''-ology''. 
'''vi''' "star" -> '''vyïshmïl''' "astronomy"

'''-år''' forms deverbal nouns with various effects. It can be used for nonhuman actors in much the same way -vo is used for human actors; most common among these are '''resultatives''' and '''instrumentals'''. 
'''vïspe''' "punish" -> '''vïspår''' "pain" 
'''koda''' "close, cover" -> '''kodår''' "roof" 
'''ïnå''' "sense, perceive" -> '''ïnår''' "sensation, perception"

=== -ya and -yo ===

These twin morphemes are not very straightforward and demand a closer look than the other derivational morphology.

Firstly, whether they are even suffixes at all is debatable; they may simply be the noun roots '''ya''' and '''yo''', used attributively. But if so, they are nearly always found directly after the noun they modify, before any other modifiers. The dictionary lists them as independent words, and my convention is to write them separately most of the time, but as suffixes when part of a naming system.

Second, there are two distinct realms where they appear. One is the "productive" usage: most nouns can take one or both, where '''ya''' indicates goodness, happiness, or some manner of nobility, and '''yo''' indicates importance or salience. These are thus their dictionary definitions.

The other realm is that they are built into several naming systems. Their meanings in these names are often at odds with their dictionary definitions, and sometimes choice of '''-ya''' versus '''-yo''' is important while at other times they are interchangeable. They appear always on names of gods and days of the week, and often on color words. They are also part of the archaic system for forming large numbers (which has been largely replaced by the Fáralo system).

==== Days ====

Names of the days by default take -ya, while -yo indicates certainty of the day in question, or insistance on it:

'''gomya''' "Tuesday" (English day name is chosen arbitrarily, here) 
'''gomyo''' "definitely Tuesday"

This varies in other dialects. In the southern dialect for instance, days of the week always take -yo, and -ya is not used.

==== Gods ====

Gods, meanwhile, take '''-ya''' by default, while '''-yo''' is primarily a vocative which occurs in prayer:

'''Tolya''' "the Sun God" 
'''Tolyo''' "o Sun God"

An exception is that priests devoted to a particular god will often use only '''-yo''' with that god's name.

==== Colors ====

In the delta dialect (but not most others) '''-ya''' and '''-yo''' are interchangeable on color names, and indicate a prototypical or pure instance of the color:

'''sisiya, sisiyo''' "pure blue"

==== Other ====

* Multiples of a hundred used to be formed with -ya and multiples of a thousand with -yo, but this is no longer often encountered except for 100 itself. ('''këya''' "100"; rarely: '''sonya''' "800", '''royo''' "10,000")
* Practitioners of a religion tend to add -yo to the name of their faith but not to others, especially in a context where multiple religions are mentioned. For example, Etúgeists in the delta refer to their religion as '''Tugëyo'''.
* In some areas -yo will be used on the name of a lord as an informal reference to his nobility, while in other areas this is seen as crudely deifying the lord.
* Names of animals are converted into anthropomorphized character names in fables by adding -ya. ('''Nalorya n Imwaya''' "Horse and Snake")

= Sample Text =

see: [[Delta Naidda/Texts]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Kasca]]

Ishe

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#REDIRECT [[Isi]]

Pítau

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#REDIRECT [[Kpitamoa]]

Nugbùn

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#REDIRECT [[Naəgbum]]

Languages of Akana

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Inzan:

{{Article}}
:''Note: Language families are sorted by continent, according to where most of the relevant languages are spoken.''

= Northern Peilaš =
[[Image:Peilaš_linguistic_0YP.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A linguistic map of Northern Peilaš around 0 YP, showing the approximate distribution of the major language families. From west to east: 
<ul><li>Gray-blue: [[Lukpanic languages]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Western languages]]</li>
<li>Pink: [[Dimana Lokud|Lokud languages]]</li>
<li>Gold: [[!Ho languages]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Macro-Edastean languages]]
<ul><li>Light blue: [[Xoronic languages]]</li>
<li>Medium blue: [[Edastean languages]]</li>
<li>Slightly darker medium blue: Other [[Talo-Edastean languages]] (Talo, Zod & Antaggic)</li></ul></li>
<li>Yellow: [[Hitatc languages]]</li>
<li>Red: [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
<ul><li>Dark red: Eigə Valley languages</li>
<li>Bright red: Isthmus languages</li></ul></li>
<li>Dark green: [[Peninsular languages]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Isles languages]]</li>
<li>Bright green: [[Núalís-Takuña languages]]</li>
<li>Brown: [[Mbingmik languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Wendoth|Wendoth languages]] ''(on Tuysáfa)''</li></ul>]]

== [[Isles languages]] ==
{{/Isles}}

== [[Macro-Edastean languages]] ==
=== [[Talo-Edastean languages]] ===
*[[Proto-Talo-Edastean]] {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -2500 YP)}}
==== [[Edastean languages]] ====
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-edastean-100.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of Edastean languages around 100 YP. From southwest to northeast: 
<ul><li>Red: [[Adāta]]</li>
<li>Purple: [[Ndok Aisô]]</li>
<li>Blue: [[Buruya Nzaysa]]</li>
<li>Dark green: [[Naidda]]</li>
<li>Light green: [[Komejech]]</li>
<li>Olive green: [[Fáralo]]</li>
<li>Orange: [[Qedik]]</li></ul>]]
{{/Edastean}}
==== Talo languages ====
*[[Tlaliolz]] {{context|(Lu Tal, c. 100-300 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Zod languages ====
*[[User:Radius/Zod|Zod]] {{context|(Šišin mountains, c. 500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])}}
==== Antaggic languages ====
* Antagg {{context|(Bwimbai valley, c. -1500 YP - [[User:Salmoneus|Salmoneus]])}}
** Mohudza
*** Móyay

=== [[Xoronic languages]] ===
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -3500 - -2500 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
** [[Habeo languages]]: [[Proto-Habeo]] {{context|(Eiwəl Gourun, c. -1000 - 100 YP - pocketful of songs)}}
*** Hill Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 900)}}
*** Plains Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 1100)}}
*** River Habeo {{context|(c. 100 - 700)}}
** [[Damak]]

== [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] ==
{{/Eigə-Isthmus}}

== [[Western languages]] ==
{{/Western}}

== [[Lukpanic languages]] ==
{{/Lukpanic}}

== Tulameya languages ==
* [[Proto-Tulameya]] {{context|(western Lukpanic coast, c. -2100 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Lokud languages ==
* [[Dimana Lokud]] {{context|(Western mountains, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Tæm-Hou languages ==
=== [[Peninsular languages]] ===
{{/Peninsular}}
=== [[Hitatc languages]] ===
{{/Hitatc}}

== !Ho languages ==
* [[Ancient !Ho]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -2200 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
** [[Old Xšali]] {{context|(central Xšalad, c. -1200 YP - [[User:Xshalad|Xshalad]])}}
*** [[Xšali]] (Xša) {{context|(central Xšalad, c. 100 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}
*** [[!Huwan]] {{context|(somewhere in Xšalad, c. 100 YP - tentative)}}

== Núalís-Takuña languages ==
{{/Núalís-Takuña}}

<hr />

= Tuysáfa =
[[Image:TuysafaY0.PNG|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of languages on Tuysáfa around 0 YP.]]
== [[Ronquian languages]] ==
{{/Ronquian}}

== [[Leic languages]] ==
{{/Leic}}

== Wendoth languages ==
* [[Pre-Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -3000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
** [[Wendoth]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** [[Yèwèdu]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:CatDoom|CatDoom]])}}
*** [[Hỳng]] {{context|(western Tuysáfa, c. -200 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}
*** Mboroth {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. 0 YP - [[User:Alces|Alces]])}}

== Mbingmik languages ==
* [[Proto-Mbingmik]] {{context|(southwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]])}}

== Muyan languages ==
* [[Proto-Muyan]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -2000 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
** [[Omok]] {{context|(northwestern Tuysáfa, c. -500 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}

== [[Dumic languages]] ==
{{/Dumic}}

== [[T1 languages]] ==
{{/T1}}

== Macro-Anatolionesian languages ==
* [[Proto-Macro-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(eastern Tuysáfa, c. -4000 YP)}}
** [[Proto-Anatolionesian]] {{context|(Kyosshin & Ōshin, c. -1200 YP)}}
*** [[Imperial Ōmishiman]] {{context|(Ōmishima, c. 2500 YP - [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]])}}

== Northeastern Tuysáfa languages ==
* [[Proto-Northeastern]] {{context|(northeastern Tuysáfa, c. -6000 YP - [[User:NeonFox|NeonFox]])}}

<hr />

= Zeluzhia =

== Kopian languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

== Damo-Tingreya languages ==
* [[Jamna Kopiai/Tipatirápai|Tipatirápai]] {{context|(Zeluzh savanna, c. 1500 YP - [[User:Radius|Radius]])}}

<hr />

= Southern Peilaš =

== Island-Highland languages (Team B) ==
* [[Dzoqi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Akam Chinjir|akam chinjir]])}}
* [[Ethange]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - H13)}}
* [[Jarang]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Kʰajlun]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Pʰeśin]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Zju)}}
* [[Puvaŋeŋo]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - [[User:Frislander|Frislander]])}}
* [[Thud]] {{context|(Vüha Island, c. 0 YP - Nortaneous)}}
* [[Tomē Nilōyi]] {{context|(southwestern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - dhok)}}

== Southern languages (Team A) ==
* [[Klazoo|Klazoo]] {{context|(far southern Peilaš, c. -200 YP - Moose-tache)}}
* [[Màpxèracáma|Màpxèracáma]] {{context|(southern Peilaš, c. 0 YP - Kodane, a.k.a. kodé)}}

[[Category:Languages|*]]