AkanaWiki - User contributions [en]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-11-21T03:03:02Z

Dunomapuka: /* Central Doroh */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV?
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > ∅ / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > ∅ / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > ∅ / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > ∅ / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > ∅ / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > ∅
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

The development from Eastern Isthmus to Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forming the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina† || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum†
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}
†Or ''ołuhmina'', ''ołuhnogum''.

==== Central Doroh ====

This is a somewhat idealized representation of the pronoun forms of the central cluster of Doroh dialects, ca. -500 YP.

Preaspiration on plosives simplified to geminates by -500. This change also occurs in Western dialects, though at a later date. In the case of the Central group only, /hm hn/ simplify to voiceless /m̥ n̥/.

The animacy distinction collapsed, with the '''kai''' and '''bai''' series being reassigned according to grammatical role, and the '''ñø''' and '''mis''' series retained as competing forms with the same meaning.

The comitative case fell out of general use and was replaced by the instrumental, but it remained for singular personal pronouns only.

Finally, the 2pl began to take on a formal singular role alongside its original plural sense. The comitative '''aṣømina''' was only used in this singular role.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || atta || attažin || attała || attavum || attamina || dažits || attažila || attanūm
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || okkuṭ || okkuḍin || okkuła || okkuḍum || — || guḍits || okkuḍila || okkunūm
|-
| '''2sg inf.''' || tuñ || ottuñ || ottuñin || ottuñeła || ottuñum || ottuñemina || tuñits || ottuñila || ottuñūm
|-
| '''2pl''' || ve || aṣø || aṣøžin || aṣøła || aṣøvum || (aṣømina) || vežits || aṣøžila || aṣønūm
|-
| '''3sg-A''' || ñø || øšnø || øšnøžin || øšnøła || øšnøvum || øšnømina || ñøžits || øšnøžila || øšnȳm
|-
| '''3sg-B''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmišum || ašmim̥ina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmin̥ūm
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || — || lučits || ołučila || ołun̥ūm
|-
| '''interrogative''' || kai || akkai || akkežin || akkałja || akkežum || — || kežits || akkežila || akkanjūm
|-
| '''relative''' || bai || appai || appežin || appałja || appežum || — || bežits || appežila || appanjūm
|}

==== Ṭømjuñar ====
Ṭømjuñar was a widely-spoken Central Doroh dialect originating in the city-state of Ẓaṛmott. This describes the state of the language ca. 800.

The 3sg pronouns resolved in favor of the '''mih''' form. The original 2pl form '''ve''' supplanted the singular, while a new suffixed form '''venah''' supplied the new 2pl.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || atta || attarin || attaþ || attavum || attamin || daris || attaril || attanum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṛ || okkuṛ || okkuṛin || okkuþ || okkuṛum || — || guṛis || okkuṛil || okkunum
|-
| '''2sg''' || ve || aṣø || aṣørin || aṣøþ || aṣøvum || aṣømin || veris || aṣøril || aṣønum
|-
| '''2pl''' || venah || aṣønah || aṣønašin || aṣønaþ || aṣønašum || — || venašis || aṣønašir || aṣønaþum
|-
| '''3sg''' || mih || ašmih || ašmišin || ašmiþ || ašmišum || ašmifin || mišis || ašmišir || ašmiþum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lus || oþus || oþučin || oþut || oþuṭum || — || lučis || oþučir || oþuþum
|-
| '''interrogative''' || kai || akkai || akkerin || akkaþi || akkerum || — || keris || akkeril|| akkanjum
|-
| '''relative''' || bai || appai || apperin || appaþi || apperum || — || beris || apperil || appanjum
|}

= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals by adding a suffix ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by changing the final vowel. The most common patterns are shown here:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Consonant
! colspan="3" | Unstressed vowel
! Stressed vowel
|-
! SG
| -C
| -a -e
| -i
| -o -u
| -V
|-
! PL
| -Co
| -a
| -ja
| -o
| -V (no change)
|}

Nouns already ending in ''-a'' or ''-o'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, had no overt marking of the plural.

Sound changes from Proto-Eigə-Isthmus to Proto-Isthmus produced various complications. A couple of these were entirely regular: syllable constraints caused nouns ending in ''-Cli'' to form their plurals with ''-Cla'' instead of ''-Clja'', and (less obviously, perhaps) nouns ending in ''-Cji'' regularly formed their plurals with ''-Cuja''. Others were synchronically unpredictable: some nouns ending in ''-Cju'' formed their plurals with ''-Cjo'', but some used ''-Cja'' or ''-Cuja'' instead; similarly, some nouns ending in ''-Clu'' had plurals with ''-Clo'' but some used ''-Cla'' instead.

A number of nouns had consonant and/or vowel alternations in the plural. The most common of these affected nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': before the plural suffix, the retroflexes became dentals (''-to -do'') in some nouns and velars (''-ko -go'') in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' had a related alternation in which the retroflexes became labials (''-po -bo'') in the plural. Other consonant alternations behaved similarly, but were less common (and less predictable): these included ''-s'' → ''-tso'', ''-su'' → ''-fo'', ''-n'' → ''-jno'', and ''-nu'' → ''-mo''.

Moreover, when any of these alternating consonants was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly changed as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''. Less predictably, in some (but not all) nouns that contained the sequence ''[labial onset]+[rounded back vowel]+[alternating consonant]'' another vowel alternation applied in the plural: ''u'' → ''ju'' and ''o'' → ''e''. All three of these vowel alternation patterns also occured in some (otherwise regular) nouns ending in ''-s'', ''-n'', or ''-l''.

Finally, some nouns ending in ''-j'' formed their plurals with ''-jno'' (rather than ''-jo''), and some vowel-final nouns added ''-dzo'' in the plural instead of changing the final vowel. These changes were not regularly accompanied by vowel alternations.

Some of these inherited irregularities were probably smoothed away by analogy, either in Proto-Isthmus itself or in its descendants. More data and examples are needed!

(Faraghin ''tekh'' 'sword' → ''tekha'' 'army' is an example of a lexicalized plural, from Proto-Isthmus ''tisk'' → ''tisko''.)

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| —
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| —
| —
| —
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| —
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

(While the case prefixes are mostly no longer productive in the Ferogh languages, there are a few words that descend from old lexicalized genitives; in fact, ''Ferogh'' is an example, from Proto-Isthmus ''as-pes-dosg'' 'of the people of the camp'.)

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus.

(An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''(as)-koɖ[V]'' 'good' + ''idz'' 'head of livestock, domesticated animal'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Although Proto-Eigə-Isthmus had a suffix that derived adjectives from nouns, and Faraghin has developed two more such suffixes, it may be that none of these were productive at the Proto-Isthmus stage; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

(Traces of the diminutive suffix can be seen in some Faraghin kinship terms: cf. ''badeu'' 'father' < Proto-Isthmus ''[V]bad-aɖu'' and ''deu'' 'daughter' < ''[V]da-ɖu''. The augmentative suffix can be seen in ''kert'' 'anger' < ''[V]kisd-at'', ''khunt'' 'devil' < ''as-kun-at'', ''mašt'' 'house, palace' < ''mas-at'', ''nagat'' 'lord, baron' < ''naga-t'', and maybe ''sat'' 'gold' < ''tso-t''.)

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

The structure of the Proto-Isthmus verb can be described by this template:

{| {{softtable}}
| (prefix or reduplication)-
| INNER STEM
| -aspect
| -(stem consonant)
| -voice
| -subject agreement
|}

Here are a couple of examples of fully inflected verbs:

{{gli|asgospumis|as-go<s>p-u-mis|PREFIX-take<RES>-DETR-3SG.INAN}}
{{glendi|‘it’s been stolen’}}

{{gli|dadajaludz|da~daj-a-ludz|ITER~dance-ACT-3PL}}
{{glendi|‘they danced and danced’}}

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| REDUP~
| REDUP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
{{gli|ɖujfadja|ɖujf-a-dja|leap-ACT-PTCP}}
{{gli|askoɖidz|as-koɖ-idz|INTENS-good-domesticated.animal}}
{{glendi|‘leaping goat’}}

{{gli|lupadja|lup-a-dja|deceive-ACT-PTCP}}
{{gli|askunat|askun-at|devil-AUG}}
{{glendi|‘lying devil’}}

{{gli|plunjadja|plun-j-a-dja|cut.up-INCHO-ACT-PTCP}}
{{gli|tisko|tisk-o|sword-PL}}
{{glendi|‘slashing swords’}}

Causative:
{{gli|dadajidja|da~daj-i-dja|ITER-dance-CAUS-PTCP}}
{{gli|Bleɖus|Bleɖus|Fate}}
{{glendi|‘Fate who makes (us) dance’}}

{{gli|nopolidja|nopol-i-dja|be.bored-CAUS-PTCP}}
{{gli|taʈa|taʈa|sister}}
{{gli|astujn|as-tujn|GEN-2SG}}
{{glendi|‘your boring sister’}}

{{gli|kijbajdja|kijb-aj-dja|eat-CAUS-PTCP}}
{{gli|badaɖu|bad-aɖu|father-DIM}}
{{gli|asludz|as-ludz|GEN-3PL}}
{{glendi|‘their little father who feeds (them)’}}

Detransitive:
{{gli|asgospudja|as-go<s>p-u-dja|PREFIX-take<RES>-DETR-PTCP}}
{{gli|tsot|tso-t|gold-AUG}}
{{glendi|‘stolen gold’}}

{{gli|lupudja|lup-u-dja|deceive-DETR-PTCP}}
{{gli|nagat|naga-t|lord-AUG}}
{{glendi|‘deceived lord’}}

{{gli|dzusinudja|dzusn-u-dja|red<INCHO>-DETR-PTCP}}
{{gli|asgujtsak|as-gujts-ak|INTENS-sharp-NMLZ}}
{{glendi|‘reddened knife’}}

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in early Faraghin as a nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Proto-Eigə-Isthmus had a suffix ''-ʔa'' or ''-ha'' that derived adjectives from nouns; but (aside from the participle suffix ''-dja'', derived from the verbal noun suffix ''-di'' + ''-ʔa''/''-ha'') it's not known whether this suffix remained productive in Proto-Isthmus.

Two later derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

* The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

* Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can also be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Perhaps this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
It appears that Proto-Isthmus word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, adjectives preceded the nouns they modified, and auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs (at least in the variety that led to Faraghin). However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] seems to have had a number of head-initial structures, and traces of these survived into Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Case|case prefixes]] and [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above. It's also possible that Proto-Isthmus kept some prepositions alongside its postpositions, or allowed genitives to follow their possessed nouns in full noun phrases (that is, not just in compounds).

Postverbal auxiliaries are typical of OV languages, and on this basis it's been posited that Proto-Isthmus had a basic SOV order. However, if these auxiliary constructions developed later (perhaps in Western Isthmus or Proto-Ferogh) the Proto-Isthmus order could have been different.

=== Postpositions ===
A few Isthmus postpositions are known so far (because they became case suffixes in daughter languages).

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix in [[#Ferogh Languages|Ferogh]]. This morpheme dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition (its cognate in the Eigǝ Valley languages is a prefix ''m-''); how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown.

Some of the other postpositions may have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs; it's possible that a few of them didn't develop until after the Proto-Isthmus stage.

* ''its'' 'on' (probably related to ''idz'' 'head') became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix in Ferogh, and a locative suffix in [[#Doroh|Doroh]]. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.
* ''in'' (original meaning unknown) became a genitive suffix in Doroh.
* ''mina'' 'with, together with' became a comitative suffix in Doroh.
* ''ila'' 'to, toward' became an allative suffix in Doroh.
* ''asla'' 'for, for the sake of' (possibly related to ''ila'') became a benefactive suffix in Doroh.
* ''nak'' 'outside' became an extraessive suffix in [[Faraghin]].

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''pjuts[V]'' or (with what appears to be the [[#Intensification|intensifying prefix]]) ''aspjuts[V]'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but may have been a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-05T18:57:54Z

Dunomapuka: /* Doroh */ format

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

The development from Eastern Isthmus to Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forming the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina† || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum†
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}
†Or ''ołuhmina'', ''ołuhnogum''.

==== Central Doroh ====

This is a somewhat idealized representation of the pronoun forms of the central cluster of Doroh dialects, ca. -500 YP.

Preaspiration on plosives simplified to geminates by -500. This change also occurs in Western dialects, though at a later date. In the case of the Central group only, /hm hn/ simplify to voiceless /m̥ n̥/.

The animacy distinction collapsed, with the '''kai''' and '''bai''' series being reassigned according to grammatical role, and the '''ñø''' and '''mis''' series retained as competing forms with the same meaning.

The comitative case fell out of general use and was replaced by the instrumental, but it remained for singular personal pronouns only.

Finally, the 2pl began to take on a formal singular role alongside its original plural sense. The comitative '''aṣømina''' was only used in this singular role.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || atta || attažin || attała || attavum || attamina || dažits || attažila || attanūm
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || okkuṭ || okkuḍin || okkuła || okkuḍum || — || guḍits || okkuḍila || okkunūm
|-
| '''2sg inf.''' || tuñ || ottuñ || ottuñin || ottuñeła || ottuñum || ottuñemina || tuñits || ottuñila || ottuñūm
|-
| '''2pl''' || ve || aṣø || aṣøžin || aṣøła || aṣøvum || (aṣømina) || vežits || aṣøžila || aṣønūm
|-
| '''3sg-A''' || ñø || øšnø || øšnøžin || øšnøła || øšnøvum || øšnømina || ñøžits || øšnøžila || øšnȳm
|-
| '''3sg-B''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmišum || ašmim̥ina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmin̥ūm
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || — || lučits || ołučila || ołun̥ūm
|-
| '''interrogative''' || kai || akkai || akkežin || akkałja || akkežum || — || kežits || akkežila || akkanjūm
|-
| '''relative''' || bai || appai || appežin || appałja || appežum || — || bežits || appežila || appanjūm
|}

= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-05T06:18:17Z

Dunomapuka: /* Doroh */ central doroh

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

The development from Eastern Isthmus to Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forming the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina† || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum†
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}
†Or ''ołuhmina'', ''ołuhnogum''.

==== Central Doroh ====

This is a somewhat idealized representation of the pronoun forms of the central cluster of Doroh dialects, ca. -500 YP.

Preaspiration on plosives simplified to geminates by -500. This change also occurs in Western dialects, though at a later date. In the case of the Central group only, /hm hn/ simplify to voiceless /m̥ n̥/.

The animacy distinction collapsed, with the '''kai''' and '''bai''' series being reassigned according to grammatical role, and the '''ñø''' and '''mis''' series retained as competing forms with the same meaning.

The comitative case fell out of general use and was replaced by the instrumental, but it remained for singular personal pronouns only.

Finally, the 2pl began to take on a formal singular role alongside its original plural sense. The comitative '''aṣømina''' was only used in this singular role.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || atta || attažin || attała || attavum || attamina || dažits || attažila || attanūm
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || okkuṭ || okkuḍin || okkuła || okkuḍum || — || guḍits || okkuḍila || okkunūm
|-
| '''2sg inf.''' || tuñ || ottuñ || ottuñin || ottuñeła || ottuñum || ottuñemina || tuñits || ottuñila || ottuñūm
|-
| '''2pl''' || ve || aṣø || aṣøžin || aṣøła || aṣøvum || (aṣømina) || vežits || aṣøžila || aṣønūm
|-
| '''3sg-A''' || ñø || øšnø || øšnøžin || øšnøła || øšnøvum || øšnømina || ñøžits || øšnøžila || øšnȳm
|-
| '''3sg-B''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmišum || ašmim̥ina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmin̥ūm
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || — || lučits || ołučila || ołun̥ūm
|-
| '''interrogative''' || kai || akkai || akkežin || akkałja || akkežum || — || kežits || akkežila || akkanjūm
|-
| '''relative''' || bai || appai || appežin || appałja || appežum || — || bežits || appežila || appanjūm
|}

= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T06:03:09Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

The development from Eastern Isthmus to Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forming the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T05:42:48Z

Dunomapuka: /* Doroh */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forms the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T05:41:58Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */ pronouns!

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

Proto-Doroh is marked by a proliferation of suffixed case forms, with the old ACC/GEN becoming the accusative, but also forms the stem of the oblique cases, except for the locative. This is not an exhaustive list of cases.

Following standard Dorological practice, retroflexes are written with an underdot, /ɬ/ is written ł.

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || BEN    || INST    || COM    || LOC    || LAT    || ABL   

|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || ahtajin || ahtała || ahtawum || ahtamina || dajits || ahtajila || ahtanogum
|-
| '''1pl''' || guṭ || ohkuṭ || ohkuḍin || ohkuḍła || ohkuḍum || ohkuṭmina || guḍits || ohkuḍila || ohkuṇogum
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ || ohtuñin || ohtuñeła || ohtuñum || ohtuñemina || tuñits || ohtuñila || ohtuñogum
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aṣø || aṣøjin || aṣøła || aṣøwum || aṣømina || fejits || aṣøjila || aṣønogum
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ñø || ošnø || ošnøjin || ošnøła || ošnøwum || ošnømina || ñøjits || ošnøjila || ošnøgum
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || ašmis || ašmišin || ašmiła || ašmiṣum || ašmihmina || mišits || ašmišila || ašmihnogum
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || ołuts || ołučin || ołutła || ołuṭṣum || ołutsmina || lučits || ołučila || ołutsnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ahkejin || ahkejła || ahkejum || ahkejmina || kejits || ahkejila || ahkejnogum
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ahpejin || ahpejła || ahpejum || ahpejmina || bejits || ahpejila || ahpejnogum
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T04:48:59Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || aʂø
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || aʃmih
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T04:43:58Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */ revised SCs

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of front rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > ʷ / C_
* s > h / V_C, except where the s is palatalized
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n l > ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* zʷ > ʐʷ
* tsʷ > ʈʂʷ
* dzʷ > ɖʐʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps bz ts dz
* tsʲ dzʲ kʲ gʲ > tʃ dʒ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* fʲ βʲ > ʃ ʒ
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ ɖʐ > z ʒ ʐ / #_, C[+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tuñ || ohtuñ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || aʃmih
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-08-03T04:20:06Z

Dunomapuka: /* Eastern Isthmus */ revised SCs

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u, except /j/ was not labialized
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) except where C = /ɬ/ or a retroflex
* jC > Cʲ / _# with the same exceptions
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷunʲ || ostʰʷunʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > w / (#, V)_
* f > ʷ / (C)_
* s > h / V_C
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n ŋ l > ɲ ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* ew iw > ø y / except _V
* bʲ dʲ > bij dij / #_
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps βj ts dz
* ʈʲ ɖʲ kʲ gʲ > ʈʂ ɖɻ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ > z ʒ / #_, [+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ
|-
| '''2sg''' || to:ɲ || ohto:ɲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || aʃmih
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

==== Forms: the Grades ====
The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Functions ====
As noted above, the '''n-grade''' may have been inflectional in Proto-Isthmus; if so, it probably marked a basic imperfective aspect, contrasting with the perfective zero-grade. (There is one possible example of a noun derived from an n-grade: Faraghin ''ghantač'' 'dragon', apparently cognate with Miwan ''kwintas'' 'bird'; but at present it's not clear whether the ''n'' in this word is an infix or part of the root.)

The '''s-grade''' could be used to derive [[#The Resultative Noun|resultative nouns]], a process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay', ''gop-'' 'take, carry' → ''(as)-gosp-'' 'steal', ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get to know, get or be used to', and perhaps ''meg-'' 'boil, behave wildly or badly' → ''mesg-'' 'raid, capture'.

The '''j-grade''' derived inceptive or inchoative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting the beginning of an action or (especially) a state. Examples include ''[V]dludz-'' 'be awake' → ''[V]dludzj-'' 'awaken', ''dzusn-'' 'be red' → ''dzusin-'' 'turn red', ''plun-'' (perhaps meaning 'cut' or 'cut up') → ''plunj-'' 'stab, slash', and possibly ''tlub-'' 'be married' → ''tlujb-'' 'get married'.

The '''reduplicated grade''' formed iterative or intensive verbs; the sole example currently in the lexicon is ''daj-'' 'dance' → ''da~daj-'' 'dance and dance, dance a lot or intensely'.

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== Deverbalization===
==== The Participle ====
Proto-Isthmus had a verbal adjective, the '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-dja''. The participle was inflected for voice; it may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-dja
|-
! Causative
| -i-dja, -aj-dja
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-dja
|}

Here are some examples:

Active:
* ''ɖujfadja askoɖidz'' ‘leaping goat’
* ''lupadja askunat'' ‘lying devil’
* ''plunjadja tisko'' ‘slashing swords’

Causative:
* ''dadajidja Bleɖus'' ‘Fate who makes (us) dance’
* ''nopolajdja taʈa astujn'' ‘your boring sister’
* ''kijbajdja badaɖu asludz'' ‘their little father who feeds (them)’

Detransitive:
* ''asgospudja tsot'' ‘stolen gold’
* ''lupudja nagat'' ‘deceived lord’
* ''dzusinudja asgujtsak'' ‘reddened knife’

Like other adjectives, the participle could be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below); this could be used to form agentive and patientive nouns. (The detransitive participle is the only form currently attested in Faraghin, whose lexicon includes several lexicalized examples.)

==== The Verbal Noun ====
There was probably also a '''verbal noun''' formed with the related suffix ''-di''; this noun may have been inflected for voice much like the participle. (The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun formed with ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

==== The Resultative Noun ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive a '''resultative noun''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. This noun was not inflected for voice; examples include ''gad-'' 'flow' → ''gasd'' 'stream', ''kid-'' 'be angry' → ''kisd'' 'anger', ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year', ''tsik-'' 'to call, to name' → ''tsisk'' 'name', and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'.

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Huyfárah

2017-07-26T05:13:15Z

Dunomapuka: Kørjah

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally Affalinnei had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Kørjah ([[Ṭømjuñar|Tøm.]] "league; alliance"). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was one coastal Doroh city-state, [[Ẓaṛmott]], on Bafyr Island. Its dialect, [[Ṭømjuñar]], gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Kørjah.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Kørjah states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

==End of the Empire==
The Republic got into a scuffle with the [[Sošunami]] in the 750s, resulting in the latter taking back the southern half of Ikím island. A political reorganization following this defeat resulted in the overseas colonies being partitioned between the different “home cities,” with Miədu and Azbǽbu taking the lion’s share. But Mæmedéi administered over Oltumosou, and a few enclaves on the northern coast, east of Lotoka.

Where Miədu had once been first among equals, its power was increasingly checked by the senates of the other two cities. The sense of a unified standard language began to fray as each local government insisted upon the norms of its own city.

In 786 one Doroh band under the umbrella of the Kørjah, enforcing order in the rump imperial state under the increasingly abstract political fiction of “defending against piracy,” overwhelmed the city garrison and murdered the emperor. The new, post-imperial age was one of political repression, coupled with cross-cultural ferment. Various religions from the east made headway in the Fáralo heartland. One of these, [[Pa'en]], the religion of the Takuña, had a largely-forgotten ancient kinship to Etúgə. It was known in Fáralo as '''Ku Mašonošin''', "[Religion of the] Immortal Spirit."

Initial concerns within Lewsfárah about “anarchy” reached a fever pitch, resulting in a reinforcement of city defenses -- then were dismissed as counterrevolutionary or un-republican. The Republic agreed to recognize the Kørjah as the successors to the Fáralo state. Various loyalist social circles who had fled the collapsing empire now found themselves inside Lewsfárah, many clustered in Miədu around the residence of the pretender to the throne, a young playboy.

This imperial pretender, Sertačil (Nam. ''Settsił''), gained influence in the city government, finally ascending to the powerful position of Deputy Mayor. In 795 the senate of Azbǽbu sent a resolution condemning this development as indicative of “un-republican sentiment.” Over the next three years the conflict escalated, nearly resulting in civil war, but the delegate from Mæmedéi brokered a peace deal resulting in Miədu's voluntary exit from the Republic. Miədu surrendered control of the Dagæm Islands, retaining the Southern Isles and the South Coast.

In 812 Mæmedéi and Azbǽbu parted ways, dissolving the Republic of Lewsfárah. All three cities remained within the Etúgə League, with the form of local government developing separately in each: In Mæmedéi the senate seats became tied to hereditary wealth, resulting in oligarchy; in Miədu the power of the Senate became eclipsed by popular allegiance to clerics and their enforcers, resulting in de facto theocracy; but Azbǽbu retained the original model of an elected legislature powered by a pious, industrious bourgeoisie.

==Dark Ages==
With the implosion of both Fáralo states the following generations are considered a dark age, with the corresponding shrinkage in population and local concentration of power. This was less a cataclysm and more a grinding stagnation, with a lack of intellectual development, and an unprecedented level of vagabondage and piracy.

The most powerful state in this period was Miədu, where the theocracy became explicit in 825 as the chief cleric was appointed Supreme Defender of the Faith, with power of veto over the Senate. Increasingly all strata of society were preoccupied with the irredentist goal of taking back the Dagæm Islands from Azbǽbu. This was mingled with the ancient pretext of "defense against piracy," awkwardly complicated by the fact that in many cases the "pirate" factions were intertwined with the navies of both cities. The Supreme Defender declared a kind of crusade, with mass conscription among the commoners. The resulting war with Azbǽbu (839-841) was destructive but short, resulting in Miəduan victory.

Oltumosou kicked free of Mæmedéi in 840, setting up a quasi-republican state headed by a “High Lord.”

A loyalist uprising in the Oltu Valley resulted in a massacre of the Doroh leaders and the establishment of the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]] in 843, centered in Ussor. The new state took [[Barnágo]] in 869. At this point no state in either the republican (or post-republican) South nor the monarchical north lay claim to the mantle of "Huyfárah" as such.

Both the Sumarušuxi and Kojroh Leagues had collapsed by 900 amid infighting, with the Fáralo states mopping up most of the gains. The Čisse-Affalinnei alliance held steady, while Mæmedéi’s old possessions in Siixtaguna came under the control of Oltumosou.

Another uprising against the Doroh in 890 resulted in a second Fáralo kingdom in the Poráš valley, modeled after Woldulaš, prosaically known in the local dialect as ''Bōskəlaš'', “The Governorate.”

Čisse and Oltumosou tentatively formed a union in 909. In both cities the sense that the Fáralo were an Etúgə people had dissipated, and the dominant religion was now a form of the cult of the Affanonic sky god, [[Tejenry]], syncretized with [[Pa’en]].

Woldulaš flourished throughout the tenth century, but lacked in naval power. Officials there began strengthening bonds with their southern neighbor, the minor naval power of Mæmedéi, whose sailors were renowned as technically skilled, prudent, and level-headed.

West of the Fáralo sphere, the irredentist spirit reared its head in [[Lasomo]], where the rulers dreamed of retaking the ancient capital, [[Akelodo]] — now the largest city in the Athalēran Empire, and probably on the continent. Much of the populace there, both urban and rural, had scorned the state religion of [[Anaitism]] in favor of the Etúgə faith of their northern neighbors. Where previously religious tolerance had flourished, the Anaitist rulers subjected the Etúgə to increasing persecutions — a counterproductive activity, as each wave of bloodshed led to a new generation of fanatics and martyrdom cults.

Sensing weakness in the ancient empire, as it struggled to put down rebellions across the land, the Lašomorans sponsored an Etúgə insurgency in Akelodo, who took the city in 971. When the Empire lay siege, Lašomo came to the rescue of the city. The resulting war between the two nations lasted five years, ending with the Republic (bolstered by the rest of the Etúge League) absorbing Akelodo and the remainder of Lašomo. The capital, for a time, remained at Oigop'oibauxeu (F. '''Boíəba''', Ad. '''Ziphē'''), and the chief language a form of Ndok Aisô.

Also as a consequence of the war, Miədu established a puppet state within former Athaleran borders, on the lower Milīr, south of Lasomo.

The crippled Empire lived on for a generation, sloughing off outlying provinces here and there, until the bitter end came in 1003, with the partitioning of the core Dāiadak lands into a handful of different states, the most powerful of which was Thāras.

In Lašomo, the magnetic pull of the great metropolis of Akelodo lead to the capital relocating there in 1007, and the language of state shifting to the local dialect of Adāta, called [[Æðadĕ]].

Tension between Miədu and the ascendant Lasomo lead to the dissolution of the nearly 500 year old Etúgə league in 1026. Lasomo expanded eastward into the [[Tal]] of western Huyfarah. Buruya developed as a regional military power, expanding downriver to capture the ancient town of [[Ñolo]]. Its major rivals in the delta were the towns of [[Luyoša]] and [[Mospiñor]].

Woldulaš absorbed Mæmedéi in 1019, leading to the rise of the kingdom as a sea power.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← Naidda ''Puivara''
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'', ''Hagíbəl''
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← Faraghin ''Faragh'' "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Huyfárah

2017-07-26T05:12:27Z

Dunomapuka: /* The Age of Three Leagues */ Doroh tweaks

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally Affalinnei had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Kørjah ([[Ṭømjuñar|Tøm.]] "league; alliance"). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was one coastal Doroh city-state, [[Ẓaṛmott]], on Bafyr Island. Its dialect, [[Ṭømjuñar]], gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Kørjah.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Kørjah states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

==End of the Empire==
The Republic got into a scuffle with the [[Sošunami]] in the 750s, resulting in the latter taking back the southern half of Ikím island. A political reorganization following this defeat resulted in the overseas colonies being partitioned between the different “home cities,” with Miədu and Azbǽbu taking the lion’s share. But Mæmedéi administered over Oltumosou, and a few enclaves on the northern coast, east of Lotoka.

Where Miədu had once been first among equals, its power was increasingly checked by the senates of the other two cities. The sense of a unified standard language began to fray as each local government insisted upon the norms of its own city.

In 786 one Doroh band under the umbrella of the Koyroh, enforcing order in the rump imperial state under the increasingly abstract political fiction of “defending against piracy,” overwhelmed the city garrison and murdered the emperor. The new, post-imperial age was one of political repression, coupled with cross-cultural ferment. Various religions from the east made headway in the Fáralo heartland. One of these, [[Pa'en]], the religion of the Takuña, had a largely-forgotten ancient kinship to Etúgə. It was known in Fáralo as '''Ku Mašonošin''', "[Religion of the] Immortal Spirit."

Initial concerns within Lewsfárah about “anarchy” reached a fever pitch, resulting in a reinforcement of city defenses -- then were dismissed as counterrevolutionary or un-republican. The Republic agreed to recognize the Koyroh as the successors to the Fáralo state. Various loyalist social circles who had fled the collapsing empire now found themselves inside Lewsfárah, many clustered in Miədu around the residence of the pretender to the throne, a young playboy.

This imperial pretender, Sertačil (Nam. ''Settsił''), gained influence in the city government, finally ascending to the powerful position of Deputy Mayor. In 795 the senate of Azbǽbu sent a resolution condemning this development as indicative of “un-republican sentiment.” Over the next three years the conflict escalated, nearly resulting in civil war, but the delegate from Mæmedéi brokered a peace deal resulting in Miədu's voluntary exit from the Republic. Miədu surrendered control of the Dagæm Islands, retaining the Southern Isles and the South Coast.

In 812 Mæmedéi and Azbǽbu parted ways, dissolving the Republic of Lewsfárah. All three cities remained within the Etúgə League, with the form of local government developing separately in each: In Mæmedéi the senate seats became tied to hereditary wealth, resulting in oligarchy; in Miədu the power of the Senate became eclipsed by popular allegiance to clerics and their enforcers, resulting in de facto theocracy; but Azbǽbu retained the original model of an elected legislature powered by a pious, industrious bourgeoisie.

==Dark Ages==
With the implosion of both Fáralo states the following generations are considered a dark age, with the corresponding shrinkage in population and local concentration of power. This was less a cataclysm and more a grinding stagnation, with a lack of intellectual development, and an unprecedented level of vagabondage and piracy.

The most powerful state in this period was Miədu, where the theocracy became explicit in 825 as the chief cleric was appointed Supreme Defender of the Faith, with power of veto over the Senate. Increasingly all strata of society were preoccupied with the irredentist goal of taking back the Dagæm Islands from Azbǽbu. This was mingled with the ancient pretext of "defense against piracy," awkwardly complicated by the fact that in many cases the "pirate" factions were intertwined with the navies of both cities. The Supreme Defender declared a kind of crusade, with mass conscription among the commoners. The resulting war with Azbǽbu (839-841) was destructive but short, resulting in Miəduan victory.

Oltumosou kicked free of Mæmedéi in 840, setting up a quasi-republican state headed by a “High Lord.”

A loyalist uprising in the Oltu Valley resulted in a massacre of the Doroh leaders and the establishment of the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]] in 843, centered in Ussor. The new state took [[Barnágo]] in 869. At this point no state in either the republican (or post-republican) South nor the monarchical north lay claim to the mantle of "Huyfárah" as such.

Both the Sumarušuxi and Kojroh Leagues had collapsed by 900 amid infighting, with the Fáralo states mopping up most of the gains. The Čisse-Affalinnei alliance held steady, while Mæmedéi’s old possessions in Siixtaguna came under the control of Oltumosou.

Another uprising against the Doroh in 890 resulted in a second Fáralo kingdom in the Poráš valley, modeled after Woldulaš, prosaically known in the local dialect as ''Bōskəlaš'', “The Governorate.”

Čisse and Oltumosou tentatively formed a union in 909. In both cities the sense that the Fáralo were an Etúgə people had dissipated, and the dominant religion was now a form of the cult of the Affanonic sky god, [[Tejenry]], syncretized with [[Pa’en]].

Woldulaš flourished throughout the tenth century, but lacked in naval power. Officials there began strengthening bonds with their southern neighbor, the minor naval power of Mæmedéi, whose sailors were renowned as technically skilled, prudent, and level-headed.

West of the Fáralo sphere, the irredentist spirit reared its head in [[Lasomo]], where the rulers dreamed of retaking the ancient capital, [[Akelodo]] — now the largest city in the Athalēran Empire, and probably on the continent. Much of the populace there, both urban and rural, had scorned the state religion of [[Anaitism]] in favor of the Etúgə faith of their northern neighbors. Where previously religious tolerance had flourished, the Anaitist rulers subjected the Etúgə to increasing persecutions — a counterproductive activity, as each wave of bloodshed led to a new generation of fanatics and martyrdom cults.

Sensing weakness in the ancient empire, as it struggled to put down rebellions across the land, the Lašomorans sponsored an Etúgə insurgency in Akelodo, who took the city in 971. When the Empire lay siege, Lašomo came to the rescue of the city. The resulting war between the two nations lasted five years, ending with the Republic (bolstered by the rest of the Etúge League) absorbing Akelodo and the remainder of Lašomo. The capital, for a time, remained at Oigop'oibauxeu (F. '''Boíəba''', Ad. '''Ziphē'''), and the chief language a form of Ndok Aisô.

Also as a consequence of the war, Miədu established a puppet state within former Athaleran borders, on the lower Milīr, south of Lasomo.

The crippled Empire lived on for a generation, sloughing off outlying provinces here and there, until the bitter end came in 1003, with the partitioning of the core Dāiadak lands into a handful of different states, the most powerful of which was Thāras.

In Lašomo, the magnetic pull of the great metropolis of Akelodo lead to the capital relocating there in 1007, and the language of state shifting to the local dialect of Adāta, called [[Æðadĕ]].

Tension between Miədu and the ascendant Lasomo lead to the dissolution of the nearly 500 year old Etúgə league in 1026. Lasomo expanded eastward into the [[Tal]] of western Huyfarah. Buruya developed as a regional military power, expanding downriver to capture the ancient town of [[Ñolo]]. Its major rivals in the delta were the towns of [[Luyoša]] and [[Mospiñor]].

Woldulaš absorbed Mæmedéi in 1019, leading to the rise of the kingdom as a sea power.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← Naidda ''Puivara''
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'', ''Hagíbəl''
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← Faraghin ''Faragh'' "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

File:Doroh-dialects-v2.png

2017-07-03T05:41:12Z

Dunomapuka:

File:Doroh-dialects-v1.png

2017-06-29T18:09:12Z

Dunomapuka:

Proto-Isthmus

2017-06-24T04:35:29Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */ tweaks

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) exceptions: ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence Cwj became Cuj
* jC > Cʲ / _# except that ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence jw# became ju#
* Cʲʷ > Cʷ
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷo:nʲ || ostʰʷo:nʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* ʰ > 0 / _#
* f > w / (#, V)_
* f > ʷ / (C)_
* s > h / V_C
* hl > ɬ
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n ŋ l > ɲ ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* ew iw > ø y / except _V
* bʲ dʲ > bij dij / #_
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps βj ts dz
* ʈʲ ɖʲ kʲ gʲ > ʈʂ ɖɻ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ > z ʒ / #_, [+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ
|-
| '''2sg''' || to:ɲ || ohto:ɲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || aʃmih
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Resultative nouns ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive '''resultative nouns''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. Examples include ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year' and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'. (S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay' and ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get or be used to'.)

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== The Participle ===
Proto-Isthmus also had a '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-di''. The participle was inflected for voice, but apparently not for subject agreement. It may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-di
|-
! Causative
| -i-di, -aj-di
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-di
|}

From the Faraghin evidence, it seems that the detransitive participle (which is the only form currently attested) marked a noun as the patient of the verb; the active participle presumably marked the subject or agent, and the causative participle marked the causer. The Faraghin participle generally behaves like an adjective, and like an adjective can be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

(The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun, formed with the suffix ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Proto-Isthmus

2017-06-24T03:46:05Z

Dunomapuka: /* Proto-Doroh */

{{Language
| language = Proto-Isthmus
| date = -3000 YP
| place = Huyfárah/Isthmus region
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Eigə-Isthmus languages  Proto-Isthmus
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]], [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Isthmus''' was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent of [[Peilaš]] from the northeastern subcontinent of [[Siixtaguna]]. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

Seven Isthmus languages are attested by the first millenium YP; they fall into two branches. In '''Western Isthmus''' we find the closely related sister languages '''[[Feråjin]]''' and '''[[Faraghin]]''', spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''[[Boésin]]''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Šišin Mountains. Three '''Eastern Isthmus''' languages survive on the north and northwest coasts of the Siixtaguna subcontinent ('''[[Kennan]]''', '''[[Kietek]]''', and '''[[Ka'alikora]]'''), and a fourth remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''[[Doroh]]'''. Of them all, only Doroh and Kennan were spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million apiece in 100 YP, and only these and perhaps Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

= Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus =

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time. However, the list of developments from Proto-Isthmus to Faraghin is more or less complete.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boésin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

== Western Isthmus ==

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i, except that the sequences *tji *dji merged into tsi dzi, and medial *kji *gji became ksi gzi. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boésin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t ʈ k b d ɖ g > ɸ θ ʂ x β ð ʐ ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f. The retroflex fricatives then became postalveolar ʃ ʒ, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates tʃ dʒ.

*Sporadically, obstruents at the same POA in adjacent syllables dissimilate (e.g. ''dadaða-'' > ''daðada-'' "dance").

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

=== Ferogh Languages ===

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boésin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boésin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* dʒ, ʒ > ɻ
* ɻ > Ø / V_V, l_V, n_V
* ð, ɻ > r
* l > r / $C_V, V_C$

* Sequences of vowels are resolved according to this chart:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
!
! -a
! -ai
! -au
! -e
! -i
! -ɨ
! -o
! -oi
! -u
|-
! a-
| a(ː)
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! ai-
| ai
| ai
| ?ai ''or'' au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
| ai
|-
! au-
| au
| ai
| au
| ai
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! e-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| e(ː)
| ai
| ai
| au
| ai
| au
|-
! i-
| e(ː)
| ai
| au
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| i(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
|-
! ɨ-
| a
| ai
| au
| e
| i
| ɨ(ː)
| o
| oi
| u
|-
! o-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
|-
! oi-
| oi
| oi
| ?oi ''or'' u(ː)
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
| oi
|-
! u-
| o(ː)
| oi
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
| ɨ(ː)
| u(ː)
|}

(Long vowels only occurred in the dialect that became Feråjin.)

* e > ɛ
* o oi > ɔ ɔi
* n > Ø / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fɛ || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

==== Faraghin ====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai ɔi > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > Ø / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

* x > k / _s,ʃ (maybe also ɣ > g)
* t + s > tʃ / V_V (but remains ts / _#, and in loans from [[Ndak Ta]])
* ʃ + s > s
* t > Ø / _m,n
* sporadic syncope of unstressed vowels

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

==== Feråjin ====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. The following developments left Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ(ː) ɔi > ɒ(ː) ɒi
* u(ː) > o(ː)
* ɨ(ː) > u(ː) (stressed)
* ɨ(ː) > i(ː) (unstressed)
* ɛ(ː) > e(ː)
* ai > eː
* au > aː
* ɒi > ɒː
* a(ː) > æ(ː)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > Vː / _C, _#
* Vm > Vː / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || deːs || ræː
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃoː
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || soː
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feːs || fæː
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || noː
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃoː
|-
| '''3pl''' || loː || loːs || loː
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || keː || keːs || xeː
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || beː || beːs || weː
|}

=== Boésin ===

== Eastern Isthmus ==

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kennan, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* p t ʈ ts k > [+asp]
* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _# (but no aspiration gained)
* l > ɬ / [+asp]_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* C > Cʷ / _u
* "V > V: / _[+vcd], unless _CC$ or _CC+ or part of a diphthong other than jV
* (s)C > (sʲ)Cʲ / _j, _i (swallowing the j) exceptions: ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence Cwj became Cuj
* jC > Cʲ / _# except that ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence jw# became ju#
* Cʲʷ > Cʷ
* i: u: > ij uj
* ij uj > ej oj

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta
|-
| '''1pl''' || gʷuʈ || oskʷuʈʰ
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʰʷo:nʲ || ostʰʷo:nʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mʲis || asʲmʲis
|-
| '''3pl''' || lʷuts || oslʷuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kʰej || askʰej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej
|}

=== Doroh ===
{{Noticebox|''This section needs to be revised; see [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}]] for the current state of discussion.''|red}}
==== Proto-Doroh ====

Phonetic developments leading to Proto-Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbours [[Lotoka]] and [[Affanonic]].

* s > h / V_C
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n ŋ l > ɲ ɲ j / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ sʷ > ʂʷ
* ɻ ɾʷ > ɻʷ
* Cʲa Cʷa > Cʲe Cʷo
* Cʲo Cʷe > C(ʲ,ʷ)ø
* Cʲu Cʷi > C(ʲ,ʷ)y
* ew iw > ø y / except _V
* bʲ dʲ > bij dij / #_
* pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ > ps βj ts dz
* ʈʲ ɖʲ kʲ gʲ > ʈʂ ɖɻ tʃ dʒ
* ɾʲ ɣʲ > j
* pʷ bʷ > pf β
* βʷ ɣʷ > w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ > z ʒ / #_, [+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC   
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ
|-
| '''2sg''' || toɲ || ohtoɲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || ahmih
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej
|}

==== Late Doroh ====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. 




= A Preliminary Sketch of Proto-Isthmus Grammar =
This sketch summarizes most of what is currently known about Proto-Isthmus grammar. More information may be added as research progresses.

== Nouns ==
Proto-Isthmus nouns were inflected for '''number''' and '''case'''.

=== Number ===
Two numbers were distinguished: '''singular''' and '''plural'''. The plural was marked with a suffix which varied depending on the phonological form of the word. For the most part, nouns ending in a consonant formed their plurals with ''-o'', while nouns ending in a vowel formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-a'':

{| {{softtable}}
! SG
| -
|-
! PL
| -o, -a
|}

There were some further complications. One regular one involved nouns ending in the retroflex stops ''-ʈ -ɖ'': the retroflexes mutated in the plural, becoming ''-to -do'' in some nouns and ''-ko -go'' in others. Some nouns ending in ''-ʈu -ɖu'' also mutated, replacing those syllables with ''-po -bo'' in the plural. Moreover, when a mutating retroflex was preceded by the vowel ''i'', this vowel regularly mutated as well, becoming ''ju'' in the plural—unless there was already an onset cluster immediately preceding it, in which case it became ''u''.

Nouns already ending in ''-a'', as well as those ending in a stressed vowel, probably had no overt marking of the plural. There may also have been a class of vowel-final nouns that formed their plurals by replacing the final vowel with ''-o'' instead of ''-a''.

=== Case ===
Three cases were distinguished in Proto-Isthmus: '''nominative''', '''genitive''', and '''dative'''. The nominative was unmarked, while the other two cases were marked with prefixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! NOM
| -
|-
! GEN
| as-
|-
! DAT
| dz(a)-
|}

The vowel in the dative prefix ''dz(a)-'' was probably omitted when the noun began with a vowel; however, this detail is uncertain since there are very few reflexes of dative forms to compare. In fact, even the actual function of the Proto-Isthmus dative is uncertain (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion of the dative]] above).

The functions of the other two cases are much better understood, but they were slightly different from what their names might suggest. The nominative was originally used not only for subjects, but also for direct objects; inanimate nouns behaved this way in Proto-Isthmus, and still do in many of its attested descendants. However, for Proto-Isthmus pronouns, and possibly also for animate nouns, the genitive prefix ''as-'' came to be used to mark direct objects as well as possessors (for this reason it's sometimes called '''genitive/accusative''', especially when discussing the pronouns). The following table summarizes this situation:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Pronouns
! Animates
! Inanimates
|-
! Subject
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Direct Object
| as-
| ?
| -
|-
! Possessor
| as-
| as-
| as-
|}

It's probably impossible to tell which pattern animate nouns followed in Proto-Isthmus: in some descendant languages they behave like the pronouns, while in others they behave like inanimate nouns, and either pattern could easily have spread by analogy.

=== Gender ===
A third category affecting nouns in Proto-Isthmus was '''gender''': all nouns were inherently either '''animate''' or '''inanimate'''. Gender assignment was semantic—that is, which gender a noun belonged to was predictable from its meaning, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may not have affected the behavior of the nouns themselves (unless animate direct objects took genitive/accusative marking like the pronouns), but it did affect agreement: pronouns, and probably verbs as well, had distinct animate and inanimate forms in the third person singular, and there may also have been adjective agreement.

=== Derivation ===
A few derivational processes affecting nouns can be traced to Proto-Isthmus.

==== Compounding ====
Two types of compound nouns are attested in [[Faraghin]]: '''adjective-noun''' and '''noun-genitive'''. It's likely that both patterns go back to Proto-Isthmus. (An example of an old adjective-noun compound is Faraghin ''khoir'' 'goat', from Proto-Isthmus ''askoɖ-idz[V]'' 'good goat'; a similar noun-genitive example is Faraghin ''nagho'' 'bear', from Proto-Isthmus ''nag(a)-su[n]'' 'lord of the forest'.)

==== Denominalization ====
It's possible that nouns could be treated as verbs simply by adding verbal morphology; the Faraghin wordlist contains a couple of causative verbs built on nominal roots in this way (''bar'' 'master' → ''baroin'' 'appoint, bestow' and ''bran'' 'face, front' → ''branoin'' 'advance, march').

Faraghin has two well-attested suffixes that can derive an adjective from a noun; see the discussion under [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] below.

==== Diminutive and Augmentative ====
Nouns could also be made '''diminutive''' or '''augmentative''' with suffixes:

{| {{softtable}}
! DIM
| -(a)ɖu
|-
! AUG
| -(a)t
|}

The linking vowel ''(a)'' was probably used when these suffixes followed a consonant.

== Pronouns ==
The personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus were as follows:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! NOM
! GEN/ACC
! DAT
|-
! 1SG
| da
| asda
| dzada
|-
! 1PL
| guʈ
| asguʈ
| ?
|-
! 2SG
| tujn
| astujn
| dzatujn
|-
! 2PL
| fe
| asfe
| ?
|-
! 3SG.ANIM
| njo
| asnjo
| dzanjo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| mis
| asmis
| ?
|-
! 3PL
| ludz
| asludz
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.ANIM
| kej
| askej
| ?
|-
! INT/REL.INAN
| bej
| asbej
| ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the missing dative pronouns (e.g. ''**dzaguʈ''), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language (see the [[#Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus|discussion]] above).

== Verbs ==
Proto-Isthmus verbs were inflected for '''aspect''', '''voice''', and '''subject agreement'''. Verbal inflection is both more complex and less well-understood than nominal morphology, and many details of what follows are uncertain.

=== Aspect ===
Aspect marking in Proto-Isthmus is probably best thought of as derivational (with the possible exception of the imperfective/durative n-grade, which is said to form a consistent aspectual operation in [[Kennan]]). The values marked included '''perfective/punctual''', '''imperfective/durative''', '''resultative''', '''inceptive/inchoative''', and '''iterative/intensive'''. (These names are intentionally slightly vague; the precise meanings that most of these categories had at the Proto-Isthmus stage are not known for certain.)

The forms that expressed these categories are traditionally called '''grades''', and are a somewhat mixed bag. The iterative/intensive was formed by reduplicating the first CV of the verb, while most of the others were formed with infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others—thus forming two major inflectional classes, '''infixing verbs''' and '''suffixing verbs'''.

The forms found in Proto-Isthmus included the following:

{| {{softtable}}
|
! Grade
! Infixing
! Suffixing
|-
! Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| -
| -
|-
! Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -j
|-
! Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
| RDP~
|}

There may have been other grades as well; the possibilities include an l-grade (similar to the n- and s-grades) and maybe a retroflex grade (which would turn root-final stops into retroflexes). It's not known what categories such grades might have marked.

Various inflectional subclasses probably existed. At the least, both infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic allomorphs (though the j-grade suffix was probably never syllabic). The syllabic forms of the n-grade and s-grade might each have had several variants.

==== Resultative nouns ====
An important use of the s-grade was to derive '''resultative nouns''', a nominalizing process which was highly productive in Proto-Isthmus. Examples include ''sud-'' 'go around, move in a circle' → ''susd'' 'circle, year' and ''ʈuk-'' 'squeeze, clench' → ''ʈusk'' 'fist'. (S-grade forms could also be used as verbs: examples of this include ''dog-'' 'set down' → ''dosg-'' 'camp, stay' and ''pleg-'' 'meet' → ''plesg-'' 'get or be used to'.)

=== Voice ===
Voice marking in Proto-Isthmus is not completely understood yet, but the system was probably simpler than in its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus#Voice_and_valency:_the_stem_vowel|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]]. The primary voices were '''active''', '''causative''', and '''detransitive'''; in PEI these could be combined with one another to form compound voices such as '''detransitive of causative''' and '''causative of detransitive'''. The full set of inherited voice suffixes (traditionally called '''stem vowels''') would have looked like this:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a
|-
! Causative
| -i, -aj
|-
! Detransitive
| -u
|-
! Detransitive of Causative
| -ju
|-
! Causative of Detransitive
| -uj
|}

But not all of these forms remained productive, perhaps even in Proto-Isthmus. In the branch of Isthmus that led to [[Faraghin]], the simple causative suffix ''-i'' was replaced by the compound suffix ''-aj'' (except for a few fossilized forms such as ''dim-i-'' 'give'), while the detransitive suffix ''-u'' seems to be preserved only in the participle. It's not yet known at what stage the basic causative and detransitive forms were abandoned. Moreover, the detransitive of causative and causative of detransitive forms are entirely unattested in Faraghin, and it seems likely that they were not in fact found in Proto-Isthmus at all.

The exact function of the detransitive voice in Proto-Isthmus is unknown; it could have been a passive, an anticausative, a middle voice, or a general intransitivizer with several functions. (The Faraghin reflex appears to be a passive participle, but passives can easily develop from other kinds of intransitivizers.)

=== Subject Agreement ===
Verbs agreed with their subjects in '''person''', '''number''', and probably (for third person singulars) '''gender'''. The first and second person forms have not been determined yet; but the third person forms were probably marked with suffixes that were identical to the pronouns:

{| {{softtable}}
! 3SG.ANIM
| -njo
|-
! 3SG.INAN
| -mis
|-
! 3PL
| -ludz
|}

=== The Participle ===
Proto-Isthmus also had a '''participle''', formed with the suffix ''-di''. The participle was inflected for voice, but apparently not for subject agreement. It may be helpful to list the voice forms separately:

{| {{softtable}}
! Active
| -a-di
|-
! Causative
| -i-di, -aj-di
|-
! Detransitive
| -u-di
|}

From the Faraghin evidence, it seems that the detransitive participle (which is the only form currently attested) marked a noun as the patient of the verb; the active participle presumably marked the subject or agent, and the causative participle marked the causer. The Faraghin participle generally behaves like an adjective, and like an adjective can be used as a noun with zero-derivation (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

(The cognate form in [[Ngauro]] and [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]] is an action noun, formed with the suffix ''-ti''; this was borrowed in Proto-Ferogh or early Faraghin to produce the Faraghin nominalizing suffix ''-(a)č''.)

=== Verbal Prefix(es) ===
Proto-Isthmus had at least one verbal prefix of the form ''Vs-''. While this has been identified with the adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-'' (see [[#Intensification|Intensification]] below), with verbs the prefix's function seems less clear: cf. ''as-gosp-'' 'steal', ''as-kjustil-'' 'bequeath', ''as-pusg-'' 'make, craft', and maybe ''as-gont-'' 'fly'. Perhaps there were multiple ''Vs-'' prefixes that we haven't quite sorted out yet.

== Adjectives ==
Little is known about Proto-Isthmus adjectives so far. They seem to have behaved like verbs in some ways: in [[Faraghin]] they can take some verbal morphology (e.g. causative and negative affixes), and they may have had agreement marking (though probably not identical to verbal subject agreement). In other ways they seem somewhat noun-like; in particular, Faraghin allows adjectives to be used as nouns with zero-derivation, a process that does not seem to be available for verbs (see [[#De-adjectivization|De-adjectivization]] below).

=== Derivation ===
We do know a little about derivational processes involving adjectives.

==== Adjectivization ====
Two derivational suffixes that form adjectives are known from the Faraghin evidence: ''-(i)ts'' and ''-ujn'' (> Far. ''-s'' and ''-in''). Both were probably grammaticalized after the Proto-Isthmus stage, but it's convenient to discuss them here.

The older of these was probably ''-(i)ts'' (glossed 'quality' in the Faraghin wordlist). It derived adjectives from various parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and other adjectives. This suffix comes from the postposition ''its'' 'on'; it is tentatively dated to the Western Isthmus stage.

Probably somewhat younger was ''-ujn'', which mainly derived adjectives from nouns. In the [[/Lexicon|Proto-Isthmus lexicon]] it's treated as a separate word, tentatively glossed 'like'; perhaps it originally meant something like 'shape, likeness'.

These two suffixes are similar in many ways. Their semantics appear to be nearly identical; both are sometimes glossed '-ish' in the Faraghin wordlist. Also, both of them sometimes seem to work in reverse in Faraghin, deriving proper nouns from adjectives: cf. ''čints'' 'on the left, north' → ''Čintsin'' 'the northern mountains', ''muns'' 'soft, weak' → ''Munsin'' 'weakish; the Ngauro', ''porat'' 'clean, pure' → ''Porats'' 'the river dividing Faraghin and Feråjin territory'. (The use of these forms as nouns is actually an example of zero-derivation; see De-adjectivization below.)

==== De-adjectivization ====
In addition to the two adjectivizing suffixes, a much more obscure (and thus probably much older) suffix ''-(a)k'' seems to have done the opposite, deriving nouns from adjectives. An example of this is Faraghin ''ghisk'' 'knife', apparently from Proto-Isthmus ''gujts'' 'sharp' + ''-ak''; Faraghin ''českan'' 'to hide' may be another if it comes from an adjective ''ʈits'' (perhaps meaning 'over, covering') + ''-ak'' + verbal suffixes.

In Faraghin, adjectives can be used as nouns with zero-derivation; several examples are found in the Faraghin wordlist. Probably this pattern developed by dropping the modified noun or pronoun from phrases like 'the hidden one', leaving a bare adjective ('the hidden', Far. ''českod''). Whether this derivational process was available in Proto-Isthmus is uncertain.

==== Intensification ====
Proto-Isthmus also had an adjective-intensifying prefix ''as-''. Some intensified adjectives came to replace the corresponding unmarked adjective: e.g. Faraghin ''khar'' 'good' from Proto-Isthmus ''as-koɖ[V]'' 'very good'.

== Syntax ==
Very little is known about Proto-Isthmus syntax at present; this section briefly notes a few bits that can be inferred from the current evidence.

=== Word Order ===
The neutral constituent order in Proto-Isthmus clauses was apparently SOV, and word order in general tended to be head-final: Proto-Isthmus had postpositions, auxiliaries apparently followed their main verbs, and adjectives probably preceded nouns.

(However, its ancestor [[Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] was probably SVO or VSO and predominantly head-initial, and traces of this can be found in Proto-Isthmus: for example, the [[#Compounding|noun-genitive compounds]] mentioned above.)

=== Postpositions ===
Only a few Proto-Isthmus postpositions are known so far. At least two of them became case suffixes in [[#Ferogh Languages|Proto-Ferogh]]:

* ''um'' 'of' became a genitive suffix.
* ''its'' 'on' became both an adjectivizing suffix (see [[#Adjectivization|Adjectivization]] above) and an accusative suffix. Its locational meaning can be seen in a few older derivations, e.g. ''tjunt'' 'left hand' → ''tjunt-its'' 'on the left, north', and probably ''gasd'' 'stream' → ''gasd-its'' 'boat'; Faraghin ''lets'' 'longsword' may be similarly derived from ''lit'' (a noun of unknown meaning) + ''its''.

[[Faraghin]] (and probably some other Isthmus languages as well) also developed several locational case suffixes from postpositions such as ''nak'' 'outside'.

Genitive ''um'' certainly dates back to Proto-Eigə-Isthmus, where it was probably a preposition; how its use differed from that of the genitive prefix ''as-'' is unknown. Some of the other postpositions might have been grammaticalized later from nouns and/or verbs.

=== Auxiliary Verb Constructions ===
Periphrastic constructions may have been used to express additional verbal distinctions (such as tense, aspect, and/or modal categories); certainly such constructions existed in later Isthmus languages. One example is represented by the Faraghin iterative suffix ''-čan'', which appears to be a contracted form of an earlier auxiliary verb. At present it's not known whether this verb was used as an auxiliary as early as Proto-Isthmus, but it certainly could have been.

=== Negation ===
Proto-Isthmus clauses were negated by adding a morpheme ''aspjuts'' immediately before the verb. This morpheme became a prefix (''fis-'') in Faraghin, but was likely a separate word in Proto-Isthmus.

= Proto-Isthmus Lexicon =

See [[Proto-Isthmus/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Isthmus]]

Huyfárah

2017-06-23T22:15:14Z

Dunomapuka: /* Dark Ages */ sertek dialect

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally Affalinnei had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Koyroh (D. Kojroh). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was the westernmost Doroh state, Dəiṭah. Its dialect, Dəiṭomai, gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Koyroh.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Koyroh states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

==End of the Empire==
The Republic got into a scuffle with the [[Sošunami]] in the 750s, resulting in the latter taking back the southern half of Ikím island. A political reorganization following this defeat resulted in the overseas colonies being partitioned between the different “home cities,” with Miədu and Azbǽbu taking the lion’s share. But Mæmedéi administered over Oltumosou, and a few enclaves on the northern coast, east of Lotoka.

Where Miədu had once been first among equals, its power was increasingly checked by the senates of the other two cities. The sense of a unified standard language began to fray as each local government insisted upon the norms of its own city.

In 786 one Doroh band under the umbrella of the Koyroh, enforcing order in the rump imperial state under the increasingly abstract political fiction of “defending against piracy,” overwhelmed the city garrison and murdered the emperor. The new, post-imperial age was one of political repression, coupled with cross-cultural ferment. Various religions from the east made headway in the Fáralo heartland. One of these, [[Pa'en]], the religion of the Takuña, had a largely-forgotten ancient kinship to Etúgə. It was known in Fáralo as '''Ku Mašonošin''', "[Religion of the] Immortal Spirit."

Initial concerns within Lewsfárah about “anarchy” reached a fever pitch, resulting in a reinforcement of city defenses -- then were dismissed as counterrevolutionary or un-republican. The Republic agreed to recognize the Koyroh as the successors to the Fáralo state. Various loyalist social circles who had fled the collapsing empire now found themselves inside Lewsfárah, many clustered in Miədu around the residence of the pretender to the throne, a young playboy.

This imperial pretender, Sertačil (Nam. ''Settsił''), gained influence in the city government, finally ascending to the powerful position of Deputy Mayor. In 795 the senate of Azbǽbu sent a resolution condemning this development as indicative of “un-republican sentiment.” Over the next three years the conflict escalated, nearly resulting in civil war, but the delegate from Mæmedéi brokered a peace deal resulting in Miədu's voluntary exit from the Republic. Miədu surrendered control of the Dagæm Islands, retaining the Southern Isles and the South Coast.

In 812 Mæmedéi and Azbǽbu parted ways, dissolving the Republic of Lewsfárah. All three cities remained within the Etúgə League, with the form of local government developing separately in each: In Mæmedéi the senate seats became tied to hereditary wealth, resulting in oligarchy; in Miədu the power of the Senate became eclipsed by popular allegiance to clerics and their enforcers, resulting in de facto theocracy; but Azbǽbu retained the original model of an elected legislature powered by a pious, industrious bourgeoisie.

==Dark Ages==
With the implosion of both Fáralo states the following generations are considered a dark age, with the corresponding shrinkage in population and local concentration of power. This was less a cataclysm and more a grinding stagnation, with a lack of intellectual development, and an unprecedented level of vagabondage and piracy.

The most powerful state in this period was Miədu, where the theocracy became explicit in 825 as the chief cleric was appointed Supreme Defender of the Faith, with power of veto over the Senate. Increasingly all strata of society were preoccupied with the irredentist goal of taking back the Dagæm Islands from Azbǽbu. This was mingled with the ancient pretext of "defense against piracy," awkwardly complicated by the fact that in many cases the "pirate" factions were intertwined with the navies of both cities. The Supreme Defender declared a kind of crusade, with mass conscription among the commoners. The resulting war with Azbǽbu (839-841) was destructive but short, resulting in Miəduan victory.

Oltumosou kicked free of Mæmedéi in 840, setting up a quasi-republican state headed by a “High Lord.”

A loyalist uprising in the Oltu Valley resulted in a massacre of the Doroh leaders and the establishment of the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]] in 843, centered in Ussor. The new state took [[Barnágo]] in 869. At this point no state in either the republican (or post-republican) South nor the monarchical north lay claim to the mantle of "Huyfárah" as such.

Both the Sumarušuxi and Kojroh Leagues had collapsed by 900 amid infighting, with the Fáralo states mopping up most of the gains. The Čisse-Affalinnei alliance held steady, while Mæmedéi’s old possessions in Siixtaguna came under the control of Oltumosou.

Another uprising against the Doroh in 890 resulted in a second Fáralo kingdom in the Poráš valley, modeled after Woldulaš, prosaically known in the local dialect as ''Bōskəlaš'', “The Governorate.”

Čisse and Oltumosou tentatively formed a union in 909. In both cities the sense that the Fáralo were an Etúgə people had dissipated, and the dominant religion was now a form of the cult of the Affanonic sky god, [[Tejenry]], syncretized with [[Pa’en]].

Woldulaš flourished throughout the tenth century, but lacked in naval power. Officials there began strengthening bonds with their southern neighbor, the minor naval power of Mæmedéi, whose sailors were renowned as technically skilled, prudent, and level-headed.

West of the Fáralo sphere, the irredentist spirit reared its head in [[Lasomo]], where the rulers dreamed of retaking the ancient capital, [[Akelodo]] — now the largest city in the Athalēran Empire, and probably on the continent. Much of the populace there, both urban and rural, had scorned the state religion of [[Anaitism]] in favor of the Etúgə faith of their northern neighbors. Where previously religious tolerance had flourished, the Anaitist rulers subjected the Etúgə to increasing persecutions — a counterproductive activity, as each wave of bloodshed led to a new generation of fanatics and martyrdom cults.

Sensing weakness in the ancient empire, as it struggled to put down rebellions across the land, the Lašomorans sponsored an Etúgə insurgency in Akelodo, who took the city in 971. When the Empire lay siege, Lašomo came to the rescue of the city. The resulting war between the two nations lasted five years, ending with the Republic (bolstered by the rest of the Etúge League) absorbing Akelodo and the remainder of Lašomo. The capital, for a time, remained at Oigop'oibauxeu (F. '''Boíəba''', Ad. '''Ziphē'''), and the chief language a form of Ndok Aisô.

Also as a consequence of the war, Miədu established a puppet state within former Athaleran borders, on the lower Milīr, south of Lasomo.

The crippled Empire lived on for a generation, sloughing off outlying provinces here and there, until the bitter end came in 1003, with the partitioning of the core Dāiadak lands into a handful of different states, the most powerful of which was Thāras.

In Lašomo, the magnetic pull of the great metropolis of Akelodo lead to the capital relocating there in 1007, and the language of state shifting to the local dialect of Adāta, called [[Æðadĕ]].

Tension between Miədu and the ascendant Lasomo lead to the dissolution of the nearly 500 year old Etúgə league in 1026. Lasomo expanded eastward into the [[Tal]] of western Huyfarah. Buruya developed as a regional military power, expanding downriver to capture the ancient town of [[Ñolo]]. Its major rivals in the delta were the towns of [[Luyoša]] and [[Mospiñor]].

Woldulaš absorbed Mæmedéi in 1019, leading to the rise of the kingdom as a sea power.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← Naidda ''Puivara''
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'', ''Hagíbəl''
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← Faraghin ''Faragh'' "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Huyfárah

2017-06-13T01:40:28Z

Dunomapuka: /* History */

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally Affalinnei had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Koyroh (D. Kojroh). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was the westernmost Doroh state, Dəiṭah. Its dialect, Dəiṭomai, gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Koyroh.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Koyroh states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

==End of the Empire==
The Republic got into a scuffle with the [[Sošunami]] in the 750s, resulting in the latter taking back the southern half of Ikím island. A political reorganization following this defeat resulted in the overseas colonies being partitioned between the different “home cities,” with Miədu and Azbǽbu taking the lion’s share. But Mæmedéi administered over Oltumosou, and a few enclaves on the northern coast, east of Lotoka.

Where Miədu had once been first among equals, its power was increasingly checked by the senates of the other two cities. The sense of a unified standard language began to fray as each local government insisted upon the norms of its own city.

In 786 one Doroh band under the umbrella of the Koyroh, enforcing order in the rump imperial state under the increasingly abstract political fiction of “defending against piracy,” overwhelmed the city garrison and murdered the emperor. The new, post-imperial age was one of political repression, coupled with cross-cultural ferment. Various religions from the east made headway in the Fáralo heartland. One of these, [[Pa'en]], the religion of the Takuña, had a largely-forgotten ancient kinship to Etúgə. It was known in Fáralo as '''Ku Mašonošin''', "[Religion of the] Immortal Spirit."

Initial concerns within Lewsfárah about “anarchy” reached a fever pitch, resulting in a reinforcement of city defenses -- then were dismissed as counterrevolutionary or un-republican. The Republic agreed to recognize the Koyroh as the successors to the Fáralo state. Various loyalist social circles who had fled the collapsing empire now found themselves inside Lewsfárah, many clustered in Miədu around the residence of the pretender to the throne, a young playboy.

This imperial pretender, Sertačil (Nam. ''Settsił''), gained influence in the city government, finally ascending to the powerful position of Deputy Mayor. In 795 the senate of Azbǽbu sent a resolution condemning this development as indicative of “un-republican sentiment.” Over the next three years the conflict escalated, nearly resulting in civil war, but the delegate from Mæmedéi brokered a peace deal resulting in Miədu's voluntary exit from the Republic. Miədu surrendered control of the Dagæm Islands, retaining the Southern Isles and the South Coast.

In 812 Mæmedéi and Azbǽbu parted ways, dissolving the Republic of Lewsfárah. All three cities remained within the Etúgə League, with the form of local government developing separately in each: In Mæmedéi the senate seats became tied to hereditary wealth, resulting in oligarchy; in Miədu the power of the Senate became eclipsed by popular allegiance to clerics and their enforcers, resulting in de facto theocracy; but Azbǽbu retained the original model of an elected legislature powered by a pious, industrious bourgeoisie.

==Dark Ages==
With the implosion of both Fáralo states the following generations are considered a dark age, with the corresponding shrinkage in population and local concentration of power. This was less a cataclysm and more a grinding stagnation, with a lack of intellectual development, and an unprecedented level of vagabondage and piracy.

The most powerful state in this period was Miədu, where the theocracy became explicit in 825 as the chief cleric was appointed Supreme Defender of the Faith, with power of veto over the Senate. Increasingly all strata of society were preoccupied with the irredentist goal of taking back the Dagæm Islands from Azbǽbu. This was mingled with the ancient pretext of "defense against piracy," awkwardly complicated by the fact that in many cases the "pirate" factions were intertwined with the navies of both cities. The Supreme Defender declared a kind of crusade, with mass conscription among the commoners. The resulting war with Azbǽbu (839-841) was destructive but short, resulting in Miəduan victory.

Oltumosou kicked free of Mæmedéi in 840, setting up a quasi-republican state headed by a “High Lord.”

A loyalist uprising in the Oltu Valley resulted in a massacre of the Doroh leaders and the establishment of the kingdom of [[Woldulaš]] in 843, centered in Ussor. The new state took [[Barnágo]] in 869. At this point no state in either the republican (or post-republican) South nor the monarchical north lay claim to the mantle of "Huyfárah" as such.

Both the Sumarušuxi and Kojroh Leagues had collapsed by 900 amid infighting, with the Fáralo states mopping up most of the gains. The Čisse-Affalinnei alliance held steady, while Mæmedéi’s old possessions in Siixtaguna came under the control of Oltumosou.

Another uprising against the Doroh in 890 resulted in a second Fáralo kingdom in the Poráš valley, modeled after Woldulaš, prosaically known in the local dialect as ‘’Bōkkləš’’, “The Governorate.”

Čisse and Oltumosou tentatively formed a union in 909. In both cities the sense that the Fáralo were an Etúgə people had dissipated, and the dominant religion was now a form of the cult of the Affanonic sky god, [[Tejenry]], syncretized with [[Pa’en]].

Woldulaš flourished throughout the tenth century, but lacked in naval power. Officials there began strengthening bonds with their southern neighbor, the minor naval power of Mæmedéi, whose sailors were renowned as technically skilled, prudent, and level-headed.

West of the Fáralo sphere, the irredentist spirit reared its head in [[Lasomo]], where the rulers dreamed of retaking the ancient capital, [[Akelodo]] — now the largest city in the Athalēran Empire, and probably on the continent. Much of the populace there, both urban and rural, had scorned the state religion of [[Anaitism]] in favor of the Etúgə faith of their northern neighbors. Where previously religious tolerance had flourished, the Anaitist rulers subjected the Etúgə to increasing persecutions — a counterproductive activity, as each wave of bloodshed led to a new generation of fanatics and martyrdom cults.

Sensing weakness in the ancient empire, as it struggled to put down rebellions across the land, the Lašomorans sponsored an Etúgə insurgency in Akelodo, who took the city in 971. When the Empire lay siege, Lašomo came to the rescue of the city. The resulting war between the two nations lasted five years, ending with the Republic (bolstered by the rest of the Etúge League) absorbing Akelodo and the remainder of Lašomo. The capital, for a time, remained at Oigop'oibauxeu (F. '''Boíəba''', Ad. '''Ziphē'''), and the chief language a form of Ndok Aisô.

Also as a consequence of the war, Miədu established a puppet state within former Athaleran borders, on the lower Milīr, south of Lasomo.

The crippled Empire lived on for a generation, sloughing off outlying provinces here and there, until the bitter end came in 1003, with the partitioning of the core Dāiadak lands into a handful of different states, the most powerful of which was Thāras.

In Lašomo, the magnetic pull of the great metropolis of Akelodo lead to the capital relocating there in 1007, and the language of state shifting to the local dialect of Adāta, called [[Æðadĕ]].

Tension between Miədu and the ascendant Lasomo lead to the dissolution of the nearly 500 year old Etúgə league in 1026. Lasomo expanded eastward into the [[Tal]] of western Huyfarah. Buruya developed as a regional military power, expanding downriver to capture the ancient town of [[Ñolo]]. Its major rivals in the delta were the towns of [[Luyoša]] and [[Mospiñor]].

Woldulaš absorbed Mæmedéi in 1019, leading to the rise of the kingdom as a sea power.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← Naidda ''Puivara''
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'', ''Hagíbəl''
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← Faraghin ''Faragh'' "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Namɨdu/Lexicon

2016-12-05T10:41:50Z

Dunomapuka: /* Lexicon of Namɨdu */

==Lexicon of Namɨdu==

'''See also:'''
* [[Namɨdu|Namɨdu grammar]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* WF = [[Woltu Falla]]
* Æð. = [[Æðadĕ]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* unmarked = [[Fáralo]]

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! '''Namɨdu Word'''
! '''Definition'''
! '''Etymon'''
|-
| aba
| mason; metalworker
| ''aoba''
|-
| akodag
| a sweet wine from [[Lasomo]]
| from the city of ''Akôdaig''
|-
| alo
| swamp
| ''aə'' "swamp" + ''-lo''
|-
| ała
| flower
| ''alóu''
|-
| Andok
| of the Ndok people
| ''əndók'' < {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| Andokasa
| the Ndok Aisô language
| ''əndokáisə'' < {{NAis|Ndok Aisô}}
|-
| alegdu
| constitution; contract
| ''alégadu''
|-
| anyen
| dry
| ''anǽn''
|-
| areł
| politics
| back-formation from ''arełbu''
|-
| arełbu
| politician
| ''arélibu'' "dissident"
|-
| asezzuł [pl. ''asezlek'']
| conquer
| ''as ezul'' "utterly take"
|-
| awobbo
| unhappy
| ''avávo'' "poor"
|-
| aya
| anxiety
| ''aogə'' "uncertainty"
|-
| Azbyebbu
| a city
| ''As Bǽbu'' "many anchors"
|-
| azin
| sophisticated
| {{Aedh|āz}} "city dweller" + ''-in''
|-
| babde
| uncle (father's older brother)
| ''baobadew''
|-
| badał
| statue
| from dim. of ''Baodan'', a 4th c. emperor
|-
| balɨ
| fifth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''baoluy''
|-
| Banoggo
| a city
| ''Barnágo''
|-
| bes
| first day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''bewš''
|-
| bible
| to massage
| {{Ndd|bivle}} "to touch gently"
|-
| biddzi
| leg
| *''biji'' < {{Ndd|bizri}}
|-
| bissa
| practical knowledge; to teach it
| ''bista'' < {{Aedh|biþta}} "to educate"
|-
| bɨda
| to be convinced; to take advice
| ''buədə'' "to listen"
|-
| bɨdaso
| to persuade; persuasion
| "cause to be convinced"
|-
| boddał
| grape
| {{Ndd|badal}} "berry"
|-
| bodde
| father
| ''badew''
|-
| bomma
| wheat; wheat flour
| ''bomə''
|-
| bop [stem ''-ebop'']
| chant (n.)
| ''ebóp'' "music"
|-
| borda
| to buy
| {{Ndd|bårëda}} "to acquire"
|-
| borɨ
| to appoint
| ''baruy''
|-
| bos
| calm; content
| ''bas''
|-
| bosse
| large branch; spine
| ''baše''
|-
| boÿon
| landlord
| {{Ndd|båwayån}} "lord"
|-
| bu
| four
| ''bu''
|-
| bura
| to decide; pick; vote
| ''ebúrə''
|-
| but
| near
| ''but''
|-
| bwes
| ox
| ''bous''
|-
| bwettsa
| daughter
| ''boéča''
|-
| Bwɨba
| [[Bwimbai]] (river); [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] (esp. in historical contexts)
| ''Boíəba''
|-
| bwogge
| to stir; mix
| ''boáge'' "push; impel"
|-
| byenna
| to ask
| ''bæna'' "to beg"
|-
| byenyoło
| non-Etúgə temple
| ''bænéilo''
|-
| byopsa
| vagina (somewhat impolite); all-purpose insult
| ''beibulsa''
|-
| byottsa
| leg (metaphorical); branch of a river
| ''beiča''
|-
| bÿa
| star
| ''boéi''
|-
| bÿonte
| astronomy
| ''boéimate''
|-
| bÿoya
| declination (of a star); latitude
| ''boéiægə''
|-
| bÿossi
| chaos
| ''boéisti'' "orgy"
|-
| dadan [pl. ''dadnak'']
| to dance
| ''daodan''
|-
| darud
| man (somewhat formal)
| ''dau'' "male" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| deło
| stage; porch; broad staircase
| ''edélo'' "theater; stage"
|-
| debło
| autumn; fall
| ''edébelo''
|-
| demu
| to hunt
| ''dewmuh''
|-
| deññeł
| finger
| {{Ndd|dëñe}} + -''l''
|-
| dettsin
| ink
| (from the name of a flower)
|-
| didda
| improbable
| ''dida'' "possible"
|-
| dizza
| stuff; pieces
| {{Ndd|diza-diza}}
|-
| dɨbo
| lard
| ''diəbo'' "fat, oil"
|-
| dɨlo
| secret; hidden thing
| back-formation from ''nadɨlo'' "hidden"
|-
| dobba
| white
| ''daba''
|-
| dobzyet
| silver
| ''daba'' "white" + ''syet'' "gold"
|-
| doggɨ
| to be in charge; command; host
| ''daguy'' "host"
|-
| Dok
| foreigner, but esp. the peoples of Kasca; (collq.) poor schmuck
| ''Edák''; but felt as the second element of ''Andok'', ''Doydok''
|-
| dorats
| lunch; dinner (large midday meal)
| ''dorač''
|-
| dos
| to pursue; sneak attack
| ''das'' "fight"
|-
| Doya
| Ndak paganism
| {{Ndd|Dï'aya}}
|-
| Doydok
| the Dāiadak people (archaic)
| ''dayadok''
|-
| dukkas
| teacher
| ''dukəs''
|-
| dumbi
| stray animal
| {{Aedh|dūmvi}} "homeless; stray"
|-
| dwa
| five
| ''dou''
|-
| dwemma
| glass
| ''doumah''
|-
| dya
| thumb
| ''deiŋ'' "finger"
|-
| dye
| hill
| ''dæŋ'' "mountain"
|-
| Dyeññał
| a hill and district in Mɨdu
| ''dæŋəl'' "little hill"
|-
| dyempɨ
| goat
| ''dæŋ pir'' "mountain-goat"
|-
| dyok
| haunted
| back-formation from ''dyokło''
|-
| dyokło
| haunted area
| ''deiklo''
|-
| dyonne
| facility; skill
| ''deine'' "smarts; cunning"
|-
| dyop
| punk, insolent youngster
| ''deip'' "young (of an animal)"
|-
| dzappa
| insult
| ''jeipə''
|-
| dzeddze
| that one; that person
| ''jæje''
|-
| dzegga
| belligerent
| ''jægə'' "wrathful"
|-
| dzen
| knife
| ''jæn''
|-
| dzes
| maybe
| ''ješ'' "probably"
|-
| dzibbe
| evil
| ''jibe'' "bad"
|-
| dzibbɨs
| to wheeze
| ''jibe uəš'' "badly breathe"
|-
| dzɨku
| strong
| ''jiəku'' "hard"
|-
| dzɨna
| slow
| ''jiwnə''
|-
| dzɨnaba
| ironsmith
| ''dzɨni'' + ''aba''
|-
| dzɨni
| iron
| ''jiənih''
|-
| dzombu
| traveler
| ''dzoññu'' + ''-bu''
|-
| dzoññu
| to travel
| ''jaŋu'' "to move"
|-
| dzoritsi
| to wake up
| ''jori'' "awaken" + ''-tsi'' reflexive
|-
| ebe
| short
| ''ebewr''
|-
| ebu
| to sleep
| ''eobu''
|-
| ebyeru
| tree bark
| ''ebǽru''
|-
| ebyeruł
| husk of a fruit
| ''ebǽru'' + -''l''
|-
| edastan
| of the Edastean peoples
| reborrowing of ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" + -''n''
|-
| eddenilos
| holy land (a formulation of some religious texts)
| ''edewnin'' "holy" + ''los''
|-
| Edossa
| the [[Naidda]] language
| ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" (latter is now ''Ñÿeru Edossa'')
|-
| edya
| tree
| ''edéi''
|-
| edyołas
| forest
| ''edéi'' + ''laš''
|-
| Edzada
| the Æðadĕ language; or one of its speakers (collq. and slightly despective)
| {{Aedh|Æðadĕ}}
|-
| egyottsa
| stairs
| ''egéi čeiŋ'' "up-walk"
|-
| ekɨ
| blessing; third day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''ekúi''
|-
| Eklodo
| [[Akelodo]], the largest city of Lasomo
| {{Aedh|Æxloðo}}
|-
| ełpe
| to melt (intr.)
| ''elpe''
|-
| ełpso
| to melt (tr.); heat up
| ''elpe'' + -''so''
|-
| ente
| to be unsure
| ''eomate'' "to guess"
|-
| Entsełde
| historical name for Akelodo
| ''Enčélade''
|-
| epa
| likeness
| ''ewpa'' "statue"
|-
| epał
| figurine
| ''ewpa'' "statue" + ''-l''
|-
| epe
| to sit; stay
| ''epé''
|-
| Epɨm
| a follower of Epɨmya in the religious sense, cf. Toło
| ''epúonim'' "heathen"
|-
| Epɨmya
| the religion of the Epɨm
| ''Epɨm'' + -''ya''
|-
| eppa
| light; easy
| ''epaf''
|-
| eps
| destruction; to destroy
| ''epš''
|-
| epsło
| encampment
| ''epšilo'' "ruins"
|-
| ero
| nasty (of behavior; weather; events)
| {{Ndd|eddor}} "caustic"
|-
| es
| six
| ''eš''
|-
| esko
| hospitable
| {{Aedh|æþko}}
|-
| essen [pl. ''esnek'']
| to act; behave
| ''ešen''
|-
| etsa
| to lose [a game; battle]
| ''eočeiŋ'' "to stumble"
|-
| Etugga
| the Etúgə religion
| ''Etúgə''
|-
| Etugenna
| the Etúgə world
| ''Etúgə'' + ''-enna''
|-
| ewa
| snake
| ''ewa''
|-
| fissas
| criminal (n.)
| ''fistaš'' "unlawful"
|-
| fogga
| make; create
| ''foga''
|-
| foggał
| small artwork; knicknack
| ''foga'' "create" + -''l''
|-
| fogło
| store; shop
| ''fogalo'' "workshop"
|-
| Forło
| a Fáralo language, or simply "language"; of Fáralo culture
| ''Fáralo''
|-
| forłobu
| a Fáralo person (male)
| ''forło'' + -''bu''
|-
| forłosa
| a Fáralo person (female)
| ''forło'' + -''sa''
|-
| gas
| boat
| ''gaos''
|-
| gets
| fourth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''geoč''
|-
| gitsa-gitsa
| wait a minute (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| gɨppi
| to answer; reply
| ''guətu ebí'' "therefore say"
|-
| go [pl. ''gohek'']
| to reject; dismiss
| ''gah'' "to mock"
|-
| goffats
| crime
| ''gafač''
|-
| gonnin
| elder brother
| ''gonin''
|-
| gossu
| rabbit
| ''gašu''
|-
| gottats
| galley
| ''gatač''
|-
| gotte
| wood
| ''gate''
|-
| gotteł
| floor
| ''gatel'' "board"
|-
| gubbe
| to let go; let out (from)
| ''gube'' "to survive; escape"
|-
| gurima
| to betray
| {{Aedh|gujrima}}
|-
| gwa
| road
| ''gou''
|-
| gwedda
| dream
| ''goudah''
|-
| gwegga
| to break; rip
| ''gouga''
|-
| gyo
| to; at
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyorit
| until
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyopsa
| sheep
| ''geipša''
|-
| hadɨ
| out; outside of
| ''hadír''
|-
| handya
| small town; village
| {{Aedh|hānðjĕ}}
|-
| Hayibbał
| the Fáralo sphere (comprising former Huyfárah)
| ''Hagíbəl''
|-
| hebben
| mumble
| ''heben''
|-
| hebu
| single; particular; specific
| ''hewbu'' "solitary"
|-
| hesom
| coat
| {{Aedh|hesom}} "outer garment"
|-
| hessara
| to organize; sort; tidy up
| {{Aedh|hestara}}
|-
| hewe
| water, liquid
| ''hewe''
|-
| hinna
| to lie
| {{Aedh|himna}}
|-
| hisłu
| son
| ''hislu'' "heir"
|-
| Hissɨna
| northeastern Peilaš, beyond Huyfárah
| ''Histuənə'' "[[Siixtaguna]]"
|-
| hitya
| the physical world (Etúgə terminology)
| ''hitugə''
|-
| hɨbɨ
| to cook
| ''hiəbur'' "to boil"
|-
| hɨbu
| frog
| *''hiəbu'' < ''hiebu''
|-
| hɨm
| cloud
| ''hiəm''
|-
| hɨnsa
| to fix; tend to
| ''huənšar'' "help; aid"
|-
| hɨte
| strange; disconcerting
| ''hiəteŋ'' "different"
|-
| Hɨwora
| the old Fáralo nation; the entire Fáralo sphere (obs.)
| ''Huyfárah''
|-
| ho
| meat
| ''ha''
|-
| hob
| to eat
| ''hab''
|-
| hobasa
| esophagus
| ''hab'' "to eat" + ''harsa'' "tube"
|-
| hodzan
| mountain pass
| {{Aedh|xōðan}}
|-
| hokez
| caveat
| {{Aedh|xokez}}
|-
| hołnadu
| republic
| ''halenadu''
|-
| howe
| broth
| ''ho hewe'' "meat-water"
|-
| howen
| food
| ''[mik] ha-oun'' "bread and meat"
|-
| hudde
| eight
| ''hude''
|-
| Huppa
| Sútapaj, a philosopher/saint of the Etúgə tradition
| ''Hutaba''
|-
| huz
| rat
| ''huz'' "mouse"
|-
| hwa
| beach
| ''hou'' "coast"
|-
| hwezzu
| left (side)
| ''houzuŋ''
|-
| hya
| blue
| ''hei''
|-
| hyoł
| foreign country; unknown place
| ''heil'' "foreign"
|-
| hyołbu
| foreigner
| ''heil'' + -''bu''
|-
| hyomma
| wait; delay
| ''heimə''
|-
| hyotte
| correct
| ''heite'' "neat; proper"
|-
| ibbał
| north
| ''ibəl''
|-
| ibbe
| handle; use; operate
| ''ibe'' "touch; use"
|-
| ibbu
| weapon
| ''ibu'' "tool"
|-
| idɨ
| sea; ocean
| ''idúəŋ''
|-
| idɨnda
| fisherman
| ''idúəŋ-dau'' "sea-man"
|-
| idɨño
| salt
| ''idúəŋ-oa'' "sea-salt"
|-
| idÿe
| arm
| ''idwæ''
|-
| iłseza
| morning glory
| {{Ndd|ilseza}}
|-
| iłts
| black
| ''ilč''
|-
| iłtsaz
| to forbid
| ''ilč eiz'' "paint black"
|-
| iłtsazin
| forbidden
| ''iłtsaz'' + ''-in''
|-
| Iłtsizɨme
| the river that runs through Mɨdu
| ''Ilčizúəme'', from local Ndd. *''ilči sume'' "black water"
|-
| igga
| unknown thing; thingamajig
| ''igə'' "which one"
|-
| igri
| receive; let in; tolerate; put in place
| ''igrih'' "absorb; dissolve"
|-
| ippa
| to taste; smell
| ''ipah'' "to perceive"
|-
| ippi
| liver
| ''ipi''
|-
| irło
| window
| ''iru'' "to open" + ''-lo''
|-
| isa
| before
| ''isə''
|-
| isezzuł
| to put forth; take; hold
| ''isə ezul'' "take before"
|-
| issape
| summer; (metaphorically) flourishing; success
| ''išaupe''
|-
| isso
| cotton
| {{Ndd|isceo}}
|-
| isyenna
| salvation; the spiritual world
| ''ifisænə''
|-
| Ittizan
| of the Hitatc peoples
| {{Ad|Itatizan}}
|-
| iznɨs
| gasp
| ''izin uəš'' "suddenly breathe"
|-
| ɨb
| month
| ''iəb''
|-
| ɨbweddu
| one hundred
| ''iəb'' + ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| ɨda
| term of address for men; "sir"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''dau'' "male"
|-
| ɨdołyog
| sunset; dusk
| ''iodol'' "sun" + ''egág'' "put [down]"
|-
| ɨdruła
| sunrise; dawn
| *ɨdłuła < ''iodol'' "sun" + ''ulə'' "rise"
|-
| ɨlo
| non-Etúge person
| ''uwlo'' "barbarian"
|-
| ɨmya
| yellow
| ''uwméi''
|-
| ɨmyał
| egg yolk
| ''uwméi'' + ''-l''
|-
| ɨñe
| term of address for women; "ma'am"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ɨño
| to kill
| {{Ndd|ïño}}
|-
| ɨroppo
| vinegar
| ''ior apo'' "sour fruit"
|-
| ɨs
| to breathe
| ''uəš''
|-
| ɨsala
| noble house (in the northern states)
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''üšala''
|-
| ɨseło
| household; family; noble house (obs.)
| ''io šælo'' "noble hearth"
|-
| ɨta
| weigh; measure
| ''iətə'' "hang; suspend"
|-
| ɨzi
| pickled apple
| ''ior zi'' "sour apple"
|-
| kałto
| wind
| ''kaltó''
|-
| kattsa
| aunt
| ''kaotača''
|-
| katya
| gold
| {{Ad|kātia}}
|-
| kawu
| Etúgəist priest
| ''kəwú''
|-
| kaya
| fog
| ''kaogə''
|-
| kayoddin
| uncle (father's younger brother)
| ''kaogádin''
|-
| kaza-kaza
| leave me alone (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| kebbats
| supper (evening meal)
| ''kebač'' "dinner"
|-
| kełbo
| item of clothing
| {{Bur|kɛlbo}} "cloak"
|-
| kets
| angry; annoyed
| ''keoč''
|-
| Ketsenna
| the world
| ''Kečǽnə''
|-
| kettsem
| to bless; dedicate; honor [a ceremony]
| ''kečem''
|-
| kippa
| alcohol; booze
| ''kipa'' "rice alcohol"
|-
| Kɨkkałto
| the north wind
| ''kuət kaltó'' "demon wind"
|-
| kɨnzo
| good
| {{Ndd|kïnzo}} "kind"
|-
| kɨta
| demon
| ''kuət'' - with possible interference by {{Ndd|kwɨda}}
|-
| kodda
| to cover; paint over; a curtain
| ''kodə''
|-
| kodda
| to work tirelessly
| ''ekádə'' "to continue; persist"
|-
| kokło
| border
| ''kaklo''
|-
| koppe
| ages past; "way back when"
| ''kape'' "last year"
|-
| koya
| language
| {{Ad|koia}} "tongue"
|-
| Kozyad
| the nation of [[Kasca]]
| ''Kazəgad''
|-
| kozził [pl. ''kozlek'']
| to see; look at
| ''kazil''
|-
| kpɨma
| smoke
| ''kpuəma''
|-
| kreta
| to capture; seize goods
| ''kreota''
|-
| kros
| brave (esp. in warfare); mighty
| ''kraš''
|-
| kryewa
| breakfast
| ''kræwa'' "porridge"
|-
| ku
| spirit; mind
| ''ku''
|-
| kuffas
| Etúgəist temple
| ''kufas''
|-
| kukka
| hiccup
| ''kuka''
|-
| kumpeł
| tomb
| ''kumepél'' "graveyard"
|-
| kusryem
| olive
| ''kusræm''
|-
| kussu
| to cough
| ''kušu''
|-
| kuz
| book
| ''kuz'' "records; archives"
|-
| kuzło
| cabinet; bookshelf
| ''kuzlo'' "library; archive"
|-
| kwañopsi
| brooch
| {{Bur|kwəñápsi}}
|-
| kweñña
| ring (jewelry)
| {{Bur|kwɛña}}
|-
| kwin
| sacred
| ''kuin''
|-
| kwo
| awful, terrible
| {{Ndd|kwå}} "stinky"
|-
| kwodmał
| to break in (shoes, clothes)
| {{Ndd|kwado'mal}}
|-
| kwosso
| skin rash
| {{Ndd|kwashor}}
|-
| kwuła
| to speak
| ''kouwə ulə'' "raise the tongue"
|-
| kya [stem -''ekya'']
| egg
| ''ekéi''
|-
| kyedda
| ash
| ''kæda''
|-
| kyelin
| wool
| ''kænil'' "hair" + ''-in''
|-
| kyennił
| hair (coll.)
| ''kænil''
|-
| kyewe
| egg white
| ''ekéi hewe'' "egg-water"
|-
| kyołu
| tunic; shirt
| ''keilu''
|-
| kyonte
| medicine
| ''keipmate'' "herblore"
|-
| kyop
| grass
| ''keip''
|-
| kyopło
| field; meadow
| ''keipło'' "pasture"
|-
| kyozze
| snow
| ''keize''
|-
| lama
| tall
| ''laoma'' "long"
|-
| lasa
| hour
| by haplology from *''lāsāsa'' < ''laršaošə''
|-
| le
| question particle; yes (informal)
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| legga
| word (esp. as a formula or declaration)
| ''lega''
|-
| leggał
| to write
| ''legal''
|-
| legyossa
| poetry; verse
| ''legéiša''
|-
| leł
| to jot down; scribble
| {{Ndd|lëål}} "write"
|-
| lepeło
| throne
| ''lu-epélo'' "the chair"
|-
| les
| free (in legal sense); unattached; acting at will
| ''lews''
|-
| Lesfora
| [[Lewsfárah]], the southern Fáralo republican state
| ''lews'' "free" + ''-fárah'' from ''Huyfárah''
|-
| lesso
| to set free; liberate
| "cause to be free"
|-
| lestsa
| steady; resolute; undeterred
| ''lews čeiŋ'' "walking freely"
|-
| leswɨm
| free (politically)
| ''lews wiəm'' "living freely"
|-
| lette
| yes
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| lettse
| eighth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''lečew''
|-
| Lidɨ [Nanozza]
| the ocean to the east of Peilaš
| late {{Fá|lu-idúəŋ na-nazə}} "the eastern ocean"
|-
| liwu
| loser
| {{Aedh|lwīvu}}
|-
| lizyuł
| to shiver
| ''lizegu'' "to shake" + dim.
|-
| lɨdoł
| the sun
| ''lu-iodol''
|-
| lɨmu
| smile; be pleased
| ''liəmu''
|-
| lobba
| snub
| ''labaf'' "ignore"
|-
| lod
| good; honest
| ''lad'' "healthy"
|-
| lodzu
| history
| ''lu-adulsu'' "the story"
|-
| lołpo
| heal; cure
| ''lalpo''
|-
| lonte
| quackery; nonsensical practice
| ''ladmate'' "medicine"
|-
| Lonto
| the Ici Forest
| {{Bur|lo ntɔh}} "the forest"
|-
| loñeñga
| ceremony
| ''lu-oyŋǽŋga'' "something solemn"
|-
| los
| land; nation; region
| ''laš''
|-
| losał
| agreement; pact
| ''lu-ošyal'' "proposal"
|-
| Losmu
| the nation of Lasomo
| ''Lašumu''
|-
| loz
| to shut
| ''laz''
|-
| luboz
| sixth day of the week
| ''lu-ubáz''
|-
| Ludyoddin
| the god of the Epɨm
| ''lu-Deidin'' "the numinous"
|-
| lumessɨ
| Namɨdu (collq.)
| ''lu-'' + {{Ndd|mestïng}} "dialect"
|-
| lumbye
| to act foolishly
| ''luba mæ'' "believe a falsehood"
|-
| luñɨb
| the moon
| ''luŋ-iəb''
|-
| lusek
| personal name
| ''lu-sek'' "the name"
|-
| lyod
| year
| ''leid''
|-
| lyoło
| birdcage
| ''lei'' "bird" + -''lo''
|-
| lyosło
| winter
| ''leišolo'' "cold time"
|-
| lyosso
| boring
| ''leišo'' "cold"
|-
| lÿenna
| hunger
| ''lu-æna''
|-
| madottɨ
| to disapprove
| ''madátuy'' "not allow"
|-
| madzen
| something useless or ineffective
| ''mau jæn'' "dull knife"
|-
| male
| man, guy
| {{Ndd|malë}} "old man"
|-
| malusme
| houseboat
| {{Bur|mlusɔmɛ}}
|-
| mamma
| mother
| baby-talk formation
|-
| mappÿa
| astrolabe
| ''mateboéi''
|-
| mareła
| to ignore; neglect
| ''maróulə'' "not care for"
|-
| mas
| hammer
| ''marš''
|-
| masa
| cow milk
| {{NAis|maisa}}
|-
| masere
| to hate; despise
| ''mašǽre'' "not love"
|-
| masobba
| to miss; make a mistake
| ''mašábə'' "not hit"
|-
| mayuttsił
| to enjoy oneself; be leisurely; take one's time
| ''makúčil'' "not rush"
|-
| me
| to say (used for reported speech)
| {{Ndd|me}}
|-
| mede
| semen; to ejaculate
| ''meode'' "spurt; splatter"
|-
| mekot
| younger brother; subordinate
| ''meokát''
|-
| midzenna
| to have an affair
| ''midišǽna'' "to fornicate"
|-
| mezzeł
| greet; say hello
| ''mezel''
|-
| mik
| [loaf of] bread
| ''mik''
|-
| mipma
| drugs (as a raw substance)
| ''mipimə'' "dough"
|-
| mipi
| nothing
| ''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail"
|-
| mipoł
| impolite
| ''mipól'' "indecent"
|-
| mise
| to give
| ''mišǽf'' "to owe"
|-
| mitsen
| cold
| ''mi čæn'' "no fire"
|-
| mittsidde
| to bake
| ''mik ečíde'' "to cook bread"
|-
| mɨbzin
| primitive
| ''muəbazin'' "anarchic"
|-
| mɨdo
| blind
| ''miordo''
|-
| Mɨdu
| a major city
| ''Miədu''
|-
| mɨmisso
| to bewilder; enchant
| ''muymis'' "stupid" + ''-so''
|-
| mɨpa
| deaf
| ''miopə''
|-
| mo
| color
| {{Ndd|mo}}
|-
| mobbe
| mouth
| ''mabe''
|-
| moddesen
| violence; force
| ''made ešen'' "violent action"
|-
| modu
| chest
| ''mordu''
|-
| modu
| in front of
| ''umórdu''
|-
| moła
| full
| ''mola''
|-
| moła
| to choose
| ''molar'' "prefer"
|-
| mołna
| to notice
| ''molinə'' "to not not know"
|-
| moppał
| magnet; compass
| ''matibəl''
|-
| mospo
| penis
| {{Ndd|mospo}} (has lost rude connotations)
|-
| mossin
| urban; public; societal
| ''mastin'' "governmental; public" AND ''mosin'' "civilized; urban"
|-
| moswe
| harbor; port town
| ''mosou''
|-
| mots
| kitchen
| ''mač'' "table"
|-
| mottsud
| slave
| ''mačud''
|-
| motya
| the physically impossible (Etúgə terminology)
| ''matugə''
|-
| motyan
| impossible
| ''motya'' + ''-n''
|-
| mowe
| sex act
| {{Ndd|måwë}} "to fellate"
|-
| mu
| on; above
| *''wiəmú'' < ''wiəmu'' (stress shift via analogy with ''wægól'')
|-
| mubba
| worm
| ''muba''
|-
| mudzada
| to take drugs (esp. hallucinogens)
| {{Aedh|mūðada}}
|-
| muła
| ice
| ''mula''
|-
| mus
| grow, become
| ''mus''
|-
| mussuta
| ideology; belief
| ''mušidutə''
|-
| mya
| trade; to trade
| ''mei''
|-
| mwa
| skin
| ''mou''
|-
| mweddu
| number; quantity
| ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| mweru
| narrow
| ''mouru''
|-
| myebił
| pastry; cookie
| dim. of ''myebim''
|-
| myebim
| cake
| {{Aedh|mjebim}} "dough"
|-
| myeg
| day
| ''mæg'' "today"
|-
| myem
| seven
| ''mæm''
|-
| myessa
| cow
| ''mæsa''
|-
| myoł [pl. ''myołk'']
| to read
| ''meil''
|-
| myosko
| drunk
| {{Ndd|myåsko}} "to party"
|-
| nadɨ
| in; at
| ''nadír''
|-
| nadɨlo
| secret; hidden
| ''nadírlo''
|-
| nadyog
| to put in
| ''nadír egág''
|-
| nanu
| to separate; cut
| ''naonu''
|-
| nañga
| split; schism
| ''naoŋga''
|-
| naplekɨ
| goodbye (formal)
| ''enouplu-ekúi'' < ''enóun pein lu-ekúi'' "go with blessing"
|-
| naro
| horse (arch. or poetic)
| ''narór''
|-
| [koya] Nasomo
| the Æðadĕ language
| partial calque of {{Aedh|Gujĕ æx Somo}} "language of Lasomo"
|-
| nazdya
| next to; touching
| ''na-zdeiŋ'' "at the fingers"
|-
| nazyoł
| among; between
| ''na-zegól'' "at the feet"
|-
| nełdzen
| to tweak; adjust
| ''neljæn'' "to twist"
|-
| negge
| (the) best
| ''nege'' "the most"
|-
| nes
| sick; ill
| ''neos''
|-
| nił
| nine
| ''nil''
|-
| niñi
| pointless
| {{Ndd|ni'ñi}} "pointlessly"
|-
| nɨlo
| mass grave
| ''niogalo'' "battlefield"
|-
| nɨma
| condescending
| ''nuəma'' "to boast"
|-
| nɨs
| to cheat
| ''nuəš''
|-
| nɨya
| war
| ''nioga''
|-
| nobbe
| dark red (esp. as a heraldic color)
| ''nabe''
|-
| nobwima
| clay
| ''nabe wimə'' "red mud"
|-
| nogga
| pagan god
| ''nagə''
|-
| nogga
| interior; room
| ''naga'' "inner"
|-
| noggu
| bear (animal)
| ''nagu''
|-
| nogya
| paganism
| ''nogga'' + -''ya''
|-
| nokwi
| (a) fur
| {{Bur|nakwi}}
|-
| nokwimya
| fur trade
| ''nokwi'' + ''mya''
|-
| noł
| mouse
| {{Ndd|nål}}
|-
| nołñu
| to clean (one's house); tidy up
| ''naluŋuh'' "to arrange; organize"
|-
| nom
| small
| Coastal Ndd. ''nam''
|-
| nonnanu
| to cut into small pieces
| ''nom'' + ''nanu''
|-
| nora
| to exit (from a building)
| {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noskɨ
| to take off; remove
| ''naskuy'' "exile; cast out"
|-
| noyo
| work; job
| ''naei''
|-
| noyu
| noodles (now a staple)
| ''nayu''
|-
| nozza
| east
| ''nazə''
|-
| nubazzi
| religious epiphany; enlightenment
| ''nubázi'' (reborrowing)
|-
| nweło
| street
| ''noulo''
|-
| nwen [pl. ''nweñk'']
| to go; leave
| ''noun''
|-
| nwentsi
| to forget
| reflexive of ''noun'' "to go"
|-
| nyedde
| to feel (an emotion); intuit
| ''enǽde''
|-
| nyemmu
| red
| ''næmuh'' "orange"
|-
| ñabba
| toe
| ''ŋeibə''
|-
| ñadde
| to clean
| ''ŋeide'' "to wipe"
|-
| ñadɨbu
| dog
| ''ŋa-duəbu'' "sniffer"
|-
| ñagosso
| leather
| {{NAis|ngagôstad}}
|-
| ñalazbod
| confusing (esp. visually)
| ''ŋalər zebód'' "too many colors"
|-
| ñanɨma
| jerk; asshole
| ''ŋa-nuəma'' "boaster"
|-
| ñassis
| traitor; enemy
| ''ŋastís'' "villain"
|-
| Ñe
| title for women; "Mrs."/"Ms."
| ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ñegłu
| to accompany
| {{Bur|ñedɛlu}}
|-
| ñenne
| neck
| ''ŋæne''
|-
| ñi
| two
| ''ŋi''
|-
| ñɨbuł
| needle
| ''ŋiəbul''
|-
| ñɨne
| neurotic; overly cautious
| ''ŋuəne'' "prudent; cautious"
|-
| ñoł
| more
| ''ŋal'' "very"
|-
| ñołdzɨ
| tall
| ''ŋal jiə'' "very tall"
|-
| ñołyoł
| flood
| ''ŋalleil''
|-
| ñonne
| business connection
| {{Bur|ñanɛ}} "connection"
|-
| ñopsa
| thick; heavy
| ''ŋapšə''
|-
| Ñoru
| of the Ngauro people
| ''ŋouru'' (reborrowing)
|-
| ñosłok
| idiot
| ''ŋa-oslók'' "forgetter"
|-
| ñuffe
| cat
| ''ŋufew'' < {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñura
| brown
| ''ŋura''
|-
| Ñÿalo
| the city of Ñolo in Kasca
| ''Ŋourlo''
|-
| ñÿeru
| ancient
| ''ŋouru''
|-
| obbo
| peccadillo; misdemeanor
| {{Ndd|avå}} "break the law"
|-
| oddu
| to come
| ''odu''
|-
| odoł
| eye
| ''ordo'' + -''l''
|-
| odwa
| unclear
| ''adwə'' "dark"
|-
| odza
| to tell [a story]
| ''adulsə''
|-
| odzu
| story
| ''adulsu''
|-
| oggu
| happy
| ''agu''
|-
| ogło
| inn; lodging; (euph.) brothel
| ''odulo'' "destination"
|-
| ogyu
| expectation; to expect
| ''agiu'' "hope"
|-
| okmu
| wax
| ''akremu''
|-
| okrem
| seal; to seal closed
| back-formation from ''akremu''
|-
| olo
| ugly (of views; objects)
| {{Ndd|åilo}}
|-
| oł [pl. ''ołk'']
| to want; desire
| ''al''
|-
| ołdo
| to inherit
| ''oludo'' "deserve"
|-
| ołdu
| inheritance; property (land; money)
| ''oludu'' "deserts"
|-
| ołgo
| despite; against; than
| ''algo''
|-
| ołmo
| to steal; filch (esp. from a street vendor)
| {{Ndd|ålmo}}
|-
| ołna
| to not know
| ''olinə''
|-
| ołpo
| to build; to craft; a craft
| ''olpo'' "manufacture"
|-
| ołpu
| craftsman
| ''alpobu''
|-
| ołtoł
| storage area
| ''atelol''
|-
| Ołtu
| a river of central Huyfárah
| ''Oltu''
|-
| ombe
| thunder; to thunder
| ''abunde''
|-
| ombu
| criminal
| ''ammubu'' "thief"
|-
| oñan
| unreachable
| {{Ndd|ålña}} "to fly" + -''in''
|-
| oño
| crayfish
| {{Ndd|orñevo}}
|-
| oppał
| ear
| ''opə'' + -''l''
|-
| oppo
| fruit
| ''apo''
|-
| optu
| something unsettling; to be perturbed
| ''apridu'' "horror"
|-
| opwo
| a type of stew
| {{NAis|[seu od] ópôxeu}} "meat and fruit"
|-
| oreł
| to ignite
| {{Ndd|oreål}} "to catch fire"
|-
| osał
| to propose; suggest
| ''ošyal''
|-
| osawu
| human sacrifice
| ''oisawú'' < {{NAis|oisaxud}}
|-
| oso
| play a game
| {{Ndd|oiså}} "participate"
|-
| ospu
| chief (of a tribe); leader (of a work group, etc.); head (of a queue, etc.)
| ''ašubu'' "chieftain"
|-
| ossin
| heavy
| ''asin''
|-
| otte
| to guard
| ''ate'' "to keep"
|-
| ottebu
| a guard
| ''otte'' + -''bu''
|-
| ottu
| wealth
| ''atu'' "possession"
|-
| ottun
| wealthy
| ''ottu'' + -''in''
|-
| Oypawa
| Oigop'oibauxeu
| Æð. ''Ojpavaw''
|-
| pada
| valley
| ''pardə''
|-
| pagu
| horse
| {{Bur|pə’águ}} "pack horse"
|-
| peppe [stem ''-epeppe'']
| breast
| ''epépe''
|-
| pesen
| ready; alert
| ''pea ešen'' "readily act"
|-
| pi
| small thing; trifle
| ''pi'' "fingernail"
|-
| piggał
| main; primary
| ''pigəl'' "first"
|-
| piła
| to send
| ''pila''
|-
| piñña
| chicken
| {{Ndd|piña}}
|-
| pissił
| dead
| ''pišil'' "grey, pale"
|-
| pɨ
| child (collq.)
| ''pir'' "goat"
|-
| pɨdyemis
| understand; realize
| ''piədæmis''
|-
| połge
| orange (fruit)
| ''Palge'', a [[Kasca|Kascan]] city which exports oranges
|-
| ponda
| purple
| {{Ndd|panada}}
|-
| poppu
| disgust; to be disgusted
| ''popu'' "fear"
|-
| potsna
| to count
| ''pačuna''
|-
| potte
| to find; obtain
| ''epáte'' "to investigate; research"
|-
| pryen
| to design
| ''præn''
|-
| pubbɨt
| to attack
| ''pubiət'' "to threaten"
|-
| puwa
| nose
| ''puwə''
|-
| pwekku
| snub; slight; insult
| ''pouku'' "refuse; deny"
|-
| pwen
| island
| ''poun''
|-
| pya
| big; great
| ''pei''
|-
| pyen
| bite; chew; kiss (inf.)
| ''pæn''
|-
| pyodde
| loud
| ''peide''
|-
| Pyołas
| the continent on which Mɨdu is situated
| ''Peilaš''
|-
| pyombu
| (a) bourgeois; business owner
| ''pei meibu'' "big trader", but often explained as ''pyon-bu'' "with-person"
|-
| pyomyeb
| esoteric cult
| ''peimæb'' "mystery"
|-
| pyon
| with; having
| ''pein''
|-
| Pyopros
| the Poráš river
| ''pei'' "great" + ''Poráš''
|-
| pyossa [stem ''-epyossa'']
| fish
| ''epéiša''
|-
| pÿeggo
| waterfront
| {{Ndd|pyuego}} "dock"
|-
| pÿen [stem ''-epÿen'']
| ball; lump
| ''epoǽn''
|-
| rał
| to pour
| ''raul'' "to fill"
|-
| re
| smooth; flat; straight
| ''rewŋ''
|-
| rełga
| hot
| ''relga''
|-
| rełgło
| cauldron; cooking pot; stew
| ''relga'' + ''-lo''
|-
| rełsa
| caretaker; nurse
| ''roulə'' "care for" + -''sa''
|-
| reñał
| platform; deck [of a ship]; storey
| ''rewŋəl''
|-
| Reñło
| the plains of SW Huyfárah
| ''rewŋlo'' "plains"
|-
| rettsɨs
| menstruation
| ''rečiəs''
|-
| rezdowa
| to waste time
| {{Aedh|rwezidova}}
|-
| rɨna
| priest (non-Etúgəist)
| ''ruənah''
|-
| ro
| ten
| ''ro''
|-
| rołña
| to be insane
| {{Ndd|rålña}}
|-
| rodda
| to have; own
| ''roda''
|-
| roddu
| possessions; property
| ''rodu''
|-
| rote
| to eat (collq.)
| {{Aedh|rote}}
|-
| roznu
| voter
| ''rozaru''
|-
| rubbo
| to masturbate
| {{Ndd|ruvïvo}}
|-
| rubosso
| to haggle
| {{Ndd|rubåsto}} "be agressive"
|-
| rud
| member; citizen; person; man (arch.)
| ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rudza
| woman (somewhat formal)
| ''rud'' "man" + ''-sa''
|-
| russan [pl. ''rusnek'']
| to slander
| ''rušan'' "blame"
|-
| ryed
| head
| *''ræd'' "large pot," back-formation from ''rædel''
|-
| ryeddeł
| jar; container
| ''rædel''
|-
| ryeł [pl. ''ryełk'']
| to ride [a horse]
| ult. Gezoro *''rɜ̃lɛk''; final -''k'' re-analyzed as pl. suffix
|-
| ryen
| like; alike; as
| ''ræpen'' "instead of"
|-
| ryeñu
| instead of
| ''ræpen'' "instead of" + ''ouŋu'' "without"
|-
| ryeppu
| decoy; substitute
| ''ræpenbu'' "person instead of [someone else]"
|-
| ryettu
| to hear
| ''rætu''
|-
| ryommɨ
| earthquake
| ''reimur''
|-
| sadwa
| flatbread; sandwich
| {{Ndd|saodwa}}
|-
| seggan
| hurricane
| Coastal Ndd. ''segan''
|-
| sek
| name; nickname; word
| ''sek''
|-
| sekka
| to name; call
| ''seka''
|-
| seło
| hearth; cooking fire; stove; home (poetic)
| ''šælo''
|-
| sełsa
| dragonfly
| ''selo'' "spear" + ''-sa''
|-
| senat
| minister; official
| ''sernat''
|-
| sesan
| seventh day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''seošan''
|-
| sessɨ
| to crown a ruler (in a monarchy)
| ''šesuy''
|-
| sestsinte
| genealogy
| ''seziči'' "to be born" + -''nte'' (calque of {{Aedh|sīramĕd}})
|-
| Setek
| a city
| ''Sertek''
|-
| setim
| discuss; argue
| ''eséotim''
|-
| settsin
| profitable; fortunate
| ''sečasin''
|-
| siggił [pl. ''siglek'']
| to urinate
| ''sigil''
|-
| siło
| tooth
| ''silo''
|-
| sipa
| crab-claw sail
| [[Takuña]] ''sîpa''
|-
| sipagas
| type of ship
| ''sipa'' + ''gaos'' "boat"
|-
| sira
| prostitute
| back-formation from ''siralo'' < {{Ndd|siddalo}} "brothel"
|-
| sis
| mangy animal; cur; general insult
| ''sis'' "dog"
|-
| sissa
| general insult/profane exclamation
| ''sissa'' "female dog" and/or {{Ndd|sisha}} "piss"
|-
| sisyozza
| tomorrow [morning]
| ''si-seiza'' "that morning"
|-
| sɨn [pl. ''sɨñk'']
| to drink
| ''siən''
|-
| sɨnsɨ
| the day after tomorrow
| ''sur na-sur'' "the tomorrow of tomorrow"
|-
| sɨs
| good; kind (of actions or temperament)
| ''šuys'' "merciful, compassionate"
|-
| sɨso
| last night
| ''si-išo'' "that night"
|-
| sɨts
| both; each
| ''siəč'' "separate; apart"
|-
| slora
| to briefly forget
| {{Ndd|sloira}}
|-
| smoło
| gossip
| {{Ndd|smalo}} "seamstress' parlor"
|-
| smote
| farm
| irregular abbr. of ''musmate'' "agriculture"
|-
| smotebu
| farmer
| ''smote'' + -''bu''
|-
| snon
| land; ground
| {{Ndd|snan}}
|-
| -so
| causative suffix
| ''soy'' "to cause"
|-
| sobren
| clever person
| {{Aedh|sovren}} "expert"
|-
| sołan
| fat
| {{Ndd|shalan}} "obese"
|-
| sos
| second day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''sos''
|-
| sossa
| woman
| ''sossa'' "nubile girl"
|-
| sotya
| false knowledge (of the physical world - Etúgə terminology)
| ''satugə''
|-
| sozzi
| onion
| {{Ndd|sazi}}
|-
| stobi
| funny appendages on hats - a fashion of the decadent 5th century
| ''s''- pl. + {{Ndd|tobi}} "antler"
|-
| suddzi
| olive oil
| ''suji'' "to press"
|-
| sussilos
| neighboring country
| ''sušin'' "neighbor" + ''los''
|-
| swa
| knee; corner; bend (in a road)
| ''souŋ''
|-
| swebło
| bag; sack
| {{Ndd|swëvlo}}
|-
| syep
| to perform; effect; emit; utter; give (of acts; emotions; etc)
| ''sæp'' "to give"
|-
| syet
| money
| ''sæt'' "gold"
|-
| syetya
| virtue; morality
| ''sætugə''
|-
| syos
| parasite
| ''seiš'' "louse"
|-
| syoskaya
| mist
| "morning-fog"
|-
| syozza
| morning
| ''seiza'' "dawn"
|-
| te
| with; by
| ''eté''
|-
| teg [stem -''eteg'']
| thicket; cluster; patch; scattered group
| ''etéwg'' "forest"
|-
| tekka
| large crowd
| ''teka'' "army"
|-
| tid
| flea; speck
| ''tid''
|-
| tiddin
| small; slight; insignificant
| ''tid'' "flea" + ''-in''
|-
| tikwa
| anchor
| ''tikóu'' "stone"
|-
| tikweł
| stone; rock
| ''tikóu'' + -''l''
|-
| tɨ
| door
| ''tir''
|-
| tɨdu [stem -''etɨdu'']
| metal
| ''etíədu''
|-
| tɨnsał
| moment; second
| ''tiəŋišəl'' dim. of "flash; spark"
|-
| tɨñño
| stone (material)
| {{Ndd|tïño}}
|-
| tɨpas
| frame; doorway
| ''tir'' "door" + ''paš'' "socket"
|-
| toł
| light (n.), lamp; to shine; set alight
| ''tol''
|-
| Toło
| a member of the ethnic subgroup that follows Epɨmya
| ''Talo''
|-
| tos
| lawful; legal
| ''taš''
|-
| tosse
| around; surrounding; during
| ''etáše''
|-
| tottsa
| older sister
| ''tača''
|-
| tsa [pl. ''tsaññek'']
| to walk
| ''čeiŋ''
|-
| tsak
| king
| ''čaok''
|-
| tsanizzu
| outlaw; exile; fugitive
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''čanizzu''
|-
| tsanno
| to ask
| ''čeino''
|-
| tsapso
| to sneeze
| ''tsap'' (imit.) + ''-so''
|-
| tse
| one
| ''če''
|-
| tsebu
| student
| ''čeobu''
|-
| tsek
| to cast; scatter
| ''ček'' "throw''
|-
| tsełts
| danger; risk
| ''čelč''
|-
| tsemmał
| religious school; sect; faction
| ''ičǽməl'' "study; knowledge"
|-
| tsennu
| fire
| ''čæn'' "fire" + -''u''
|-
| tsenso
| to embarrass
| ''čæn'' "to burn" + -''so''
|-
| tsessum
| insignificant; pompous; over-stuffed
| ''čæšum'' "powerful; great" (via sarcastic usage)
|-
| tset
| to go bad (of milk etc.); perish; expire
| ''ečét'' "to wilt"
|-
| tsił
| barley
| ''čil''
|-
| tsiłsɨn
| beer
| "barley-drink" (calque from {{Ndd|sågïl}})
|-
| tsittsi
| lightning
| ''čičih''
|-
| tsɨpał
| denounce; curse
| ''čiəpal'' "whine; rant"
|-
| tsɨssɨnza
| barely make it through
| {{Ndd|cïstïnza}} "rough it"
|-
| tsɨza
| respectful address for a woman (an archaism); "milady"
| ''æč ioza'' "my lady"
|-
| tsoro
| junk; worthless stuff
| {{Ndd|coddo}} "dust"
|-
| tsure
| some other time [to avoid commitment]
| {{Ndd|cure}} "tomorrow"
|-
| twa
| lake
| ''tou''
|-
| twełyo
| duck
| ''tou'' "lake" + ''lei'' "bird"
|-
| twen
| hand
| ''toun''
|-
| twen
| thin; slim
| ''otóun''
|-
| tyeddi
| house; building; dwelling
| ''tædi'' "shelter"
|-
| tyem
| south
| ''tæm''
|-
| tyoñgas
| punt (used for transportation on Mɨdu's canals)
| ''teiŋgas''
|-
| tyossał
| pudenda (polite)
| ''teiš'' "fold" + -''l''
|-
| tyottu
| wide
| ''teitu''
|-
| Uboz
| the Ndak mother goddess (Ombási)
| ''Ubáz''
|-
| uggas
| storm
| ''ugaš'' "be a storm"
|-
| uła
| lift; pick up
| ''ulə''
|-
| ułga
| taste
| ''ulgə''
|-
| uksɨ
| to conspire; plot (a crime)
| ''ukšúy'' "to covet, long for the forbidden"
|-
| uro
| hostile; belligerent
| {{Ndd|uddo}}
|-
| ussa
| hello
| source equivalent to {{Ndd|usa}}
|-
| Usso
| the old capital of Huyfárah
| ''Ussor''
|-
| uyo
| after
| ''ugə''
|-
| wamyeg
| today
| ''wa-mæg'' "this today"
|-
| waso
| tonight
| ''wa-išo'' "this night"
|-
| wasyozza
| this morning
| ''wa-seiza''
|-
| wedde
| vegetable
| ''wede''
|-
| weddɨbye
| pickle (typically of root vegetables)
| ''wede diəbæŋ'' "vegetable-preserve"
|-
| weddza
| vixen; seductress
| ''oudisa'' "witch"
|-
| wegga
| in back of
| ''ougə''
|-
| wemmoł
| younger sister
| ''oumol''
|-
| wemmu
| older or distinguished woman, "lady"
| ''oumu'' "mother"
|-
| weñña
| ugly
| ''ouŋa'' "vulgar"
|-
| weñu
| without; except; but
| ''ouŋu''
|-
| weñÿebu
| tired
| ''ouŋu eobu'' "without sleep"
|-
| weppu
| to remember
| ''oupu''
|-
| wes
| friend
| {{NAis|wêbes}}
|-
| wezzu
| yesterday
| ''ouzu''
|-
| wiło [nom. ''siło'']
| house
| ''wilo''
|-
| wimma [nom. ''simma'']
| marsh
| ''wimə'' "mud"
|-
| wizza
| to make a commotion
| ''wiza'' "to shout"
|-
| wizze
| feast
| {{Ndd|vize}}
|-
| wɨm
| to live
| ''wiəm''
|-
| wɨmba
| papyrus
| {{Ndd|wïmva}}
|-
| wɨnseło
| grill; to grill
| ''wiəmu šælo'' "over the hearth"
|-
| wɨñgwe
| bridge
| ''wiəmu gou'' "over-road"
|-
| wɨñÿeło
| city canal
| ''wiəŋ noulo'' "wet street"
|-
| wobba
| to strike (with an object)
| ''wabə'' "to hit"
|-
| woddeł [pl. ''wodlek'']
| to wear (clothing)
| ''wodel''
|-
| wogga
| peace; quiet
| ''wagah''
|-
| wogyo
| shellfish
| {{Ndd|wogïño}} "shell"
|-
| Wołdulas
| the Fáralo kingdom centered on [[Ussor]]
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''Woldulaš''
|-
| woñoł
| shoe
| {{Ndd|woñol}} "boot"
|-
| wos
| to bury
| ''waš'' "to dig"
|-
| wos
| three
| ''wos''
|-
| wossats
| trireme
| ''wozgatač''
|-
| wosse
| this one; this person
| ''waše''
|-
| wozzon [pl. ''woznek'']
| to mess up
| {{Ndd|wåzon}} "to sneeze"
|-
| wuł
| country villa
| {{Aedh|vul}} "estate"
|-
| wuggu
| to cast blame; find guilty
| ''wugu''
|-
| yak
| all
| ''ege'' "all" + ''ak'' "them"
|-
| yane
| hidden; unclear; bizarre
| ''eione'' "obscure"
|-
| yanente
| esoteric study; mysticism
| ''eione'' "obscure" + -''mate''
|-
| yati
| week; calendar
| ''eioti'' "day"
|-
| yebba
| cool-witted; practical; smart
| ''æba'' "sober"
|-
| yedda
| corpse
| ''æda''
|-
| yedde
| to stand
| ''æde''
|-
| yegłu
| city; town
| ''ædelu''
|-
| yekka
| air
| ''ækə''
|-
| yemmał
| fly (insect)
| ''æməl''
|-
| yenna
| hungry
| ''æna''
|-
| yeñało
| army
| ''æŋéilo'' "military"
|-
| yestsoł
| bird
| {{Ndd|yësco}} "songbird" + ''-l''
|-
| yegwebbu
| rebel; deviant
| ''ægóubu'' "eccentric"
|-
| yettu
| old; former
| ''ætu''
|-
| Yetwa
| a district of Mɨdu
| ''ætu aə'' "old swamp"
|-
| yob
| green
| abbr. of ''yobbał'' < ''eibəl''
|-
| yobbin
| very cold
| ''eib'' "to freeze" + ''-in''
|-
| yobbɨ
| to swim
| ''eibur''
|-
| yodda
| spring (season)
| ''eibidə''
|-
| yodÿetti
| waterfall
| ''eidu æti'' "falling river"
|-
| yog
| put down; put away
| ''egág'' "to put"
|-
| Yogga
| the [[Aiwa|Eigə River]]
| ''Eigə''
|-
| yoha
| stupid
| {{NAis|ixoha}}
|-
| yokka
| animal
| ''eikə''
|-
| yokku
| to slaughter [an animal]
| ''eiku'' "to kill" - meaning influenced by ''yokka''
|-
| yoł [stem -''eyoł'']
| foot, base
| ''egól''
|-
| yorya
| string
| {{Ndd|yaddiga}}
|-
| yossi
| saw (tool)
| {{Ndd|yasi}} or {{Ad|iāsi}}
|-
| yoweł
| west
| ''eiwəl''
|-
| yoz
| to paint
| ''eiz''
|-
| yozzu
| paint, dye (n.)
| ''eiz'' + -''u''
|-
| ÿa
| wrong; no
| ''yeÿá'' < ''ægóu'' "wrong"
|-
| ÿem
| right (side)
| ''oæm''
|-
| ÿeppum
| useless
| ''wæpum'' "hollow"
|-
| ÿere
| to love; enjoy
| ''wære''
|-
| ÿeta
| of; for; about
| ''wætə''
|-
| ÿoł
| below; under
| ''wægól''
|-
| ÿoło
| garden; park
| ''weilo''
|-
| ÿosso
| now
| ''weišo''
|-
| zera
| copper
| {{Ad|zēra}}
|-
| zetsan
| pig
| {{Aedh|zæþṇ}}
|-
| zguruł
| intestines
| (pl. of ''guru'' "intestines" + ''-l'')
|-
| zi
| apple
| Miwan ''zi''
|-
| zin
| wine
| {{Ndd|zin}}
|-
| zmebło
| countryside
| (pl. of ''mebelo'' "farm")
|-
| znyoñɨbɨ
| tea; tisane
| ''zneiŋə hiəbur'' "to boil leaves"
|-
| zodwen
| face
| ''[lu-mabe] zordo-oun'' "the mouth and eyes"
|-
| zułk
| cheese
| {{Aedh|zūlx}}
|-
| zuma
| to loiter
| {{Aedh|zūma}} "to wait"
|-
| zyetya
| immorality
| ''huzyetya'' < ''huzǽtugə''
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Namɨdu/Lexicon

2016-10-24T02:38:03Z

Dunomapuka:

==Lexicon of Namɨdu==

'''See also:'''
* [[Namɨdu|Namɨdu grammar]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* WF = [[Woltu Falla]]
* Æð. = [[Æðadĕ]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* unmarked = [[Fáralo]]

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! '''Namɨdu Word'''
! '''Definition'''
! '''Etymon'''
|-
| aba
| mason; metalworker
| ''aoba''
|-
| akodag
| a sweet wine from [[Lasomo]]
| from the city of ''Akôdaig''
|-
| alo
| swamp
| ''aə'' "swamp" + ''-lo''
|-
| ała
| flower
| ''alóu''
|-
| Andok
| of the Ndok people
| ''əndók'' < {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| Andokasa
| the Ndok Aisô language
| ''əndokáisə'' < {{NAis|Ndok Aisô}}
|-
| alegdu
| constitution; contract
| ''alégadu''
|-
| anyen
| dry
| ''anǽn''
|-
| areł
| politics
| back-formation from ''arełbu''
|-
| arełbu
| politician
| ''arélibu'' "dissident"
|-
| asezzuł [pl. ''asezlek'']
| conquer
| ''as ezul'' "utterly take"
|-
| awobbo
| unhappy
| ''avávo'' "poor"
|-
| aya
| anxiety
| ''aogə'' "uncertainty"
|-
| Azbyebbu
| a city
| ''As Bǽbu'' "many anchors"
|-
| azin
| sophisticated
| {{Aedh|āz}} "city dweller" + ''-in''
|-
| babde
| uncle (father's older brother)
| ''baobadew''
|-
| badał
| statue
| from dim. of ''Baodan'', a 4th c. emperor
|-
| balɨ
| fifth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''baoluy''
|-
| Banoggo
| a city
| ''Barnágo''
|-
| bes
| first day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''bewš''
|-
| bible
| to massage
| {{Ndd|bivle}} "to touch gently"
|-
| biddzi
| leg
| *''biji'' < {{Ndd|bizri}}
|-
| bissa
| practical knowledge; to teach it
| ''bista'' < {{Aedh|biþta}} "to educate"
|-
| bɨda
| to be convinced; to take advice
| ''buədə'' "to listen"
|-
| bɨdaso
| to persuade; persuasion
| "cause to be convinced"
|-
| boddał
| grape
| {{Ndd|badal}} "berry"
|-
| bodde
| father
| ''badew''
|-
| bomma
| wheat; wheat flour
| ''bomə''
|-
| bop [stem ''-ebop'']
| chant (n.)
| ''ebóp'' "music"
|-
| borda
| to buy
| {{Ndd|bårëda}} "to acquire"
|-
| borɨ
| to appoint
| ''baruy''
|-
| bos
| calm; content
| ''bas''
|-
| bosse
| large branch; spine
| ''baše''
|-
| boÿon
| landlord
| {{Ndd|båwayån}} "lord"
|-
| bu
| four
| ''bu''
|-
| bura
| to decide; pick; vote
| ''ebúrə''
|-
| but
| near
| ''but''
|-
| bwes
| ox
| ''bous''
|-
| bwettsa
| daughter
| ''boéča''
|-
| Bwɨba
| [[Bwimbai]] (river); [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] (esp. in historical contexts)
| ''Boíəba''
|-
| bwogge
| to stir; mix
| ''boáge'' "push; impel"
|-
| byenna
| to ask
| ''bæna'' "to beg"
|-
| byenyoło
| non-Etúgə temple
| ''bænéilo''
|-
| byopsa
| vagina (somewhat impolite); all-purpose insult
| ''beibulsa''
|-
| byottsa
| leg (metaphorical); branch of a river
| ''beiča''
|-
| bÿa
| star
| ''boéi''
|-
| bÿonte
| astronomy
| ''boéimate''
|-
| bÿoya
| declination (of a star); latitude
| ''boéiægə''
|-
| bÿossi
| chaos
| ''boéisti'' "orgy"
|-
| dadan [pl. ''dadnak'']
| to dance
| ''daodan''
|-
| darud
| man (somewhat formal)
| ''dau'' "male" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| deło
| stage; porch; broad staircase
| ''edélo'' "theater; stage"
|-
| debło
| autumn; fall
| ''edébelo''
|-
| demu
| to hunt
| ''dewmuh''
|-
| deññeł
| finger
| {{Ndd|dëñe}} + -''l''
|-
| dettsin
| ink
| (from the name of a flower)
|-
| didda
| improbable
| ''dida'' "possible"
|-
| dizza
| stuff; pieces
| {{Ndd|diza-diza}}
|-
| dɨbo
| lard
| ''diəbo'' "fat, oil"
|-
| dɨlo
| secret; hidden thing
| back-formation from ''nadɨlo'' "hidden"
|-
| dobba
| white
| ''daba''
|-
| dobzyet
| silver
| ''daba'' "white" + ''syet'' "gold"
|-
| doggɨ
| to be in charge; command; host
| ''daguy'' "host"
|-
| Dok
| foreigner, but esp. the peoples of Kasca; (collq.) poor schmuck
| ''Edák''; but felt as the second element of ''Andok'', ''Doydok''
|-
| dorats
| lunch; dinner (large midday meal)
| ''dorač''
|-
| dos
| to pursue; sneak attack
| ''das'' "fight"
|-
| Doya
| Ndak paganism
| {{Ndd|Dï'aya}}
|-
| Doydok
| the Dāiadak people (archaic)
| ''dayadok''
|-
| dukkas
| teacher
| ''dukəs''
|-
| dumbi
| stray animal
| {{Aedh|dūmvi}} "homeless; stray"
|-
| dwa
| five
| ''dou''
|-
| dwemma
| glass
| ''doumah''
|-
| dya
| thumb
| ''deiŋ'' "finger"
|-
| dye
| hill
| ''dæŋ'' "mountain"
|-
| Dyeññał
| a hill and district in Mɨdu
| ''dæŋəl'' "little hill"
|-
| dyempɨ
| goat
| ''dæŋ pir'' "mountain-goat"
|-
| dyok
| haunted
| back-formation from ''dyokło''
|-
| dyokło
| haunted area
| ''deiklo''
|-
| dyonne
| facility; skill
| ''deine'' "smarts; cunning"
|-
| dyop
| punk, insolent youngster
| ''deip'' "young (of an animal)"
|-
| dzappa
| insult
| ''jeipə''
|-
| dzeddze
| that one; that person
| ''jæje''
|-
| dzegga
| belligerent
| ''jægə'' "wrathful"
|-
| dzen
| knife
| ''jæn''
|-
| dzes
| maybe
| ''ješ'' "probably"
|-
| dzibbe
| evil
| ''jibe'' "bad"
|-
| dzibbɨs
| to wheeze
| ''jibe uəš'' "badly breathe"
|-
| dzɨku
| strong
| ''jiəku'' "hard"
|-
| dzɨna
| slow
| ''jiwnə''
|-
| dzɨnaba
| ironsmith
| ''dzɨni'' + ''aba''
|-
| dzɨni
| iron
| ''jiənih''
|-
| dzombu
| traveler
| ''dzoññu'' + ''-bu''
|-
| dzoññu
| to travel
| ''jaŋu'' "to move"
|-
| dzoritsi
| to wake up
| ''jori'' "awaken" + ''-tsi'' reflexive
|-
| ebe
| short
| ''ebewr''
|-
| ebu
| to sleep
| ''eobu''
|-
| ebyeru
| tree bark
| ''ebǽru''
|-
| ebyeruł
| husk of a fruit
| ''ebǽru'' + -''l''
|-
| edastan
| of the Edastean peoples
| reborrowing of ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" + -''n''
|-
| eddenilos
| holy land (a formulation of some religious texts)
| ''edewnin'' "holy" + ''los''
|-
| Edossa
| the [[Naidda]] language
| ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" (latter is now ''Ñÿeru Edossa'')
|-
| edya
| tree
| ''edéi''
|-
| edyołas
| forest
| ''edéi'' + ''laš''
|-
| Edzada
| the Æðadĕ language; or one of its speakers (collq. and slightly despective)
| {{Aedh|Æðadĕ}}
|-
| egyottsa
| stairs
| ''egéi čeiŋ'' "up-walk"
|-
| ekɨ
| blessing; third day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''ekúi''
|-
| Eklodo
| [[Akelodo]], the largest city of Lasomo
| {{Aedh|Æxloðo}}
|-
| ełpe
| to melt (intr.)
| ''elpe''
|-
| ełpso
| to melt (tr.); heat up
| ''elpe'' + -''so''
|-
| ente
| to be unsure
| ''eomate'' "to guess"
|-
| Entsełde
| historical name for Akelodo
| ''Enčélade''
|-
| epa
| likeness
| ''ewpa'' "statue"
|-
| epał
| figurine
| ''ewpa'' "statue" + ''-l''
|-
| epe
| to sit; stay
| ''epé''
|-
| Epɨm
| a follower of Epɨmya in the religious sense, cf. Toło
| ''epúonim'' "heathen"
|-
| Epɨmya
| the religion of the Epɨm
| ''Epɨm'' + -''ya''
|-
| eppa
| light; easy
| ''epaf''
|-
| eps
| destruction; to destroy
| ''epš''
|-
| epsło
| encampment
| ''epšilo'' "ruins"
|-
| ero
| nasty (of behavior; weather; events)
| {{Ndd|eddor}} "caustic"
|-
| es
| six
| ''eš''
|-
| esko
| hospitable
| {{Aedh|æþko}}
|-
| essen [pl. ''esnek'']
| to act; behave
| ''ešen''
|-
| etsa
| to lose [a game; battle]
| ''eočeiŋ'' "to stumble"
|-
| Etugga
| the Etúgə religion
| ''Etúgə''
|-
| Etugenna
| the Etúgə world
| ''Etúgə'' + ''-enna''
|-
| ewa
| snake
| ''ewa''
|-
| fissas
| criminal (n.)
| ''fistaš'' "unlawful"
|-
| fogga
| make; create
| ''foga''
|-
| foggał
| small artwork; knicknack
| ''foga'' "create" + -''l''
|-
| fogło
| store; shop
| ''fogalo'' "workshop"
|-
| Forło
| a Fáralo language, or simply "language"; of Fáralo culture
| ''Fáralo''
|-
| forłobu
| a Fáralo person (male)
| ''forło'' + -''bu''
|-
| forłosa
| a Fáralo person (female)
| ''forło'' + -''sa''
|-
| gas
| boat
| ''gaos''
|-
| gets
| fourth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''geoč''
|-
| gitsa-gitsa
| wait a minute (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| gɨppi
| to answer; reply
| ''guətu ebí'' "therefore say"
|-
| go [pl. ''gohek'']
| to reject; dismiss
| ''gah'' "to mock"
|-
| goffats
| crime
| ''gafač''
|-
| gonnin
| elder brother
| ''gonin''
|-
| gossu
| rabbit
| ''gašu''
|-
| gottats
| galley
| ''gatač''
|-
| gotte
| wood
| ''gate''
|-
| gotteł
| floor
| ''gatel'' "board"
|-
| gubbe
| to let go; let out (from)
| ''gube'' "to survive; escape"
|-
| gurima
| to betray
| {{Aedh|gujrima}}
|-
| gwa
| road
| ''gou''
|-
| gwedda
| dream
| ''goudah''
|-
| gwegga
| to break; rip
| ''gouga''
|-
| gyo
| to; at
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyorit
| until
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyopsa
| sheep
| ''geipša''
|-
| hadɨ
| out; outside of
| ''hadír''
|-
| handya
| small town; village
| {{Aedh|hānðjĕ}}
|-
| Hayibbał
| the Fáralo sphere (comprising former Huyfárah)
| ''Hagíbəl''
|-
| hebben
| mumble
| ''heben''
|-
| hebu
| single; particular; specific
| ''hewbu'' "solitary"
|-
| hesom
| coat
| {{Aedh|hesom}} "outer garment"
|-
| hessara
| to organize; sort; tidy up
| {{Aedh|hestara}}
|-
| hewe
| water, liquid
| ''hewe''
|-
| hinna
| to lie
| {{Aedh|himna}}
|-
| hisłu
| son
| ''hislu'' "heir"
|-
| Hissɨna
| northeastern Peilaš, beyond Huyfárah
| ''Histuənə'' "[[Siixtaguna]]"
|-
| hitya
| the physical world (Etúgə terminology)
| ''hitugə''
|-
| hɨbɨ
| to cook
| ''hiəbur'' "to boil"
|-
| hɨbu
| frog
| *''hiəbu'' < ''hiebu''
|-
| hɨm
| cloud
| ''hiəm''
|-
| hɨnsa
| to fix; tend to
| ''huənšar'' "help; aid"
|-
| hɨte
| strange; disconcerting
| ''hiəteŋ'' "different"
|-
| Hɨwora
| the old Fáralo nation; the entire Fáralo sphere (obs.)
| ''Huyfárah''
|-
| ho
| meat
| ''ha''
|-
| hob
| to eat
| ''hab''
|-
| hobasa
| esophagus
| ''hab'' "to eat" + ''harsa'' "tube"
|-
| hodzan
| mountain pass
| {{Aedh|xōðan}}
|-
| hokez
| caveat
| {{Aedh|xokez}}
|-
| hołnadu
| republic
| ''halenadu''
|-
| howe
| broth
| ''ho hewe'' "meat-water"
|-
| howen
| food
| ''[mik] ha-oun'' "bread and meat"
|-
| hudde
| eight
| ''hude''
|-
| Huppa
| Sútapaj, a philosopher/saint of the Etúgə tradition
| ''Hutaba''
|-
| huz
| rat
| ''huz'' "mouse"
|-
| hwa
| beach
| ''hou'' "coast"
|-
| hwezzu
| left (side)
| ''houzuŋ''
|-
| hya
| blue
| ''hei''
|-
| hyoł
| foreign country; unknown place
| ''heil'' "foreign"
|-
| hyołbu
| foreigner
| ''heil'' + -''bu''
|-
| hyomma
| wait; delay
| ''heimə''
|-
| hyotte
| correct
| ''heite'' "neat; proper"
|-
| ibbał
| north
| ''ibəl''
|-
| ibbe
| handle; use; operate
| ''ibe'' "touch; use"
|-
| ibbu
| weapon
| ''ibu'' "tool"
|-
| idɨ
| sea; ocean
| ''idúəŋ''
|-
| idɨnda
| fisherman
| ''idúəŋ-dau'' "sea-man"
|-
| idɨño
| salt
| ''idúəŋ-oa'' "sea-salt"
|-
| idÿe
| arm
| ''idwæ''
|-
| iłseza
| morning glory
| {{Ndd|ilseza}}
|-
| iłts
| black
| ''ilč''
|-
| iłtsaz
| to forbid
| ''ilč eiz'' "paint black"
|-
| iłtsazin
| forbidden
| ''iłtsaz'' + ''-in''
|-
| Iłtsizɨme
| the river that runs through Mɨdu
| ''Ilčizúəme'', from local Ndd. *''ilči sume'' "black water"
|-
| igga
| unknown thing; thingamajig
| ''igə'' "which one"
|-
| igri
| receive; let in; tolerate; put in place
| ''igrih'' "absorb; dissolve"
|-
| ippa
| to taste; smell
| ''ipah'' "to perceive"
|-
| ippi
| liver
| ''ipi''
|-
| irło
| window
| ''iru'' "to open" + ''-lo''
|-
| isa
| before
| ''isə''
|-
| isezzuł
| to put forth; take; hold
| ''isə ezul'' "take before"
|-
| issape
| summer; (metaphorically) flourishing; success
| ''išaupe''
|-
| isso
| cotton
| {{Ndd|isceo}}
|-
| isyenna
| salvation; the spiritual world
| ''ifisænə''
|-
| Ittizan
| of the Hitatc peoples
| {{Ad|Itatizan}}
|-
| iznɨs
| gasp
| ''izin uəš'' "suddenly breathe"
|-
| ɨb
| month
| ''iəb''
|-
| ɨbweddu
| one hundred
| ''iəb'' + ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| ɨda
| term of address for men; "sir"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''dau'' "male"
|-
| ɨdołyog
| sunset; dusk
| ''iodol'' "sun" + ''egág'' "put [down]"
|-
| ɨdruła
| sunrise; dawn
| *ɨdłuła < ''iodol'' "sun" + ''ulə'' "rise"
|-
| ɨlo
| non-Etúge person
| ''uwlo'' "barbarian"
|-
| ɨmya
| yellow
| ''uwméi''
|-
| ɨmyał
| egg yolk
| ''uwméi'' + ''-l''
|-
| ɨñe
| term of address for women; "ma'am"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ɨño
| to kill
| {{Ndd|ïño}}
|-
| ɨroppo
| vinegar
| ''ior apo'' "sour fruit"
|-
| ɨs
| to breathe
| ''uəš''
|-
| ɨsala
| noble house (in the northern states)
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''üšala''
|-
| ɨseło
| household; family; noble house (obs.)
| ''io šælo'' "noble hearth"
|-
| ɨta
| weigh; measure
| ''iətə'' "hang; suspend"
|-
| ɨzi
| pickled apple
| ''ior zi'' "sour apple"
|-
| kałto
| wind
| ''kaltó''
|-
| kattsa
| aunt
| ''kaotača''
|-
| katya
| gold
| {{Ad|kātia}}
|-
| kawu
| Etúgəist priest
| ''kəwú''
|-
| kaya
| fog
| ''kaogə''
|-
| kayoddin
| uncle (father's younger brother)
| ''kaogádin''
|-
| kaza-kaza
| leave me alone (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| kebbats
| supper (evening meal)
| ''kebač'' "dinner"
|-
| kełbo
| item of clothing
| {{Bur|kɛlbo}} "cloak"
|-
| kets
| angry; annoyed
| ''keoč''
|-
| Ketsenna
| the world
| ''Kečǽnə''
|-
| kettsem
| to bless; dedicate; honor [a ceremony]
| ''kečem''
|-
| kippa
| alcohol; booze
| ''kipa'' "rice alcohol"
|-
| Kɨkkałto
| the north wind
| ''kuət kaltó'' "demon wind"
|-
| kɨnzo
| good
| {{Ndd|kïnzo}} "kind"
|-
| kɨta
| demon
| ''kuət'' - with possible interference by {{Ndd|kwɨda}}
|-
| kodda
| to cover; paint over; a curtain
| ''kodə''
|-
| kodda
| to work tirelessly
| ''ekádə'' "to continue; persist"
|-
| kokło
| border
| ''kaklo''
|-
| koppe
| ages past; "way back when"
| ''kape'' "last year"
|-
| koya
| language
| {{Ad|koia}} "tongue"
|-
| Kozyad
| the nation of [[Kasca]]
| ''Kazəgad''
|-
| kozził [pl. ''kozlek'']
| to see; look at
| ''kazil''
|-
| kpɨma
| smoke
| ''kpuəma''
|-
| kreta
| to capture; seize goods
| ''kreota''
|-
| kros
| brave (esp. in warfare); mighty
| ''kraš''
|-
| kryewa
| breakfast
| ''kræwa'' "porridge"
|-
| ku
| spirit; mind
| ''ku''
|-
| kuffas
| Etúgəist temple
| ''kufas''
|-
| kukka
| hiccup
| ''kuka''
|-
| kumpeł
| tomb
| ''kumepél'' "graveyard"
|-
| kusryem
| olive
| ''kusræm''
|-
| kussu
| to cough
| ''kušu''
|-
| kuz
| book
| ''kuz'' "records; archives"
|-
| kuzło
| cabinet; bookshelf
| ''kuzlo'' "library; archive"
|-
| kwañopsi
| brooch
| {{Bur|kwəñápsi}}
|-
| kweñña
| ring (jewelry)
| {{Bur|kwɛña}}
|-
| kwin
| sacred
| ''kuin''
|-
| kwo
| awful, terrible
| {{Ndd|kwå}} "stinky"
|-
| kwodmał
| to break in (shoes, clothes)
| {{Ndd|kwado'mal}}
|-
| kwosso
| skin rash
| {{Ndd|kwashor}}
|-
| kwuła
| to speak
| ''kouwə ulə'' "raise the tongue"
|-
| kya [stem -''ekya'']
| egg
| ''ekéi''
|-
| kyedda
| ash
| ''kæda''
|-
| kyelin
| wool
| ''kænil'' "hair" + ''-in''
|-
| kyennił
| hair (coll.)
| ''kænil''
|-
| kyewe
| egg white
| ''ekéi hewe'' "egg-water"
|-
| kyołu
| tunic; shirt
| ''keilu''
|-
| kyonte
| medicine
| ''keipmate'' "herblore"
|-
| kyop
| grass
| ''keip''
|-
| kyopło
| field; meadow
| ''keipło'' "pasture"
|-
| kyozze
| snow
| ''keize''
|-
| lama
| tall
| ''laoma'' "long"
|-
| lasa
| hour
| by haplology from *''lāsāsa'' < ''laršaošə''
|-
| le
| question particle; yes (informal)
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| legga
| word (esp. as a formula or declaration)
| ''lega''
|-
| leggał
| to write
| ''legal''
|-
| legyossa
| poetry; verse
| ''legéiša''
|-
| leł
| to jot down; scribble
| {{Ndd|lëål}} "write"
|-
| lepeło
| throne
| ''lu-epélo'' "the chair"
|-
| les
| free (in legal sense); unattached; acting at will
| ''lews''
|-
| Lesfora
| [[Lewsfárah]], the southern Fáralo republican state
| ''lews'' "free" + ''-fárah'' from ''Huyfárah''
|-
| lesso
| to set free; liberate
| "cause to be free"
|-
| lestsa
| steady; resolute; undeterred
| ''lews čeiŋ'' "walking freely"
|-
| leswɨm
| free (politically)
| ''lews wiəm'' "living freely"
|-
| lette
| yes
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| lettse
| eighth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''lečew''
|-
| Lidɨ [Nanozza]
| the ocean to the east of Peilaš
| late {{Fá|lu-idúəŋ na-nazə}} "the eastern ocean"
|-
| liwu
| loser
| {{Aedh|lwīvu}}
|-
| lizyuł
| to shiver
| ''lizegu'' "to shake" + dim.
|-
| lɨdoł
| the sun
| ''lu-iodol''
|-
| lɨmu
| smile; be pleased
| ''liəmu''
|-
| lobba
| snub
| ''labaf'' "ignore"
|-
| lod
| good; honest
| ''lad'' "healthy"
|-
| lodzu
| history
| ''lu-adulsu'' "the story"
|-
| lołpo
| heal; cure
| ''lalpo''
|-
| lonte
| quackery; nonsensical practice
| ''ladmate'' "medicine"
|-
| Lonto
| the Ici Forest
| {{Bur|lo ntɔh}} "the forest"
|-
| loñeñga
| ceremony
| ''lu-oyŋǽŋga'' "something solemn"
|-
| los
| land; nation; region
| ''laš''
|-
| losał
| agreement; pact
| ''lu-ošyal'' "proposal"
|-
| Losmu
| the nation of Lasomo
| ''Lašumu''
|-
| loz
| to shut
| ''laz''
|-
| luboz
| sixth day of the week
| ''lu-ubáz''
|-
| Ludyoddin
| the god of the Epɨm
| ''lu-Deidin'' "the numinous"
|-
| lumessɨ
| Namɨdu (collq.)
| ''lu-'' + {{Ndd|mestïng}} "dialect"
|-
| lumbye
| to act foolishly
| ''luba mæ'' "believe a falsehood"
|-
| luñɨb
| the moon
| ''luŋ-iəb''
|-
| lusek
| personal name
| ''lu-sek'' "the name"
|-
| lyod
| year
| ''leid''
|-
| lyoło
| birdcage
| ''lei'' "bird" + -''lo''
|-
| lyosło
| winter
| ''leišolo'' "cold time"
|-
| lyosso
| boring
| ''leišo'' "cold"
|-
| lÿenna
| hunger
| ''lu-æna''
|-
| madottɨ
| to disapprove
| ''madátuy'' "not allow"
|-
| madzen
| something useless or ineffective
| ''mau jæn'' "dull knife"
|-
| male
| man, guy
| {{Ndd|malë}} "old man"
|-
| malusme
| houseboat
| {{Bur|mlusɔmɛ}}
|-
| mamma
| mother
| baby-talk formation
|-
| mappÿa
| astrolabe
| ''mateboéi''
|-
| mareła
| to ignore; neglect
| ''maróulə'' "not care for"
|-
| mas
| hammer
| ''marš''
|-
| masa
| cow milk
| {{NAis|maisa}}
|-
| masere
| to hate; despise
| ''mašǽre'' "not love"
|-
| masobba
| to miss; make a mistake
| ''mašábə'' "not hit"
|-
| mayuttsił
| to enjoy oneself; be leisurely; take one's time
| ''makúčil'' "not rush"
|-
| me
| to say (used for reported speech)
| {{Ndd|me}}
|-
| mede
| semen; to ejaculate
| ''meode'' "spurt; splatter"
|-
| mekot
| younger brother; subordinate
| ''meokát''
|-
| midzenna
| to have an affair
| ''midišǽna'' "to fornicate"
|-
| mezzeł
| greet; say hello
| ''mezel''
|-
| mik
| [loaf of] bread
| ''mik''
|-
| mipma
| drugs (as a raw substance)
| ''mipimə'' "dough"
|-
| mipi
| nothing
| ''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail"
|-
| mipoł
| impolite
| ''mipól'' "indecent"
|-
| mise
| to give
| ''mišǽf'' "to owe"
|-
| mitsen
| cold
| ''mi čæn'' "no fire"
|-
| mittsidde
| to bake
| ''mik ečíde'' "to cook bread"
|-
| mɨbzin
| primitive
| ''muəbazin'' "anarchic"
|-
| mɨdo
| blind
| ''miordo''
|-
| Mɨdu
| a major city
| ''Miədu''
|-
| mɨmisso
| to bewilder; enchant
| ''muymis'' "stupid" + ''-so''
|-
| mɨpa
| deaf
| ''miopə''
|-
| mo
| color
| {{Ndd|mo}}
|-
| mobbe
| mouth
| ''mabe''
|-
| moddesen
| violence; force
| ''made ešen'' "violent action"
|-
| modu
| chest
| ''mordu''
|-
| modu
| in front of
| ''umórdu''
|-
| moła
| full
| ''mola''
|-
| moła
| to choose
| ''molar'' "prefer"
|-
| mołna
| to notice
| ''molinə'' "to not not know"
|-
| moppał
| magnet; compass
| ''matibəl''
|-
| mospo
| penis
| {{Ndd|mospo}} (has lost rude connotations)
|-
| mossin
| urban; public; societal
| ''mastin'' "governmental; public" AND ''mosin'' "civilized; urban"
|-
| moswe
| harbor; port town
| ''mosou''
|-
| mots
| kitchen
| ''mač'' "table"
|-
| mottsud
| slave
| ''mačud''
|-
| motya
| the physically impossible (Etúgə terminology)
| ''matugə''
|-
| motyan
| impossible
| ''motya'' + ''-n''
|-
| mowe
| sex act
| {{Ndd|måwë}} "to fellate"
|-
| mu
| on; above
| *''wiəmú'' < ''wiəmu'' (stress shift via analogy with ''wægól'')
|-
| mubba
| worm
| ''muba''
|-
| mudzada
| to take drugs (esp. hallucinogens)
| {{Aedh|mūðada}}
|-
| muła
| ice
| ''mula''
|-
| mus
| grow, become
| ''mus''
|-
| mussuta
| ideology; belief
| ''mušidutə''
|-
| mya
| trade; to trade
| ''mei''
|-
| mwa
| skin
| ''mou''
|-
| mweddu
| number; quantity
| ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| mweru
| narrow
| ''mouru''
|-
| myebił
| pastry; cookie
| dim. of ''myebim''
|-
| myebim
| cake
| {{Aedh|mjebim}} "dough"
|-
| myeg
| day
| ''mæg'' "today"
|-
| myem
| seven
| ''mæm''
|-
| myessa
| cow
| ''mæsa''
|-
| myoł [pl. ''myołk'']
| to read
| ''meil''
|-
| myosko
| drunk
| {{Ndd|myåsko}} "to party"
|-
| nadɨ
| in; at
| ''nadír''
|-
| nadɨlo
| secret; hidden
| ''nadírlo''
|-
| nadyog
| to put in
| ''nadír egág''
|-
| nanu
| to separate; cut
| ''naonu''
|-
| nañga
| split; schism
| ''naoŋga''
|-
| naplekɨ
| goodbye (formal)
| ''enouplu-ekúi'' < ''enóun pein lu-ekúi'' "go with blessing"
|-
| naro
| horse (arch. or poetic)
| ''narór''
|-
| [koya] Nasomo
| the Æðadĕ language
| partial calque of {{Aedh|Gujĕ æx Somo}} "language of Lasomo"
|-
| nazdya
| next to; touching
| ''na-zdeiŋ'' "at the fingers"
|-
| nazyoł
| among; between
| ''na-zegól'' "at the feet"
|-
| nełdzen
| to tweak; adjust
| ''neljæn'' "to twist"
|-
| negge
| (the) best
| ''nege'' "the most"
|-
| nes
| sick; ill
| ''neos''
|-
| nił
| nine
| ''nil''
|-
| niñi
| pointless
| {{Ndd|ni'ñi}} "pointlessly"
|-
| nɨlo
| mass grave
| ''niogalo'' "battlefield"
|-
| nɨma
| condescending
| ''nuəma'' "to boast"
|-
| nɨs
| to cheat
| ''nuəš''
|-
| nɨya
| war
| ''nioga''
|-
| nobbe
| dark red (esp. as a heraldic color)
| ''nabe''
|-
| nobwima
| clay
| ''nabe wimə'' "red mud"
|-
| nogga
| pagan god
| ''nagə''
|-
| nogga
| interior; room
| ''naga'' "inner"
|-
| noggu
| bear (animal)
| ''nagu''
|-
| nogya
| paganism
| ''nogga'' + -''ya''
|-
| nokwi
| (a) fur
| {{Bur|nakwi}}
|-
| nokwimya
| fur trade
| ''nokwi'' + ''mya''
|-
| noł
| mouse
| {{Ndd|nål}}
|-
| nołñu
| to clean (one's house); tidy up
| ''naluŋuh'' "to arrange; organize"
|-
| nom
| small
| Coastal Ndd. ''nam''
|-
| nonnanu
| to cut into small pieces
| ''nom'' + ''nanu''
|-
| nora
| to exit (from a building)
| {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noskɨ
| to take off; remove
| ''naskuy'' "exile; cast out"
|-
| noyo
| work; job
| ''naei''
|-
| noyu
| noodles (now a staple)
| ''nayu''
|-
| nozza
| east
| ''nazə''
|-
| nubazzi
| religious epiphany; enlightenment
| ''nubázi'' (reborrowing)
|-
| nweło
| street
| ''noulo''
|-
| nwen [pl. ''nweñk'']
| to go; leave
| ''noun''
|-
| nwentsi
| to forget
| reflexive of ''noun'' "to go"
|-
| nyedde
| to feel (an emotion); intuit
| ''enǽde''
|-
| nyemmu
| red
| ''næmuh'' "orange"
|-
| ñabba
| toe
| ''ŋeibə''
|-
| ñadde
| to clean
| ''ŋeide'' "to wipe"
|-
| ñadɨbu
| dog
| ''ŋa-duəbu'' "sniffer"
|-
| ñagosso
| leather
| {{NAis|ngagôstad}}
|-
| ñalazbod
| confusing (esp. visually)
| ''ŋalər zebód'' "too many colors"
|-
| ñanɨma
| jerk; asshole
| ''ŋa-nuəma'' "boaster"
|-
| ñassis
| traitor; enemy
| ''ŋastís'' "villain"
|-
| Ñe
| title for women; "Mrs."/"Ms."
| ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ñegłu
| to accompany
| {{Bur|ñedɛlu}}
|-
| ñenne
| neck
| ''ŋæne''
|-
| ñi
| two
| ''ŋi''
|-
| ñɨbuł
| needle
| ''ŋiəbul''
|-
| ñɨne
| neurotic; overly cautious
| ''ŋuəne'' "prudent; cautious"
|-
| ñoł
| more
| ''ŋal'' "very"
|-
| ñołdzɨ
| tall
| ''ŋal jiə'' "very tall"
|-
| ñołyoł
| flood
| ''ŋalleil''
|-
| ñonne
| business connection
| {{Bur|ñanɛ}} "connection"
|-
| ñopsa
| thick; heavy
| ''ŋapšə''
|-
| Ñoru
| of the Ngauro people
| ''ŋouru'' (reborrowing)
|-
| ñosłok
| idiot
| ''ŋa-oslók'' "forgetter"
|-
| ñuffe
| cat
| ''ŋufew'' < {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñura
| brown
| ''ŋura''
|-
| Ñÿalo
| the city of Ñolo in Kasca
| ''Ŋourlo''
|-
| ñÿeru
| ancient
| ''ŋouru''
|-
| obbo
| peccadillo; misdemeanor
| {{Ndd|avå}} "break the law"
|-
| oddu
| to come
| ''odu''
|-
| odoł
| eye
| ''ordo'' + -''l''
|-
| odwa
| unclear
| ''adwə'' "dark"
|-
| odza
| to tell [a story]
| ''adulsə''
|-
| odzu
| story
| ''adulsu''
|-
| oggu
| happy
| ''agu''
|-
| ogło
| inn; lodging; (euph.) brothel
| ''odulo'' "destination"
|-
| ogyu
| expectation; to expect
| ''agiu'' "hope"
|-
| okmu
| wax
| ''akremu''
|-
| okrem
| seal; to seal closed
| back-formation from ''akremu''
|-
| olo
| ugly (of views; objects)
| {{Ndd|åilo}}
|-
| oł [pl. ''ołk'']
| to want; desire
| ''al''
|-
| ołdo
| to inherit
| ''oludo'' "deserve"
|-
| ołdu
| inheritance; property (land; money)
| ''oludu'' "deserts"
|-
| ołgo
| despite; against; than
| ''algo''
|-
| ołmo
| to steal; filch (esp. from a street vendor)
| {{Ndd|ålmo}}
|-
| ołna
| to not know
| ''olinə''
|-
| ołpo
| to build; to craft; a craft
| ''olpo'' "manufacture"
|-
| ołpu
| craftsman
| ''alpobu''
|-
| ołtoł
| storage area
| ''atelol''
|-
| Ołtu
| a river of central Huyfárah
| ''Oltu''
|-
| ombe
| thunder; to thunder
| ''abunde''
|-
| ombu
| criminal
| ''ammubu'' "thief"
|-
| oñan
| unreachable
| {{Ndd|ålña}} "to fly" + -''in''
|-
| oño
| crayfish
| {{Ndd|orñevo}}
|-
| oppał
| ear
| ''opə'' + -''l''
|-
| oppo
| fruit
| ''apo''
|-
| optu
| something unsettling; to be perturbed
| ''apridu'' "horror"
|-
| opwo
| a type of stew
| {{NAis|[seu od] ópôxeu}} "meat and fruit"
|-
| oreł
| to ignite
| {{Ndd|oreål}} "to catch fire"
|-
| osał
| to propose; suggest
| ''ošyal''
|-
| osawu
| human sacrifice
| ''oisawú'' < {{NAis|oisaxud}}
|-
| oso
| play a game
| {{Ndd|oiså}} "participate"
|-
| ospu
| chief (of a tribe); leader (of a work group, etc.); head (of a queue, etc.)
| ''ašubu'' "chieftain"
|-
| ossin
| heavy
| ''asin''
|-
| otte
| to guard
| ''ate'' "to keep"
|-
| ottebu
| a guard
| ''otte'' + -''bu''
|-
| ottu
| wealth
| ''atu'' "possession"
|-
| ottun
| wealthy
| ''ottu'' + -''in''
|-
| Oypawa
| Oigop'oibauxeu
| Æð. ''Ojpavaw''
|-
| pada
| valley
| ''pardə''
|-
| pagu
| horse
| {{Bur|pə’águ}} "pack horse"
|-
| peppe [stem ''-epeppe'']
| breast
| ''epépe''
|-
| pesen
| ready; alert
| ''pea ešen'' "readily act"
|-
| pi
| small thing; trifle
| ''pi'' "fingernail"
|-
| piggał
| main; primary
| ''pigəl'' "first"
|-
| piła
| to send
| ''pila''
|-
| piñña
| chicken
| {{Ndd|piña}}
|-
| pissił
| dead
| ''pišil'' "grey, pale"
|-
| pɨ
| child (collq.)
| ''pir'' "goat"
|-
| pɨdyemis
| understand; realize
| ''piədæmis''
|-
| połge
| orange (fruit)
| ''Palge'', a [[Kasca|Kascan]] city which exports oranges
|-
| ponda
| purple
| {{Ndd|panada}}
|-
| poppu
| disgust; to be disgusted
| ''popu'' "fear"
|-
| potsna
| to count
| ''pačuna''
|-
| potte
| to find; obtain
| ''epáte'' "to investigate; research"
|-
| pryen
| to design
| ''præn''
|-
| pubbɨt
| to attack
| ''pubiət'' "to threaten"
|-
| puwa
| nose
| ''puwə''
|-
| pwekku
| snub; slight; insult
| ''pouku'' "refuse; deny"
|-
| pwen
| island
| ''poun''
|-
| pya
| big; great
| ''pei''
|-
| pyen
| bite; chew; kiss (inf.)
| ''pæn''
|-
| pyodde
| loud
| ''peide''
|-
| Pyołas
| the continent on which Mɨdu is situated
| ''Peilaš''
|-
| pyombu
| (a) bourgeois; business owner
| ''pei meibu'' "big trader", but often explained as ''pyon-bu'' "with-person"
|-
| pyon
| with; having
| ''pein''
|-
| Pyopros
| the Poráš river
| ''pei'' "great" + ''Poráš''
|-
| pyossa [stem ''-epyossa'']
| fish
| ''epéiša''
|-
| pÿeggo
| waterfront
| {{Ndd|pyuego}} "dock"
|-
| pÿen [stem ''-epÿen'']
| ball; lump
| ''epoǽn''
|-
| rał
| to pour
| ''raul'' "to fill"
|-
| re
| smooth; flat; straight
| ''rewŋ''
|-
| rełga
| hot
| ''relga''
|-
| rełgło
| cauldron; cooking pot; stew
| ''relga'' + ''-lo''
|-
| rełsa
| caretaker; nurse
| ''roulə'' "care for" + -''sa''
|-
| reñał
| platform; deck [of a ship]; storey
| ''rewŋəl''
|-
| Reñło
| the plains of SW Huyfárah
| ''rewŋlo'' "plains"
|-
| rettsɨs
| menstruation
| ''rečiəs''
|-
| rezdowa
| to waste time
| {{Aedh|rwezidova}}
|-
| rɨna
| priest (non-Etúgəist)
| ''ruənah''
|-
| ro
| ten
| ''ro''
|-
| rołña
| to be insane
| {{Ndd|rålña}}
|-
| rodda
| to have; own
| ''roda''
|-
| roddu
| possessions; property
| ''rodu''
|-
| rote
| to eat (collq.)
| {{Aedh|rote}}
|-
| roznu
| voter
| ''rozaru''
|-
| rubbo
| to masturbate
| {{Ndd|ruvïvo}}
|-
| rubosso
| to haggle
| {{Ndd|rubåsto}} "be agressive"
|-
| rud
| member; citizen; person; man (arch.)
| ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rudza
| woman (somewhat formal)
| ''rud'' "man" + ''-sa''
|-
| russan [pl. ''rusnek'']
| to slander
| ''rušan'' "blame"
|-
| ryed
| head
| *''ræd'' "large pot," back-formation from ''rædel''
|-
| ryeddeł
| jar; container
| ''rædel''
|-
| ryeł [pl. ''ryełk'']
| to ride [a horse]
| ult. Gezoro *''rɜ̃lɛk''; final -''k'' re-analyzed as pl. suffix
|-
| ryen
| like; alike; as
| ''ræpen'' "instead of"
|-
| ryeñu
| instead of
| ''ræpen'' "instead of" + ''ouŋu'' "without"
|-
| ryeppu
| decoy; substitute
| ''ræpenbu'' "person instead of [someone else]"
|-
| ryettu
| to hear
| ''rætu''
|-
| ryommɨ
| earthquake
| ''reimur''
|-
| sadwa
| flatbread; sandwich
| {{Ndd|saodwa}}
|-
| seggan
| hurricane
| Coastal Ndd. ''segan''
|-
| sek
| name; nickname; word
| ''sek''
|-
| sekka
| to name; call
| ''seka''
|-
| seło
| hearth; cooking fire; stove; home (poetic)
| ''šælo''
|-
| sełsa
| dragonfly
| ''selo'' "spear" + ''-sa''
|-
| senat
| minister; official
| ''sernat''
|-
| sesan
| seventh day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''seošan''
|-
| sessɨ
| to crown a ruler (in a monarchy)
| ''šesuy''
|-
| sestsinte
| genealogy
| ''seziči'' "to be born" + -''nte'' (calque of {{Aedh|sīramĕd}})
|-
| Setek
| a city
| ''Sertek''
|-
| setim
| discuss; argue
| ''eséotim''
|-
| settsin
| profitable; fortunate
| ''sečasin''
|-
| siggił [pl. ''siglek'']
| to urinate
| ''sigil''
|-
| siło
| tooth
| ''silo''
|-
| sipa
| crab-claw sail
| [[Takuña]] ''sîpa''
|-
| sipagas
| type of ship
| ''sipa'' + ''gaos'' "boat"
|-
| sira
| prostitute
| back-formation from ''siralo'' < {{Ndd|siddalo}} "brothel"
|-
| sis
| mangy animal; cur; general insult
| ''sis'' "dog"
|-
| sissa
| general insult/profane exclamation
| ''sissa'' "female dog" and/or {{Ndd|sisha}} "piss"
|-
| sisyozza
| tomorrow [morning]
| ''si-seiza'' "that morning"
|-
| sɨn [pl. ''sɨñk'']
| to drink
| ''siən''
|-
| sɨnsɨ
| the day after tomorrow
| ''sur na-sur'' "the tomorrow of tomorrow"
|-
| sɨs
| good; kind (of actions or temperament)
| ''šuys'' "merciful, compassionate"
|-
| sɨso
| last night
| ''si-išo'' "that night"
|-
| sɨts
| both; each
| ''siəč'' "separate; apart"
|-
| slora
| to briefly forget
| {{Ndd|sloira}}
|-
| smoło
| gossip
| {{Ndd|smalo}} "seamstress' parlor"
|-
| smote
| farm
| irregular abbr. of ''musmate'' "agriculture"
|-
| smotebu
| farmer
| ''smote'' + -''bu''
|-
| snon
| land; ground
| {{Ndd|snan}}
|-
| -so
| causative suffix
| ''soy'' "to cause"
|-
| sobren
| clever person
| {{Aedh|sovren}} "expert"
|-
| sołan
| fat
| {{Ndd|shalan}} "obese"
|-
| sos
| second day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''sos''
|-
| sossa
| woman
| ''sossa'' "nubile girl"
|-
| sotya
| false knowledge (of the physical world - Etúgə terminology)
| ''satugə''
|-
| sozzi
| onion
| {{Ndd|sazi}}
|-
| stobi
| funny appendages on hats - a fashion of the decadent 5th century
| ''s''- pl. + {{Ndd|tobi}} "antler"
|-
| suddzi
| olive oil
| ''suji'' "to press"
|-
| sussilos
| neighboring country
| ''sušin'' "neighbor" + ''los''
|-
| swa
| knee; corner; bend (in a road)
| ''souŋ''
|-
| swebło
| bag; sack
| {{Ndd|swëvlo}}
|-
| syep
| to perform; effect; emit; utter; give (of acts; emotions; etc)
| ''sæp'' "to give"
|-
| syet
| money
| ''sæt'' "gold"
|-
| syetya
| virtue; morality
| ''sætugə''
|-
| syos
| parasite
| ''seiš'' "louse"
|-
| syoskaya
| mist
| "morning-fog"
|-
| syozza
| morning
| ''seiza'' "dawn"
|-
| te
| with; by
| ''eté''
|-
| teg [stem -''eteg'']
| thicket; cluster; patch; scattered group
| ''etéwg'' "forest"
|-
| tekka
| large crowd
| ''teka'' "army"
|-
| tid
| flea; speck
| ''tid''
|-
| tiddin
| small; slight; insignificant
| ''tid'' "flea" + ''-in''
|-
| tikwa
| anchor
| ''tikóu'' "stone"
|-
| tikweł
| stone; rock
| ''tikóu'' + -''l''
|-
| tɨ
| door
| ''tir''
|-
| tɨdu [stem -''etɨdu'']
| metal
| ''etíədu''
|-
| tɨnsał
| moment; second
| ''tiəŋišəl'' dim. of "flash; spark"
|-
| tɨñño
| stone (material)
| {{Ndd|tïño}}
|-
| tɨpas
| frame; doorway
| ''tir'' "door" + ''paš'' "socket"
|-
| toł
| light (n.), lamp; to shine; set alight
| ''tol''
|-
| Toło
| a member of the ethnic subgroup that follows Epɨmya
| ''Talo''
|-
| tos
| lawful; legal
| ''taš''
|-
| tosse
| around; surrounding; during
| ''etáše''
|-
| tottsa
| older sister
| ''tača''
|-
| tsa [pl. ''tsaññek'']
| to walk
| ''čeiŋ''
|-
| tsak
| king
| ''čaok''
|-
| tsanizzu
| outlaw; exile; fugitive
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''čanizzu''
|-
| tsanno
| to ask
| ''čeino''
|-
| tsapso
| to sneeze
| ''tsap'' (imit.) + ''-so''
|-
| tse
| one
| ''če''
|-
| tsebu
| student
| ''čeobu''
|-
| tsek
| to cast; scatter
| ''ček'' "throw''
|-
| tsełts
| danger; risk
| ''čelč''
|-
| tsemmał
| religious school; sect; faction
| ''ičǽməl'' "study; knowledge"
|-
| tsennu
| fire
| ''čæn'' "fire" + -''u''
|-
| tsenso
| to embarrass
| ''čæn'' "to burn" + -''so''
|-
| tsessum
| insignificant; pompous; over-stuffed
| ''čæšum'' "powerful; great" (via sarcastic usage)
|-
| tset
| to go bad (of milk etc.); perish; expire
| ''ečét'' "to wilt"
|-
| tsił
| barley
| ''čil''
|-
| tsiłsɨn
| beer
| "barley-drink" (calque from {{Ndd|sågïl}})
|-
| tsittsi
| lightning
| ''čičih''
|-
| tsɨpał
| denounce; curse
| ''čiəpal'' "whine; rant"
|-
| tsɨssɨnza
| barely make it through
| {{Ndd|cïstïnza}} "rough it"
|-
| tsɨza
| respectful address for a woman (an archaism); "milady"
| ''æč ioza'' "my lady"
|-
| tsoro
| junk; worthless stuff
| {{Ndd|coddo}} "dust"
|-
| tsure
| some other time [to avoid commitment]
| {{Ndd|cure}} "tomorrow"
|-
| twa
| lake
| ''tou''
|-
| twełyo
| duck
| ''tou'' "lake" + ''lei'' "bird"
|-
| twen
| hand
| ''toun''
|-
| twen
| thin; slim
| ''otóun''
|-
| tyeddi
| house; building; dwelling
| ''tædi'' "shelter"
|-
| tyem
| south
| ''tæm''
|-
| tyoñgas
| punt (used for transportation on Mɨdu's canals)
| ''teiŋgas''
|-
| tyossał
| pudenda (polite)
| ''teiš'' "fold" + -''l''
|-
| tyottu
| wide
| ''teitu''
|-
| Uboz
| the Ndak mother goddess (Ombási)
| ''Ubáz''
|-
| uggas
| storm
| ''ugaš'' "be a storm"
|-
| uła
| lift; pick up
| ''ulə''
|-
| ułga
| taste
| ''ulgə''
|-
| uksɨ
| to conspire; plot (a crime)
| ''ukšúy'' "to covet, long for the forbidden"
|-
| uro
| hostile; belligerent
| {{Ndd|uddo}}
|-
| ussa
| hello
| source equivalent to {{Ndd|usa}}
|-
| Usso
| the old capital of Huyfárah
| ''Ussor''
|-
| uyo
| after
| ''ugə''
|-
| wamyeg
| today
| ''wa-mæg'' "this today"
|-
| waso
| tonight
| ''wa-išo'' "this night"
|-
| wasyozza
| this morning
| ''wa-seiza''
|-
| wedde
| vegetable
| ''wede''
|-
| weddɨbye
| pickle (typically of root vegetables)
| ''wede diəbæŋ'' "vegetable-preserve"
|-
| weddza
| vixen; seductress
| ''oudisa'' "witch"
|-
| wegga
| in back of
| ''ougə''
|-
| wemmoł
| younger sister
| ''oumol''
|-
| wemmu
| older or distinguished woman, "lady"
| ''oumu'' "mother"
|-
| weñña
| ugly
| ''ouŋa'' "vulgar"
|-
| weñu
| without; except; but
| ''ouŋu''
|-
| weñÿebu
| tired
| ''ouŋu eobu'' "without sleep"
|-
| weppu
| to remember
| ''oupu''
|-
| wes
| friend
| {{NAis|wêbes}}
|-
| wezzu
| yesterday
| ''ouzu''
|-
| wiło [nom. ''siło'']
| house
| ''wilo''
|-
| wimma [nom. ''simma'']
| marsh
| ''wimə'' "mud"
|-
| wizza
| to make a commotion
| ''wiza'' "to shout"
|-
| wizze
| feast
| {{Ndd|vize}}
|-
| wɨm
| to live
| ''wiəm''
|-
| wɨmba
| papyrus
| {{Ndd|wïmva}}
|-
| wɨnseło
| grill; to grill
| ''wiəmu šælo'' "over the hearth"
|-
| wɨñgwe
| bridge
| ''wiəmu gou'' "over-road"
|-
| wɨñÿeło
| city canal
| ''wiəŋ noulo'' "wet street"
|-
| wobba
| to strike (with an object)
| ''wabə'' "to hit"
|-
| woddeł [pl. ''wodlek'']
| to wear (clothing)
| ''wodel''
|-
| wogga
| peace; quiet
| ''wagah''
|-
| wogyo
| shellfish
| {{Ndd|wogïño}} "shell"
|-
| Wołdulas
| the Fáralo kingdom centered on [[Ussor]]
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''Woldulaš''
|-
| woñoł
| shoe
| {{Ndd|woñol}} "boot"
|-
| wos
| to bury
| ''waš'' "to dig"
|-
| wos
| three
| ''wos''
|-
| wossats
| trireme
| ''wozgatač''
|-
| wosse
| this one; this person
| ''waše''
|-
| wozzon [pl. ''woznek'']
| to mess up
| {{Ndd|wåzon}} "to sneeze"
|-
| wuł
| country villa
| {{Aedh|vul}} "estate"
|-
| wuggu
| to cast blame; find guilty
| ''wugu''
|-
| yak
| all
| ''ege'' "all" + ''ak'' "them"
|-
| yane
| hidden; unclear; bizarre
| ''eione'' "obscure"
|-
| yanente
| esoteric study; mysticism
| ''eione'' "obscure" + -''mate''
|-
| yati
| week; calendar
| ''eioti'' "day"
|-
| yebba
| cool-witted; practical; smart
| ''æba'' "sober"
|-
| yedda
| corpse
| ''æda''
|-
| yedde
| to stand
| ''æde''
|-
| yegłu
| city; town
| ''ædelu''
|-
| yekka
| air
| ''ækə''
|-
| yemmał
| fly (insect)
| ''æməl''
|-
| yenna
| hungry
| ''æna''
|-
| yeñało
| army
| ''æŋéilo'' "military"
|-
| yestsoł
| bird
| {{Ndd|yësco}} "songbird" + ''-l''
|-
| yegwebbu
| rebel; deviant
| ''ægóubu'' "eccentric"
|-
| yettu
| old; former
| ''ætu''
|-
| Yetwa
| a district of Mɨdu
| ''ætu aə'' "old swamp"
|-
| yob
| green
| abbr. of ''yobbał'' < ''eibəl''
|-
| yobbin
| very cold
| ''eib'' "to freeze" + ''-in''
|-
| yobbɨ
| to swim
| ''eibur''
|-
| yodda
| spring (season)
| ''eibidə''
|-
| yodÿetti
| waterfall
| ''eidu æti'' "falling river"
|-
| yog
| put down; put away
| ''egág'' "to put"
|-
| Yogga
| the [[Aiwa|Eigə River]]
| ''Eigə''
|-
| yoha
| stupid
| {{NAis|ixoha}}
|-
| yokka
| animal
| ''eikə''
|-
| yokku
| to slaughter [an animal]
| ''eiku'' "to kill" - meaning influenced by ''yokka''
|-
| yoł [stem -''eyoł'']
| foot, base
| ''egól''
|-
| yorya
| string
| {{Ndd|yaddiga}}
|-
| yossi
| saw (tool)
| {{Ndd|yasi}} or {{Ad|iāsi}}
|-
| yoweł
| west
| ''eiwəl''
|-
| yoz
| to paint
| ''eiz''
|-
| yozzu
| paint, dye (n.)
| ''eiz'' + -''u''
|-
| ÿa
| wrong; no
| ''yeÿá'' < ''ægóu'' "wrong"
|-
| ÿem
| right (side)
| ''oæm''
|-
| ÿeppum
| useless
| ''wæpum'' "hollow"
|-
| ÿere
| to love; enjoy
| ''wære''
|-
| ÿeta
| of; for; about
| ''wætə''
|-
| ÿoł
| below; under
| ''wægól''
|-
| ÿoło
| garden; park
| ''weilo''
|-
| ÿosso
| now
| ''weišo''
|-
| zera
| copper
| {{Ad|zēra}}
|-
| zetsan
| pig
| {{Aedh|zæþṇ}}
|-
| zguruł
| intestines
| (pl. of ''guru'' "intestines" + ''-l'')
|-
| zi
| apple
| Miwan ''zi''
|-
| zin
| wine
| {{Ndd|zin}}
|-
| zmebło
| countryside
| (pl. of ''mebelo'' "farm")
|-
| znyoñɨbɨ
| tea; tisane
| ''zneiŋə hiəbur'' "to boil leaves"
|-
| zodwen
| face
| ''[lu-mabe] zordo-oun'' "the mouth and eyes"
|-
| zułk
| cheese
| {{Aedh|zūlx}}
|-
| zuma
| to loiter
| {{Aedh|zūma}} "to wait"
|-
| zyetya
| immorality
| ''huzyetya'' < ''huzǽtugə''
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Namɨdu

2016-10-21T21:53:47Z

Dunomapuka: /* The Conjunct Imperative */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

The language has one known descendant, [[Nåmúþ]].

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect. 
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła'''). 
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
! x + 10
! ordinal
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
| tsewen
| tse dya, piggał
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
| ñiwen
| ñi dya
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
| woswen
| wos dya
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
| buwen
| bu dya
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
| dwewen
| dwa dya, dwe dya
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
| eswen
| es dya
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
| myemwen
| myem dya
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
| hudwen
| hud dya
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
| niłwen
| nił dya
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
| ñiro
| ro dya
|}

As, due to the long grind of sound change, '''ñiro''' "twenty" has come to sound like '''niro''' "ninety", these are occasionally disambiguated as '''nom ñiro''' and '''pya niro''', particularly when shouting over heavy noise. Another alternate term for "ninety" is '''weñu ro''', "[one hundred] minus ten." In military jargon, this is abbreviated to '''weñu''', and '''ɨbweddu''' to '''ɨb'''.

The "teen" forms derive from Fáralo constructions like ''[ro] dou-oun'' "ten-and-five" > '''dwewen'''.

Ordinals are formed with the particle '''dya''' ("thumb," originally "finger"), mostly regularly but with the apocope ''hudde'' > '''hud'''. Note the competing forms for ''five''. The old word '''piggał''' is sometimes used for "first," but this has the connotation of "first and foremost," "primary."

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count! (sg.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up! (sg.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''emayozlek''' don't look! (pl.)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yegłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayegłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yegłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu

2016-10-21T19:43:08Z

Dunomapuka: /* Numbers */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

The language has one known descendant, [[Nåmúþ]].

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect. 
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła'''). 
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
! x + 10
! ordinal
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
| tsewen
| tse dya, piggał
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
| ñiwen
| ñi dya
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
| woswen
| wos dya
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
| buwen
| bu dya
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
| dwewen
| dwa dya, dwe dya
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
| eswen
| es dya
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
| myemwen
| myem dya
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
| hudwen
| hud dya
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
| niłwen
| nił dya
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
| ñiro
| ro dya
|}

As, due to the long grind of sound change, '''ñiro''' "twenty" has come to sound like '''niro''' "ninety", these are occasionally disambiguated as '''nom ñiro''' and '''pya niro''', particularly when shouting over heavy noise. Another alternate term for "ninety" is '''weñu ro''', "[one hundred] minus ten." In military jargon, this is abbreviated to '''weñu''', and '''ɨbweddu''' to '''ɨb'''.

The "teen" forms derive from Fáralo constructions like ''[ro] dou-oun'' "ten-and-five" > '''dwewen'''.

Ordinals are formed with the particle '''dya''' ("thumb," originally "finger"), mostly regularly but with the apocope ''hudde'' > '''hud'''. Note the competing forms for ''five''. The old word '''piggał''' is sometimes used for "first," but this has the connotation of "first and foremost," "primary."

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yegłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayegłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yegłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Thokyunèhòta/Grammar

2015-05-23T19:01:28Z

Dunomapuka: /* Phonology */ tweak

==Phonology==
===Consonants===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Bilabial !! Labiodental !! Dental !! Retroflex !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
|- align="center"
! Stops/Affricates
| p || || t || ʈ || tʃ || k ||
|- align="center"
! Fricatives
| || f || θ || || || x || h
|- align="center"
! Nasals
| m || || n || || || ||
|- align="center"
! Approximants
| w || || || || j || ||
|}
 

Historically, /tʃ/ is an allophone of /t/ before /i/, and /f x/ are allophones of /p k/ before /e/, but these have acquired phonemic status through borrowing.

/tʃ ʈ θ x j/ will be spelled '''c ṭ th x y'''.

===Vowels===
Thokyunèhòta distinguishes five tense vowes /a e i o u/ and five lax vowels /ɐ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/. The latter are spelled with a grave accent: '''à è ì ò ù'''.

===Stress===
Thokyunèhòta has a contrastive stress accent. Words have two possible stress patterns.
*By default the accent falls on the first syllable:
*In some words it instead falls on the second syllable. This is indicated by an acute: '''thèthí''' "boy (nom.)" /θɛˈθi/.
*If the second stressed syllable has a lax vowel, this is indicated by a circumflex: '''thèthûne''' "boy (dat.)" /θɛˈθʊne/.

===Fáralo Loanwords===
A large number of words have been loaned from (slightly pre-Classical) Fáralo, especially vocabulary related to seafaring. The Fáralo consonants /b d g s ʃ l r/ are normally imported into Thokyunèhòta as /p t k θ x j j/: Fár. ''iozal'' "bow (of a ship)" > Thok. '''yotha'''; Fár. ''dašiəm'' "sail (n.)" > Thok. '''ṭaxim'''.

The Fáralo low front vowel /æ/ is borrowed into Thok. as /a/: Fár. '''ænal''' "hold (of a ship)" > Thok. '''ana'''. The low-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ/ are borrowed as /e o/, while the high-mid vowels, strangely, are both borrowed as /a/: Fár. '''goumoudu''' "cross-staff" > Thok. '''kamaṭu''' "astrolabe." This may reflect some idiosyncratic local pronunciation of Fáralo.

===Sound Changes from Proto-Isles===

1. Initial /s ħ w j ʔ/ were lost. 
2. Initial /a/ was lost; if part of a diphthong (/aj/ or /aw/) then the following /j w/ become /i u/. 
3. Intervocalic /j w/ were lost; intervocalic clusters of /jj ww jw wj/ were likewise lost. In some cases /jj ww/ reduced to a single /j w/ and remained. 
4. Remaining /s ħ ʔ/ become /h/ except in the syllable coda. 
5. /aj aw/ > /e o/. 
6. /iw uj/ > /ju wi/. 
7. Intervocalic /ts dz/ came to be pronounced [tθ dð], and were reanalyzed as clusters. 
8. Coda consonants were lost, with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel.
*8a. If the coda consonant was laryngeal (/ħ/ or /ʔ/), then /a e i o u/ > /a: o: u: a: o:/.
*8b. If the coda consonant was non-laryngeal (any of /m n t d s/), then /a e i o u/ > /e: i: i: e: i:/.
*8c. /e i/ sometimes became /e: e:/ before a non-laryngeal, especially in the final syllable (e.g. the accusative and dative endings).
*8d. The coda consonant was ''not'' lost if followed by a glide (/w/ or /j/).
9. Remaining /ts dz/ became /θ ð/. 
10. Stops lenited before /e/: /p t d k g/ > [f θ ð x ɣ]. Frequently this was later analogically reversed where the original stop had been retained in related forms. 
11. /t d/ palatalized to [tʃ dʒ] before /i/. 
12. /d/ (except where lenited or palatalized) acquired a retroflex pronunciation [ɖ]. 
13. /ji wu/ simplified to /i u/. 
14. In final position, short vowels /a e i/ were lost after /m n h/ or a vowel or glide, while corresponding long vowels /a: e: i:/ were in all cases shortened. 
15. Sequences of vowels in hiatus simplified:
*15a. If the first vowel was /i u/, these became glides /j w/, with the second vowel remaining.
*15b. Otherwise, if the second vowel was long, then the first vowel was deleted.
*15c. Otherwise, if the first vowel was /a a:/, then the sequence coalesced into /e:/.
*15d. If the two vowels were of identical quality they merged into their long counterpart.
16. Voiced obstruents devoiced in all positions. Original /d/, now pronounced [ʈ], remained distinct from /t/. 
17. Final /h j w/ were lost. 
18. Long vowels /a: e: i: o: u:/ became lax vowels /ɐ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/. 
19. Final /n/ became /m/. 
20. At some point the pitch accent system of Proto-Isles evolved into a stress accent, with HL tone corresponding to initial stress and HH tone corresponding to second-syllable stress. This must have occurred after early deletions of initial sounds because these have no effect on placement of second-syllable stress (e.g. ''hápa-yi'' "sun (nom.)" > '''pa''', but ''hápa-nim'' "sun (dat.)" > '''pané''').

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nominal morphology is suffixing, distinguishing four cases. Nouns do not decline for number. The citation form is the ''nominative''. This always ends in a vowel or -'''m'''. The other three cases are formed by dropping this final vowel, or vowel + -'''m''', and substituting the ''stem vowel'', plus a case suffx. The stem vowel, in most cases, is not predictable from the nominative. Occasionally it is not a single vowel but a glide + vowel sequence ('''kù''' "winter"; inst. '''kwòm''').

The accusative is formed by adding -'''we''' after the stem vowel; the dative by adding -'''ne'''; the instrumental by adding -'''m'''. If the stem vowel is one of the lax vowels ('''à ò ù'''), then the accusative is instead formed from the nominative root, plus -'''hwe'''.

Some of the variation in stem vowels can be seen in the following declensions:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Dative !! Instrumental
|- align="center"
!''màta'' "wheat"
| màta || màtawe || màtane || màtam
|- align="center"
!''fepa'' "fruit"
| fepa || fepewe || fepene || fepem
|- align="center"
!''uṭa'' "night"
| uṭa || uṭahwe || uṭàne || uṭàm
|- align="center"
!''xiki'' "spice"
| xiki || xikiwe || xikine || xikim
|- align="center"
!''kòhi'' "crops"
| kòhi || kòhihwe || kòhùne || kòhùm
|- align="center"
!''pumu'' "fish"
| pumu || pumwiwe || pumwine || pumwim
|- align="center"
!''thèthu'' "elbow"
| thèthu || thèthuhwe || thèthòne || thèthòm
|}
 
Nominatives in -'''m''' are an exception to the general rule: their stem vowels are completely predictable. Nominative -'''am''' always corresponds with stem -'''è'''-, and -'''im''' -'''um''' with -'''ì'''-. The accusative does not use the stem vowel, but adds -'''we''' to the nominative root.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Dative !! Instrumental
|- align="center"
!''nam'' "person"
| nam || namwe || nène || nèm
|- align="center"
!''taxim'' "sail"
| taxim || taximwe || taxìne || taxìm
|- align="center"
|}
 
Some monosyllabic nouns have underlying second-syllable stress, which appears when an ending is added.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Dative !! Instrumental
|- align="center"
!''ma'' "fur"
| ma || mowé || moné || mom
|- align="center"
!''pu'' "cloud"
| pu || puhwé || pòné || pòm
|- align="center"
|}

===Personal Pronouns===
Personal pronouns, likewise, decline for four cases. Unlike the nouns, they distinguish singular from plural. Otherwise, their declension patterns resemble those of nouns, except for the irregular 1s.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Nominative !! Absolutive !! Dative !! Instrumental
|- align="center"
! 1s
| a || ewé || ené || em
|- align="center"
! 2s
| tu || tuhwé || tòné || tòm
|- align="center"
! 3s
| i || iwé || iné || im
|- align="center"
! 1p
| ìthyú || ìthîwe || ìthîne || ìthîm
|- align="center"
! 2p
| tòthyú || tòthyúwe || tòthîne || tòthîm
|- align="center"
! 3p
| èthyú || èthyúwe || èthîne || èthîm
|}

There is also a set of deferential pronouns, used when dealing with top-level superiors, restricted more or less to the king, the clan leaders, and their immediate families. The 2nd person is used for addressing them; the 3rd person for referring to a superior in the presence of another superior, or when referring to them while communicating through a proxy (speaking to their servants, for example). Otherwise, superiors are referred to with the normal 3rd-person pronouns.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Nominative !! Absolutive !! Dative !! Instrumental
|- align="center"
! 2s deferential
| itú || itúhwe || itône || itôm
|- align="center"
! 3s deferential
| ihí || ihíwe || ihíne || ihím
|- align="center"
! 2p deferential
| itôthyu || itôthiwe || itôthine || itôthim
|- align="center"
! 3p deferential
| ihêthyu || ihêthyuwe || ihêthine || ihêthim
|}

===Correlative Pronouns===
'''Ipû''', meaning "what," is the only unique root on this table; the rest are all transparent compounds formed from it and from the deictic prefixes '''i'''- "this" and '''a'''-"that." The standalone roots for "this" and "that" transparently mean "this-near" and "that-far." The other words on this table are nouns that belong here only due to frequency of use - '''ipáha''' "this place" being merely the most common way to say "here," likewise '''ináṭa''' for "now." They have no unique status as pronouns, and an equivalent construction can be substituted ''ad hoc'': '''ipáci''' "this day," i.e. "today; now."

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! !! Query !! This !! That
|- align="center"
! Adjective
| ipû || ityú || ató
|- align="center"
! Person/Thing
| ipí || icí || atá
|- align="center"
! Place
| ipû paha || ipáha || apáha
|- align="center"
! Time
| ipû naṭa || ináṭa || anáṭa
|- align="center"
|} 

When pronouns from the "place" and "time" rows are being used adverbially, they are put in the instrumental: '''ipáhem''' "here (adv.)," '''ináṭom''' "now (adv.)."

===Adjectives===
Adjectives do not mark case or number. They do, however, form comparatives with a reduplicating prefix or via vowel mutation. The form of the prefix is unpredictable in nature and will be listed in the lexicon individually. The comparative form is invariably stressed on the second syllable.
*'''ta''' large > '''tatá''' larger
*'''uni''' strong > '''honí''' stronger
*'''nìte''' full > '''ninîte''' fuller
*'''kape''' warm > '''hakápe''' warmer

These "true adjectives" are a small and mostly closed class of words in Thokyunèhòta; foreign words are overwhelmingly borrowed as nouns, or occasionally verbs. Otherwise, adjectives exist as special derivations of nouns (''see below''). These nominal adjectives do not have special comparative forms, instead forming comparatives with '''mu''' "more" or '''yamu''' "even more."

===Nominal Adjectives===
These are adjectives that have been derived from nouns ('''xèmo''' "male" from '''xèma''' "man;" '''thòthô''' "boar-like" from '''thòthú''' "boar"). Their chief difference from the "true" adjectives is that they lack morphological comparatives. Also, they are more commonly used attributively than predicatively.

In general, any noun can be freely turned into an adjective meaning "[noun]-like," unless some specialized meaning of the derived adjective already exists (e.g. '''thipò''' "sociable" from '''thipu''' "meeting-place"). Nominal adjectives are essentially the same thing as the first element in a noun + noun compound: '''xèma''' "man" + '''nam''' "person" > '''xèmonam''' "husband," lit. "man-person" or "male-person."

===Instrumental Adjectives===
This is a special class of words derived from the instrumental form of a noun, often a compounded noun, e.g. '''kyuxêthèm''' "sick," literally "with a sick liver." These are unique in that they can be used either as adjectives or adverbs indiscriminately.

===Adverbs===
The "true adverbs," like the adjectives, are a very small closed class composed mostly of words describing time:
*'''he''' often
*'''pahapa''' yesterday
*'''pahi''' now; today

Otherwise, adverbs can be derived from adjectives, of either the "true" or "nominal" variety (''see below'').

===Derived Adverbs===
Adverbs can be freely derived from true or nominal adjectives ('''tomamwìthùm''' "slowly" from '''toma''' "slow"; '''ùmimwìthùm''' "despicably" from '''ùm''' "despicable," itself from '''ùmi''' "petty criminal"). Syntactically they function somewhat differently from "true" adverbs (see ''Syntax''). Originally these were a special subset of the instrumental adjectives, but now can only be used adverbially.

===Verbs===
Verbs are inflected for three tenses (present, past and negative - negative oddly clustering with the tenses) and three moods (indicative, potential and subjunctive).

The potential mood is marked by replacing the last vowel or diphthong of the indicative as follows:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
! Indicative !! Potential
|- align="center"
| -'''a''', -'''e''', -'''i''', -'''u''', -'''wi''' || -'''i'''
|- align="center"
| -'''o''', -'''yu''' || -'''yu'''
|- align="center"
| -'''a''', -'''ò''', -'''ù''' || -'''ù'''
|- align="center"
|}

Indicative -'''a''' can end take either -'''i''' or '''ù''' as the potential ending, but the latter is more common. Any '''t''' or '''ṭ''' palatalize to '''c''' before the -'''i''' of the potential.

The subjunctive mood is invariably formed by adding -'''pa''' to the indicative.

The past tense form is always stressed on the first syllable; the negative is marked by moving it to the second. The present is marked by reduplicating the first syllable of the past as an unstressed prefix, but the form of the prefix is highly irregular in the same manner as the comparative prefixes on adjectives.

Full paradigm of four verbs:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
!
! colspan="3"| Past
! colspan="3"| Negative
! colspan="3"| Present
|- align="center"
! !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive
|- align="center"
!''hiha'' "to laugh"
| hiha || hihi || hihapa || hihá || hihí || hihápa || hahíha || hahíhi || hahíhapa
|- align="center"
!''nuha'' "to push"
| nuha || nuhù || nuhapa || nuhá || nuhû || nuhápa || nunúha || nunúhù || nunúhapa
|- align="center"
!''kìthe'' "to love"
| kìthe || kìthi || kìthepa || kìthé || kìthí || kìthépa || kikîthe || kikîthi || kikîthepa
|- align="center"
!''xepi'' "to remove"
| xepi || xepi || xepipa || xepí || xepí || xepípa || kaxépi || kaxépi || kaxépipa
|- align="center"
!''thòmo'' "to divide"
| thòmo || thòmyu || thòmopa || thòmó || thòmyú || thòmópa || thuthômo || thuthômyu || thuthômopa
|- align="center"
!''ṭatò'' "to hit"
| ṭatò || ṭatù || ṭatòpa || ṭatô || ṭatû || ṭatôpa || ṭaṭátò || ṭaṭátù || ṭaṭátòpa
|- align="center"
!''ìtù'' "to see"
| ìtù || ìtù || ìtùpa || ìtû || ìtû || ìtûpa || ihîtù || ihîtù || ihîtùpa
|}

The ''past indicative'' is given as the citation form. Alternatively, the present indicative might be viewed as the least marked form, with the past formed usually by removing the first syllable.

A few verbs are only one syllable long; these form their negative by prefixing '''uhô'''-.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|- align="center"
!
! colspan="3"| Past
! colspan="3"| Negative
! colspan="3"| Present
|- align="center"
! !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Potential !! Subjunctive
|- align="center"
!''ni'' "to be; do"
| ni || ni || nipa || uhôni || uhôni || uhônipa || niní || niní || ninípa
|- align="center"
!''ṭa'' "to walk; journey"
| ṭa || ci || ṭapa || uhôṭa || uhôci || uhôṭapa || haṭá || hací || haṭápa
|- align="center"
!''ci'' "to have; hold"
| ci || ci || cipa || uhôci || uhôci || uhôcipa || hací || hací || hacípa
|}

==Derivational Morphology==
Discussion of derivational morphology will be somewhat limited; Thokyunèhòta has very few bound morphemes and the preferred method of creating new words is by building NOUN + NOUN compounds, with the first noun in a modifying, adjectival role (i.e. a nominal adjective). The adjectival form of a noun is normally created from the bare stem.

*'''thipí''' bird (stem '''thipû'''-) > '''thipû''' birdlike '''òha''' baby (stem '''òho'''-) > '''òho''' babylike; cute

Nominal adjectives used in compounds tend to remain semantically linked to their original noun, while in their "free" use the meaning is more prone to drift. For example, '''òho''' normally means "cute" by itself but in compounds means "of a baby" ('''òhomwipa''' "swaddling-cloths," etc). 

Occasionally nouns have been turned into verbs via the same process ('''òto''' "to speak" from '''òta''' "tongue; speech"), but this has not been especially productive. The opposite transformation, from verb to noun, has historically been common, though no longer follows any consistent derivational process. 

Verbs in their unmodified citation form can be used as gerunds; this is essentially turning the verb into an adjective.
*'''òha umyu''' the baby was smiling > '''umyu òha''' the smiling baby

===Adverbs===
An adverb can be derived from any adjective by attaching the suffix -'''mwìthùm'''. This suffix is the instrumental form of '''mwìthi''' "mind;" the compound derives from constructions such as "with a happy mind" meaning "happily," etc.
*'''ku''' happy > '''kumwìthùm''' happily '''thipû''' birdlike > '''thipûmwìthùm''' in a birdlike manner

===Deictic Prefixes===
There are two deictic prefixes '''i'''- "this; here" and '''a'''- "that; there." They can be attached to any verb of location or movement, most often '''pahe''' "to be; stand": '''ipáhe''' "to be here;" '''apáhe''' "to be there." They may also be attached to nouns, though this formation is not the primary way of saying "this" or "that." It is used only when the objects referred to are visible and in sight (often with an accompanying pointing gesture). 

These prefixes always trigger second-syllable stress.

===-''thì'' and -''ci''===
-'''thì''' is a collective suffix. It converts a count noun to a mass noun describing either a collection of objects or a numberless expanse. Its usage is somewhat sporadic and is no longer particularly productive. It has the peculiar effect of mutating stem /a e i o u/ to /ɛ ɪ ɪ ɛ ɪ/ (lax stem vowels are unchanged).
*'''paha''' place (stem '''pahe'''-) > '''pahìthì''' country; realm '''thumá''' stone; metal (stem '''thumá'''-) > '''thumêthì''' money; coins

-'''ci''' is a singulative suffix that derives a count noun from a mass noun, replacing -'''thì''' if present, and "borrowing" its stem mutation.
*'''thumêthì''' money; coins > '''thumêci''' a coin '''ṭoṭèthi''' beehive; honeycomb > '''ṭoṭèci''' honeycomb cell

Sometimes -'''ci''' is used with count nouns, or with verbs, describing an associated or resulting object. Its usage is rather idiosyncratic, but it is somewhat more productive than -'''thì'''.
*'''mukí''' spider > '''mukîci''' spiderweb '''ìthu''' sarong > '''ìthòci''' clasp; pin '''cimu''' to pierce > '''cimuci''' piercing; small hole

===-''nam'' and -''kuni''===
These are nouns meaning "person" and "group." They are frequently used in compounds to denote a single human agent or member in the first case and a collection of members in the second case.
*'''mìthú''' clan; lineage > '''mìthônam''' clan member; '''mìthôkuni''' (members of a) clan '''ṭatò''' to attack > '''ṭatònam''' soldier; '''ṭatòkuni''' army

-'''nam''' and -'''thì''' can be combined to similar semantic effect as -'''kuni'''.
*'''ṭatònèthì''' band; division

-'''nam''' may be appended to a noun or verb to produce an agentive noun:
*'''winèci''' millstone > '''winècinam''' miller

-'''kuni''' can also be used with animals; here it denotes "herd," "flock," etc.
*'''mimá''' sheep > '''mimákuni''' herd of sheep '''yuhi''' insect > '''yuhyukuni''' swarm of insects

===-''paha''===
This is a noun meaning "place," and historically meaning "house;" as the head of a compound it denotes various kinds of manmade locations and structures.
*'''mìthú''' clan; lineage > '''mìthôpaha''' chief town of a clan '''tonám''' king > '''tonêpaha''' royal palace '''piha''' household item > '''pihepaha''' cabinet; shelf

===-''hu''===
This suffix denotes an associated or resulting substance.
*'''ṭoṭa''' bee > '''ṭoṭohu''' honey '''ma''' fur > '''mohú''' fur (as a material) '''kìpí''' woman > '''kìpyúhu''' menstrual blood (polite)

==Syntax==
===Word Order===
The basic word order is ''subject-object-verb'': 

*'''thèthí tyukamwe kikîthe.''' ''boy-NOM girl-ACC PRES-love'' the boy loves the girl. 

The object can be topicalized by fronting it; the semantic effect is similar to the passive in English. 

*'''tyukamwe thèthí kikîthe.''' ''girl-ACC boy-NOM PRES-love'' the girl is loved by the boy. 

The major sentence components are arranged in the order (instrumental noun)(dative noun)(subject)(object)(verb). Adjectives precede the nouns they modify, and can modify a noun in any case. 

*'''ta pumwim a mimatù thonámwe ṭatò.''' ''big fish-INS I narrow tree-ACC hit.'' I was hitting the small tree with a big fish. 

Derived adverbs are placed at the front of the sentence: 

*'''kumwìthum ta pumwim a mimatù thonámwe ṭatò.''' ''happy-ADV big fish-INS I narrow tree-ACC hit.'' I was happily hitting the small tree with a big fish. 

But "true" adverbs are placed directly before the verb: 

*'''ta pumwim a mimatù thonámwe he ṭaṭátò.''' ''big fish-INS I narrow tree-ACC often PRES-hit'' I often hit the small tree with a big fish.

===The Verb Phrase and Transitivity===
One quirk of Thokyunèhòta syntax is a rigid distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs. Most intransitive verbs are unaccusative ('''kaheci''' "fall," '''wimi''' "die,"etc.); the few unergative verbs mostly describe locomotion or vocalization ('''ṭa''' "walk," '''kome''' "fly," '''hiha''' "laugh").

Contrary to English, there is a general tendency to use a transitive construction whenever possible: Thus where we use a construction like "he was hunting," Thokyunèhòta supplies an object, even if semantically vague or redundant:
*'''èthyú thuhimwe thokyu.''' They were hunting (lit. "They were hunting animals").

The object can in fact be removed from such a phrase, but this carries a connotation of aimlessness or carelessness:
*'''èthyú thokyu.''' They were hunting [but mostly goofing off].

The object is also often removed in yes/no questions and the resulting answers, if it is the verb that is under question:
*'''èthyú nta ci?''' Were they fishing? '''èthyú thokyu.''' No, they were hunting.

The subject can also be deleted. This produces the equivalent of a passive or middle voice in English:
*'''kìpyúnam kwihwe uhwítù.''' my wife is cooking (lit. "making food"). '''kwihwe uhwítù.''' the food is cooking / the food is being cooked.

In the case of bodily functions which would seem to lack any logical semantic patient, the secreted or excreted substance is the object, with the verb being '''thohe''' "throw" suggesting violent or sudden release, or '''tayo''' "drop" suggesting a more passive dribbling (this obviates the need for separate verbs ''bleed, spit, piss,'' etc.):
*'''a tòthuhwe thohe.''' I spat. '''a tòthuhwe tayo.''' I was drooling.

Verbs describing locomotion are intransitive; but even these may carry a sense of aimlessness unless a locative phrase is supplied:
*'''kìpí ṭa.''' the woman was walking around. '''thoné wìhe kìpí ṭa.''' the woman was walking in the village.

One consequence of this syntactical structure, seen in some of the examples above, is that verbs tend to be semantically vague, and few have been innovated since the Proto-Isles period. Semantic specificity belongs to the nouns and adjectives.

===The Copula===
The verb '''ni''' "to be" is used to equate two nouns, or a noun with an adjective. Both nouns take the nominative.
*'''ityú nam kaxêma niní.''' this man is the chief. '''fepa nìta niní.''' the fruit is ripe.

But if the second noun is put in the accusative then '''ni''' instead means "to do; make; effect."
*'''ityú nam kaxêma xè mwipawe niní.''' this man makes the chief's clothes.

===Adjective Predicates===
Adjectives of all subtypes can be used as predicates, except that there is a tendency ''not'' to use nominal adjectives as predicates when the adjective is not semantically distinct from its base noun: '''i thipû nam niní''' "he is a birdlike man" is preferred over '''nam thipû niní''' "the man is birdlike."

The adjectives '''ta''' "large" and '''mi''' "small" cannot be used as predicates, being suppleted either with their intensive/comparative forms, respectively '''tatá''' and '''mimí''', or with '''matù''' "wide" and '''mimatù''' "narrow."

===Case Usage===
The nominative is used for the subject of a verb or for either object of the copula; the accusative is used for the direct object. The object may appear without a subject (see ''the Verb Phrase'' above).
*'''mimé ihatò''' the shepherd was counting [something] '''mimé thuhimwe ihatò''' the shepherd counted the animals '''thuhimwe ihatò''' the animals were being counted

The dative indicates the recipient or benificiary of the action.
*'''mimé mimáwe tathêthama''' the shepherd is singing to his sheep

The instrumental has various usages. It marks the use of an object to accomplish an action:
*'''thuhám a thonêmwe ìhaya''' I carved the wood with a knife

Or it may denote the material used in creation:
*'''thonêm a napiwe ìhaya''' I carved the bowl from wood.

With animate referents it often implies accompaniment of the action without direct involvement.
*'''ìhìm a thuhimwe thokyu''' the dog accompanied me hunting

===Tense Usage===
The past tense of a verb denotes past actions, making no aspectual distinction between, say, completed, continuous, and repeated actions.
*'''kìpí punuhwe cò''' the woman wove a basket / wove baskets / was weaving a basket

Such distinctions are not especially important in Thokyunèhòta, but various adverbs can be used to refine the meaning. A habitual state can be indicated with the adverbs '''i''' "habitually, repeatedly," '''he''' "often," or with the instrumental form of nouns denoting durations of time, to form an adverb meaning "daily," "annually," etc.
*'''kìpí punuhwe i cò''' the woman wove baskets
*'''kìpí punuhwe he cò''' the woman often wove baskets
*'''pacím kìpí punuhwe cò''' the woman wove baskets every day.

The completion of an action can be emphasized with an adverb that specifies a time, though even here the meaning is not unambiguous and relies largely on context.
*'''kìpí punuhwe pahápa cò''' the woman wove a basket yesterday

Likewise, the present tense makes no formal distinction between progressive or habitual states, though the former are to some extent assumed by default. Habitual states may, as with the past tense, be indicated with various adverbs:
*'''kìpí punuhwe i cicô''' the woman weaves baskets 
etc.

But use of such adverbs is never compulsory; just as often the surrounding context is relied on to imply a habitual meaning.

The present may also encompass certain future actions, where they are habitual in nature or relatively certain to occur.
*'''kìpí punuhwe pahyú cicô''' the woman will weave a basket tomorrow (as she does every day)
*'''pa pahyú kakóme''' the sun will rise tomorrow

===Negative Verbs===
The negative makes no distinction in tense. With verbs describing goal-oriented activity it normally refers to a completed state:
*'''kìpí punuhwe uhôcò''' the woman did not weave a basket
*'''thèthí pumwiwe mòthí''' the boy did not find a fish

Otherwise it is usually a progessive:
*'''a kìpyúwe kìthé''' I do not love the woman
*'''i ené mìthôkunihwe xèthé''' he does not belong to my clan

But as usual, a particular meaning can be reinforced with adverbs: '''i''' "habitually," '''uhôhapam''' "never," '''ináṭam''' "now," '''anáṭam''' "then," etc.
*'''ináṭam kìpí punuhwe uhôcò''' the woman is not weaving a basket
*'''uhôhapam a kìpyúwe kìthé''' I never loved the woman

The negative form, marked only by stress placement, is rarely allowed to stand by itself. Normally a negative verb is reinforced by a following particle '''kyu''', especially in speech:
*'''a kìpyúwe kìthé kyu''' I do not love the woman
*'''i ené mìthôkunihwe xèthé kyu''' he does not belong to my clan

In archaic, very formal, or poetic speech the negative is instead preceded by the adverb '''uhô'''; this is now compulsory only for monosyllabic verbs.
*'''a kìpyúwe uhô kìthé''' I do not love the woman.
*'''i ené mìthôkunihwe uhô xèthé''' he does not belong to my clan

===Mood Usage===
All cited forms so far have been in the indicative mood. There are, in addition to this, two irrealis moods: the potential and the subjunctive. The potential encompasses actions that are probable or intended; the subjunctive those that are doubtful, contingent, or the subject of desires, obligations etc.

The present potential indicates an action that is speculated to be happening in the present or is intended for the future; most future actions in fact use this form.
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tatóhi''' he is going to come here
*'''ìthyú òthêthìwe thathóhi''' we are going to cast the fishing nets

The past potential is somewhat rarely used, but refers to plans or predictions made in the past, or to the relative past of some future planned event (and thus may function as a future perfect):
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tohi''' he was going to come here / he will have come here
*'''ìthyú òthêthìwe thohi''' we were going to cast the fishing net / we will have cast the fishing net

The negative potential almost always implies a future meaning.
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tohí kyu''' he is not coming here
*'''ìthyú òthêthìwe thohí kyu''' we are not going to cast the fishing net

The subjunctive, by default, expresses either obligation or (especially in the first person) an implied conditional.
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tatóhepa''' he should come here
*'''ipáhene nìhe a tatóhepa''' I would go there [if...]

But the range of meaning can vary widely depending on modal particles:
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tatóhepa u''' I'm afraid he's coming here
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tatóhepa xe''' I really hope he comes here

In the past tense the conditional sense is usual.
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tohepa''' he would have come here [if...]

The negative subjunctive always expresses doubt.
*'''ipáhene nìhe i tohépa kyu''' I doubt he is coming here

===Locative Phrases===
Locative phrases can be divided into dynamic and stative types - the first denoting motion toward, from, or within a place, and the second denoting an unmoving location. Contrary to most languages, dynamic locative phrases in Thokyunèhòta are shorter and less marked than stative ones.

A dynamic locative phrase consists of a noun in the dative, denoting the source, location or destination of motion, followed by one of three postpositions: '''wìhe''' "in; at; around," '''nìhe''' "to; toward; into," or '''mahe''' "from; out of" (these descend from the case endings attached to the PI postposition ''qas''; the dative ending was later replaced on the noun stem).

*'''thonêthìne wìhe''' [moving] in the forest '''thonêthìne nìhe''' to the forest '''thonêthìne mahe''' from the forest

A stative locative phrase is a somewhat extended version of this construction: the head noun is followed by the possessive particle '''xè''', which is followed by a locative noun, also in the dative case, followed by '''wìhe'''.

*'''thonêthìne xè wine wìhe''' in the forest (lit. "in the inside of the forest") '''thonêthìne xè yòne wìhe''' outside the forest '''thonêthìne xè piṭùne wìhe''' under the forest

Replacing the postposition with nìhe or mahe thus encodes both location and movement.

*'''thonêthìne xè wine nìhe''' into [the interior of] the forest '''thonêthìne xè wine mahe''' from within the forest '''thonêthìne xè yòne nìhe''' towards the outside of the forest; away from the forest '''thonêthìne xè yòne mahe''' from the outside of the forest

===Possessive Phrases===
Possession is marked by the particle '''xè''', which is put between the possessor and the possessed. These are both marked with the appropriate case ending.
*'''xèmá xè mimá''' the man's sheep '''xèmóm xè mimám''' the man's sheep (inst.)

This particle is not used with the personal pronouns; instead the dative pronoun is used as a possessive:
*'''tòné ìhì''' your dog '''èthîne pikì''' their house

A possessive construction is avoided where the possessor is extremely clear from context; particularly when talking about one's own relations, possessions, or body parts. I.e., it is preferable to use '''xèmónam''' "the husband" instead of '''ené xèmónam''' "my husband"; '''mimá''' "the sheep" instead of '''ené mimá''' "my sheep," except where disambiguation is required.

===Question Formation===
Yes/no question are handled with three particles which follow the verb. These are '''tuhá''' if the expected answer is "yes," '''kò''' if it is "no," and '''ci''' if no particular anwser is expected. This last is used sparingly, as it may sound rather peremptory.

All other questions are formed with the interrogative adjective '''ipû''' "what." The interrogative particle '''ci''' is still required at the end of the sentence.

Talk:Proto-Eigə-Isthmus

2014-03-15T06:57:38Z

Dunomapuka: /* Meshi words and correspondences */

= Proposed cognate sets & discussion =

'''Resources:'''
* [[Miwan languages|Miwan wordlist]]
* [[Faraghin|Faraghin wordlist]]
* [[Proto-Isthmus]]

'''Abbreviations:'''
* EMiw = Eastern Miwan
* EV = Eigə Valley
* Far = Faraghin
* FMiw = Forest Miwan
* Ng = Ngauro
* NT = Ndak Ta
* OEMiw = Old Eastern Miwan
* PEI = Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
* PEV = Proto-Eigə Valley
* PI = Proto-Isthmus
* PM = Proto-Miwan
* PNg = Proto-Ngauro

== Possible Miwan-Faraghin cognates ==

* I've found what's almost certainly a Miw/Isthmus cognate: [Eastern] Miwan ''tun'' "red" and Faraghin ''rušnen'' "paint, color" (probably from Proto-Isthmus *dzusn- or *ɖusn-).

* I've just had a startling realization: given some of the historical changes I'm considering for the Miwan languages, ''Miw'' and ''Ferogh'' may actually be cognates! In Miwan, I'm thinking proto-vowels *e *o would become *i *u; if we posit a proto-Isthmus form for Ferogh like *fejog-s or *s-pejog-s, we can imagine an early Miwan cognate *m-fijug or *m-pijug (positing a nasal prefix of some kind)... with lenition of the final *-g and deletion of the consonant after *m-, voilà, ''Miju''...!

The root *pejog/*fejog might just mean "people" or "tribe", or be an unanalyzable name (like ''Ndak'').

Proto-Isthmus *(V)s- (which must have been fairly frequent, given the amount of *s-induced lenition of initial stops in Faraghin) is probably related to (or identical with) the prefix *as- that marks the genitive/accusative case on pronouns. I think of it as a kind of relational marker: if the (pro)noun it's attached to stands next to a verb, it's the verb's object; if next to a noun, it's a genitive possessor. Attached to a verb, it might be used as a kind of subjunctive/relative marker, or maybe form causatives or something.... But anyway, it's easy to imagine an ethnonym being used in genitive constructions so much that that form became generalized: "to be (one) of the Pejog" could be the normal way to phrase ethnic identity.

::'''Basilius responds:'''

::What if the PI form of the ethnonym was *s-mejog-s? This would eliminate the need for obscure prefix in Miwan (perhaps, in PI too - if *s- is allowed to be part of root sometimes?). I couldn't find any precedents for initial *s+nasal.

::Also, the genitive/accusative marker could form adjective of even substantive ("property of..."), with appositive use; its use as acc. can be due to contamination of original finite forms with analytical ones, based on some verbal noun. --[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 16:21, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Here's a few more, not previously posted:

* FMiw ''za:ska:'' "war" could be cognate with either Far ''daghan'' "stay, camp" (< PI *dasg-), or Far ''nirgha'' "war" (if < PI *njalsga)-- this last is why I tentatively proposed PEI *nj- > Miwan z-.

(It's now proposed that ''nirgha'' is from PI *njadsga or *njadzga, and that ''za:ska'' is its cognate in Ngauro which was loaned into Miwan.)

* FMiw ''pasta'' "cloth" as a cognate with Far ''baš'' "flat" (< PI *bas, *bes, *bos) looks pretty straightforward.

* EMiw ''timpi:za'' "necklace" might possibly begin with the root seen in Far ''demen'' "give" (< PI *dim-); so might FMiw ''dimbal'' "wife", but if so the voicing is irregular.

* FMiw ''kwintas'' "bird" might share a root with Far ''ghantač'' "dragon" (< PI *s-gant-, *s-gent, *s-gont-), maybe PEI *kwen-t(a)-.

* More speculatively, FMiw ''mul'' "oblivious" might be somehow related to Far ''muns'' "soft, weak" (< PI *mun-ts).

* Similarly, maybe FMiw ''ni:glu'' "feeble" and Far ''ner'' "bad, weak" (< PI *nidz, *niɖ) are related.

== Possible Ngauro loans in Ndak Ta with Miwan or Faraghin cognates ==

* NT ''kaime'' "study", and maybe also ''kenla'' "teacher, scribe", seems to reflect the same root as FMiw ''ki:mat'' "comprehension" and probably also ''kim'' "recipe, spell, algorithm, prescription".

* NT ''mos'' "city, town" seems plausibly related to Far ''mašt'' "house, palace" (< PI *mas, *mes, or *mos, with a mystery suffix *-t added sometime after Western Isthmus).

* NT ''naka'' "god" could possibly be cognate with Far ''nagat'' "lord, chief".

* NT ''diàka'' "king, ruler" I've already noted as possibly cognate with Far ''čark'' "king" (probably < PI *ʈalk).

* NT ''ntindo'' "metal" seems similar to FMiw ''di:ndi:n'' "metal", but the borrowing, if it is one, could be in either direction.

(Zhen Lin comments: "/di:ndi:n/ sounds ideophonic, perhaps, representing the "sound" of metal.")

* NT ''alpau'' "make, create" might just possibly be somehow related to Far ''foghan'' "make, craft" (if the latter < PI *s-pug-s-).

* NT ''sai'' "female" is almost certainly cognate with Far ''šoi'' "woman" (< PI *saj, *sej, *soj)... which suggests that NT ''dado'' "male" probably reflects the Ngauro word for "man".

(However, Radius Solis comments: "...šoi's etymon is ''sai'' as recently as pre-proto-Ferogh - no need to go all the way back to PI to find that exact form, let alone PEI. And PPF was roughly contemporary with early Ndak Ta. So I think it more likely that PPF borrowed it from NT rather than it being native to the EI family.")

* NT ''eplain'' "ball" seems similar to EMiw ''plaj'' "bead"; but again the loan could be in either direction. (If it's a Ngauro loan, the initial vowel in ''eplain'' might be epenthetic: Ndak Ta doesn't allow initial clusters like /pl-/.)

* Finally, NT ''santa'' "legal", ''santau'' "illegal", and ''sanlena'' "public" seem to share a root *san-, but the derivational morphology doesn't appear to be native.... Just possibly, the root is the same as Far ''šan'' "fire" (< PI *san, *sen, *son); the idea might related to some kind of metaphorical connection between fire/cooking/sacrifice and public/legal actions...?

An alternative (maybe better) Faraghin cognate might be ''rantan'' "test (by experience), prove" (if < PI *dzant- or *s-dant-); it's just possible that FMiw ''zinti:'' "taboo" is also related...

== Proposed etymologies ==

'''cedh audmanh proposes:'''

Drawing on the established changes, I'd like to posit the following etymologies:

* PEI ''*njadz-ga'' "war" > PI ''*njadsga'' > Far. ''nirgha''; PNg. ''**nzatska'' > Ng. ''*zaska''. PEI ''*-ga'' is a suffix of some sort, maybe a verbal noun, in which case the root ''*njadz-'' might mean "to fight".
* PEI ''*dzus-n'' "red" > PI ''*dzusn-'' > Far. ''rušn-en'' "color"; PEV ''**tsun'' > EMiw ''tun'' (possibly with a lengthened vowel due to the loss of coda s). PEI ''*-n'' might be an adjectivizing suffix.
* PEI ''*dim-'' "to give" > PI ''*dim'' > Far. ''dem-en''; PEV ''**tim-'' > EMiw ''timpi:za'' "necklace"
* PEI ''*gwent-a-ts'' "bird" > PI ''*s-gont-a-ts'' > Far. ''ghantač'' "dragon"; PEV ''**kwentats'' > FMiw ''kwintas''. From this we can surmise that the voicing change for EV plosives is blocked medially after nasals. The change of coda ts > s might be a common EV phenomenon; here it is attested for Miwan, but the same thing happens in PEI ''*njadzga'' > Ngauro ''*zaska''. If ''*-a'' is an agentive suffix, the root might mean something like "to fly". I don't know how to interpret ''*-ts''.
* PEI ''*nag-a'' > PI ''*naga-t'' > Far. ''nagat'' "lord, chief"; Ng. ''**naka'', hence NT naka "god". The ''*-a'' suffix might be a honorific, or maybe a case ending, possibly agentive (see above). The meaning of the PEI word could be something like "father", but it appears to have had a fairly wide semantic range.
* PEI ''*trelk-a'' "leader, chief" > PI ''*ʈelka'' > Far. ''čark'' "king"; PEV ''**djelka'' > Ng. ''**diaka'', hence NT ''diàka'' "king".
* PEI ''*dzant-'' "to decide, to judge" > PI ''*dzant'' > Far. ''rant-an'' "to test; to verify; to prove"; PEV ''**tsant'' > Ng. ''**santa'' "legal", ''**santau'' "illegal", ''**san-lena'' "public" (all borrowed into NT).
* PEI ''*gejm-'' "to know, to understand" > PEV ''**kejm-'' > FMiw ''ki:mat'' "comprehension"; Ng. ''**kajme'' "to study" (hence NT ''kaime''). Here we have a new change for Ngauro: ej > aj.

From these words it appears the root structure of PEI should be extended to C(r,l,j,w)V(n,r,l,j,w)C.

'''Radius Solis responds:'''

That looks excellent and I see no problems with any of those etymologies.

For *gwent-a-ts, perhaps the -ts is an augmentative suffix in Isthmus that is responsible for turning "bird" into "dragon". Then the EV version might have lost its meaning over the years, or augmented forms came to be seen as default, or the -s could even be another morpheme entirely.

'''Corumayas responds:'''

I agree, it looks great overall. Thanks! Some detaily comments:

* ''PEI *njadz-ga "war" > PI *njadsga > Far. nirgha; PNg. **nzatska > Ng. *zaska. PEI *-ga is a suffix of some sort, maybe a verbal noun, in which case the root *njadz- might mean "to fight".''
* ''PEI *gwent-a-ts "bird" > PI *s-gont-a-ts > Far. ghantač "dragon"; PEV **kwentats > FMiw kwintas. From this we can surmise that the voicing change for EV plosives is blocked medially after nasals.''

I'd been thinking that the EV voicing change only occurred in onsets, so the PNg. form ancestral to FMiw ''za:ska:'' might be ''*nza(d)zka'', with *z assimilating to the voicelessness of the *k. Similarly, if my version is true the *t in FMiw ''kwintas'' isn't voiced because it's originally the coda of PEI ''*gwent-'', and the *t in Far ''nagat'' might go back to PEI and be preserved as a final glottal stop in Ngauro (which wouldn't be reflected in the Ndak Ta loan).

''New note:''
In case I might want to preserve *nj- clusters in Ngauro, I'm considering calling the initial ''*n-'' in PI ''*njadsga'' a prefix of some kind, so that the Ngauro cognate can be derived from PEV ''*jadz-ka''.

* ''The change of coda ts > s might be a common EV phenomenon; here it is attested for Miwan, but the same thing happens in PEI *njadzga > Ngauro *zaska. If *-a is an agentive suffix, the root might mean something like "to fly". I don't know how to interpret *-ts.''

''Radius Solis wrote:''
''For *gwent-a-ts, perhaps the -ts is an augmentative suffix in Isthmus that is responsible for turning "bird" into "dragon". Then the EV version might have lost its meaning over the years, or augmented forms came to be seen as default, or the -s could even be another morpheme entirely.''

I like that idea, Radius. ''*-TS'' is an attested nominalizer in Isthmus, which was still productive in Faraghin (where it's glossed as "quality"), so it might well be the same suffix as that. It's also possible that the suffixes were added independently in both daughters rather than going all the way back to PEI, and are either different morphemes or acquired different meanings in each branch.

''New note:''
However, looking at it again I've noticed that Far ''ghantač'' can't come from ''*gwent-a-ts'' at all; it has to come from PI ''*s-gonta-ʈ'', ''*s-gonta-tj[a,e,o,u]'', or ''*s-gonta-tuj''. So we are certainly dealing with two different suffixes here.

* ''PEI *dzus-n "red" > PI *dzusn- > Far. rušn-en "color"; PEV **tsun > EMiw tun (possibly with a lengthened vowel due to the loss of coda s). PEI *-n might be an adjectivizing suffix.''

EMiw ''tun'' doesn't have a long vowel though. I'm skeptical of explaining Miwan long vowels as due to compensatory lengthening anyway... the correspondences are complex and difficult to predict, and I think the reason is that length is actually part of the tonal system (which we should probably work out at some point). (Of course, deleted coda consonants are highly likely to affect tone, so they are relevant; it's just more complicated than *deleted coda > long vowel.)

* ''PEI *nag-a > PI *naga-t > Far. nagat "lord, chief"; Ng. **naka, hence NT naka "god". The *-a suffix might be a honorific, or maybe a case ending, possibly agentive (see above). The meaning of the PEI word could be something like "father", but it appears to have had a fairly wide semantic range.''

I don't think "lord" and "god" are actually too distant semantically, and neither need invoke the concept "father" (for which we have a perfectly good PI root already in ''*BAdAu''). (Also see above about the final *t: the Ngauro word might be ''*nakaʔ'').

* ''PEI *trelk-a "leader, chief" > PI *ʈelka > Far. čark "king"; PEV **djelka > Ng. **diaka, hence NT diàka "king".''

This has become the most troubling correspondence for me. Firstly, I'm not sure if Faraghin /r/ should come from *l at all (though if Radius approves of it I'll leave it alone). More bothersome, the *k looks like it should become /g/ in Ngauro. Maybe the final /a/ was added in the NT loan by analogy with naka, which would explain both its absence in Faraghin and the non-voicing of the /k/.

The PEV form should be ''*drelk(a)'', and the Ngauro word ''djak(a)''; the change *Cr > Cj occurs in Ngauro but not Miwan. I've been a little worried about what happens to the *l in the Ngauro word, but *elk > /ak/ is not unreasonable. The Proto-Miwan cognate might be ''**drilk(a)''.

* ''PEI *gejm- "to know, to understand" > PEV **kejm- > FMiw ki:mat "comprehension"; Ng. **kajme "to study" (hence NT kaime). Here we have a new change for Ngauro: ej > aj.''

I was thinking PEI ''*gajm-'', with *aj > PM *e > FM /i/ (FM lacks /e/). In fact, I've been thinking about reducing the PEI diphthongs to just *aj *aw, since I think the others attested in PI could all potentially be derived from those plus the various vowel changes induced by prevocallic *w. On the other hand, if *j *w can occur as coda consonants then there seems to be no good reason not to allow them to follow any vowel. (Incidentally, note that the ''ken-'' in NT ''kenla'' is the same Ngauro morpheme as the ''kaim-'' in ''kaime''.)

* ''From these words it appears the root structure of PEI should be extended to C(r,l,j,w)V(n,r,l,j,w)C.''

I'm amenable to that, except that the coda consonant is definitely optional (cf. PI pronouns ''*da'' "I", ''*fe'' "you[PL]", ''*njo'' "he/she"). Also, it seems like *s can show up in several places in the syllable... so maybe something like *(s)C(r,l,j,w)V(n,s,r,l,j,w)(C)...?

== More possible cognates ==

'''TzirTzi writes:'''

@Corumayas (and anyone else working on the EI family) - I've been comparing the Miwan and Proto-Isthmus lexicons, and I was wondering if the following might possibly be cognates.

The following are patchy:

* PI *DZJUF-en, 'scare', and OEMiw *traf, 'fire' (thus from PEI *dr(j)af)
* PI *Vs-gun, 'old(er)', and FMiw asku, 'polite'
* PI *mAGZ(-)Aʈ, *maGZ(-)atJU, 'loot, take as booty', and OEMiw *me:g, 'be loud, be roudy' (thus from PEI *mesg-)
* an alternative etymology to the current one for EMiw timpi:za - PI *TSImp-en, 'twist' = stimp-en, < PEI stimp- > PM timp- + -i:za = nominaliser

And the following are very patchy:

* PI *Vs-gIʈ, *Vs-gItJU, 'mighty, powerful', and FMiw aska:r, 'haunted' (thus from PEI something like *as-gar(dV))
* PI *kIL(-)t, *kIDZ, *kIjV, 'anger', and FMiw guljad, 'defeat' (thus from PEI gVlj(V)d))
* PI *Vs-gAF-en, 'steal', and OEMiw iskefli, 'lice' ('stealers (of blood)'?)
* PI *(Vs-)gJU(-)TS, 'sharp', and FMiw askini:, 'painful' (thus from PEI *as-guj-, as there are no attested Eige reflexes of PEI *uj)
* PI *tLJUB-en, 'marry', and FMiw dimbal, 'wife (vulgar) (thus from PEI *tluj(m)b, and somewhere tl -> t and uj -> u)

I realise that none of them are great, but looking for them passed the time - no worries if none of them are usable.

'''Basilius writes:'''

Another couple of crazy comparisons...

* PI *balon 'iron' (if a compound based on 'glitter', -> 'metal') ~ *bu:r OEMiw 'to shine'
* PI *dADZAd-a- dance ~ varja EMiw 'to dance' (the straightforward semantics does tempt one to add a correspondence or derivation pattern...)
--[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 17:32, 10 March 2009 (UTC)
: Based on *dADZAd-a ~ varja I just had a discussion with Basilius how this could come about. Because initial ''v z'' are both very common in Miwan but have no established source other than loans from Ngauro based on PEI ''*w *j'', we agreed that the most sensible solution for the above correspondence might be to posit PEI ''*θ'' instead of ''*f'', and also to add two voiced fricatives ''*ð *z''. In Isthmus these would be eliminated by fortition to PI ''*d *dz'', and a second shift of ''*θ'' > PI ''*f'' would remove the orphan POA. In Eigə Valley both ''*θ *ð'' would shift to labials, with voicing ''not'' being reversed.
: Such would be supported by the correspondence PI ''*dzant-a'' "to test, prove, try" ~ Ng. ''zanta'' "legal", even though this cognate set would also work with initial ''*dz'' ~ ''*s'' or ''*j'' ~ ''*z''. The evidence must therefore come from Miwan - and we've found a promising candidate: FMiw ''zinti:'' "taboo". The Faraghin ~ FMiw correspondence would work out if the PEI form was ''*zent-e-'', though Ngauro would preserve the [e] in both syllables rather than lowering it to [a]. The semantic connection looks tempting nonetheless...
--[[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 00:31, 11 March 2009 (UTC)

:: Hmm. I'm hesitant to change the phoneme inventory of PEI that much. For what it's worth, /v z ʀ/ in late EMiw may also come from earlier /b d g/ (which the EMiw wordlist lacks), so Ngauro loans aren't necessarily the only source. As an alternative explanation, maybe the first syllables of ''varja'' and ''*dADZAd-a'' are different prefixes, and the cognate root is ''*jad-''.... I'm not sure about ''zinti:'', either, since the vowels don't match; but maybe the vowel correspondences should be more complicated than they are right now.
-- [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:06, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

::: As for /v z ʀ/, it seems that it cannot be so simple... FMiw and Old EMiw appear to have both /v z/ and /b d g/ word-initially; ''zinti:'' 'taboo' comes from FMiw for which 'dance' is attested with initial v- (as ''varja:''). Also, it seems to me that PM -rj- corresponds nicely with PI -dz-, so there's rather a suffix added in PI? Or maybe some contraction in PM? --[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 03:22, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

=== Ngauro approximant codas ===
With your current revisions, the reconstruction of PEI becomes more and more solid. Cool! 
It just occurred to me that a pattern for Ngauro approximant codas appears to be emerging. Some food for thought:
*PEI diphthongs.
**''*aj *aw'' > ''ai~e au~o''
**''*ej *ow'' > ''i u''
**''*uj *uw'' > ''əu''
**''*ij *iw'' > no Ngauro reflex specified so far, except for a tentative ''*ij > ?e'' (where did that idea come from?), so what about both > ''əi'' in parallel to the above?
**''*oj *ew'' > what about ''əi əu''?
*PEI coda ''*r *l''.
**No reflex for these has been specified so far, but as ''*r'' becomes ''j'' in onsets, what about having the same change in coda position?
**Coda ''*l'' could become ''w'' in parallel. All other early EI langs seem to preserve it as /l/.
**I'd suggest the following:
***''*ar *er'' > ''*aj'' > ''ai~e''
***''*ir *ur'' > ''*ij *uj'' > ''i''
***''*or'' > ''*oj'' > ''əi''
***''*al *ol'' > ''*aw'' > ''au~o''
***''*il *ul'' > ''*iw *uw'' > ''u''
***''*el'' > ''*ew'' > ''əu''
*** The outcomes of ''*ir *ur *il *ul'' presume that liquid vocalisation takes place later than the diphthong changes listed above.
**We have to account for ''*trelk > djak'', so I'd suggest that coda vocalisation does not happen if the onset already contains a C(j,w) cluster. Instead, the liquid would just be deleted, with preceding ''*e *o'' lowering to ''a''.
**There is also Ng. ''al-pəu'' with a coda lateral. Either this one comes from a different source, or morpheme-final ''*l'' generally remains. Maybe also ''*r > l'' / _#.
-- [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 09:06, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

== Meshi words and correspondences ==

I've had some thoughts on making Meshi sound changes more interesting, while keeping them consistent with what already exists.

The native Meshi words we have so far are
* '''aysu''' "speak, communicate"
* '''aku''' "base (of mountain), source (of river)"
* '''buru''' "fortification; settlement"
* '''chima''' "large quantity"
* '''gise''' "defecate"
* '''ini''' "child"
* '''kug''' "jar"
* '''met''' "woman"
* '''sanu''' "village"
* '''unu''' "shaman"
* '''Meshi'''
Of these the only feasible cognates I can think of are...
* *''Meshi'', of course, which derives from *''ʔum-pew'' plus a suffix. I think this is most likely PEI *''siŋ'' "holy" (I prefer this version to ''*sij'' because of the sound changes I propose).
* ''chima'' ~ OEMiw ''-ten'' from a PEI root *''d(l)en'' or *'''d(l)ajn'', which works if we posit a suffix like *''-baC'' or *''-paC'' to account for the change in place of articulation - possibly PEI *''-pat'' "one", so the compount would literally mean something like "a lot, a load".
* ''unu'' might have have a first element derived from the genitive PEI *''ʔum'' plus another element - perhaps *''tow'' "sand" in the sense of "desert" or "wilderness".
* ''buru'' could conceivably be a cognate of OEMiw ''bur'' "shine".
* It's just about possible that ''kug'' is somehow related to *''gad'' "flow, float", though the change in final consonant needs to be accounted for.
Some are problematic:
* ''gise'' has no obvious cognates. The FMiw word for "shit", ''uf'', looks completely different.
* Similarly, ''aysu'' doesn't look much like the OEMiw word (''re:'') or the PEI (*''twik'', *''ts(w)ik'', *''θwik'').
* It's also hard to find a cognate for ''aku'', '''sanu''', ''ini'', or '''met'''.

So what about the sound changes? One of the key problems we have is that a lot of odd vowel-glides whose reflexes in Meshi are not established (*''ij'' *''oj'' *''uj'' *''uw'' and perhaps *''ew''), and no source of /aj aw/ in Meshi, even though these appear in ''aysu'' "to speak'' and ''Tawfwe'' "Thabīa". I propose the Meshi sound changes, from the PEV stage onward, be modified to the following:
* ts dz dz > t d z / (I don't mind much about the conditions for *''dz'' changing)
* w > v / initially and intervocalically
* a e o > Ø / finally
* nasals assimilate to a following obstruent
* a number of consonants are lost, including in codas (in some but not all instances - conditions need to be worked out, although I think a lot of clusters should go) and probably after nasals (this makes the etymologies of ''chima'' and ''unu'' much easier).
* kw gw > fw zw
* e o > i u
* t d s > ʧ ʤ ʃ / _i
* ew iw oj uj ij uw > e e e e aj aw / (this change is important as it gives us phonemic /aj aw/, explains ''Meshi'', and makes palatalised consonants phonemic)
Then some other changes to satisfy my aesthetic preferences:
* θ ð > s z / (also makes palatalisation contrast in more environments)
* ŋw > gw ''or'' w / (the latter makes /v/ phonemic)
* ŋ ŋ > n Ø / (I'd like it to vanish finally so *''siŋ'' > ''shi'' - since ''*sij'' > ''shay'' because of dissiilation - but this might be taken care of by the previous loss of final consonants. Don't really mind what happens elsewhere but it seems odd to retain it initially.)
* r l > j w / _C / (This gives a nice (C)(w/j)V(C) syllable structure.)
* Possibly more alveolars palatalise before /j/, but we could leave it as contrastive.
This leaves us with consonants /p t ʧ k b d ʤ g f s ʃ m n r l j w~v/ and vowels /a e i u aj aw/.

[[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]] ([[User talk:Thedukeofnuke|talk]]) 11:40, 13 March 2014 (PDT)

: These are great. I like the first three of your proposed cognates. If the words don't correspond to any PEI roots, might as well make up some new roots, it's time we advanced our understanding of that language. I am not gonna do anything further with Meshi, please take it over if you want to develop it. (later, I may toss you a couple grammar ideas if I am so inspired.)

: FMiw "uf" looks to me like an onomatopoeia, the grunt you might make while shitting. Maybe ''gise'' represents the original EI root. --[[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]] ([[User talk:Dunomapuka|talk]]) 23:56, 14 March 2014 (PDT)

=Other discussion=
== Codas ==
'''Corumayas wrote:''' "(Again, the velar nasal *ŋ is not currently attested, but we might want it anyway.)"
:Do nasals in root-final position assimilate in POA too, as nasals in pre-final position do? Because if not, I just had the idea that clusters of *ŋ plus coronal *t *d *ʦ *ʣ could be another source for the Isthmus retroflexes... [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 08:38, 17 July 2008 (UTC)
::You mean in compounds? That could work. I think the assimilation should probably only happen within morphemes. I was thinking maybe final *ŋ could become *j in PI, to be another source of diphthongs... [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:17, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

= Verbal morphology =
Just putting up my current thoughts in case anyone has comments or suggestions.

== Voice ==
This is established: PEI has a three-way distinction between active, causative, and some kind of passive/reflexive/anticausative, marked by the "stem vowel" suffixes ''*-a *-i *-u'' (respectively). It works with the little that we know of the daughter langs, and (oddly) bears a tantalizing resemblance to the "phase" markers in [[Proto-Peninsular]] (also ''*-a *-i *-u''). It might be almost too neat a system, though; should it be a little messier?

== Agreement ==
I decided Faraghin has subject agreement, which probably goes back at least to [[Proto-Isthmus]]; but only the 3SG suffix ''-n'' is known so far. If we have ''-n'' < the PI pronoun ''*njo'', what would the other agreement suffixes look like? Maybe they're all derived from pronouns. Let's stick with the PI level for now, since we don't have definitive reconstructions of the PEI pronouns yet. Here are the pronouns:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''*da''   || ''*guʈ''
|-
| 2   || ''*tujn''   || ''*fe''
|-
| 3   || ''*njo''   || ''*ludz''
|}

Now, we could just suffix these to the verb stem; the result would look like this after the Faraghin sound changes (using the verb ''katan''):

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katad''   || ''kataguč''
|-
| 2   || ''katačin''   || ''kataf''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''katalur''
|}

But that's transparent and pretty boring. We could maybe make it more interesting by having the first and second person forms grammaticalized earlier, and thus be more worn down: if they somehow lost their final consonants before the PI stage, the Faraghin system might look like this:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katad''   || ''katag''
|-
| 2   || ''katat''   || ''kataf''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''katalur''
|}

That seems a little too tidy though. Would more change help? If the voiced stops in the first person forms were somehow lenited away, and the plurals were leveled, we could have something like this in Faraghin:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kata''   || ''kateu''
|-
| 2   || ''katat''   || ''kateu''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''kateu''
|}

That's starting to look more realistic to me. I'm not sure how justifiable it is, though, since it involves changes (lenition of voiced stops, dropping of final consonants) that don't seem to happen anywhere else in the language.

Another possibility is that first and second person agreement are ''much'' older than third person, and are not visibly related to the pronouns at all, or are merged somehow with the "stem vowel" suffix, or something. (That last version is already starting to do both of those, actually...)

: Another option would be to contract the endings ''before'' the final consonants are lost. In this case the 1 and 3 pl endings at the PI stage might be something like ''*-uʈ'' and ''*-ldz'', which would make the Faraghin reflexes of these forms of the sample verb ''kateuč'' and ''katar'' respectively.
: Looking at it closely, even though the ''-euč'' suffix is cool, I think I still like your third table with leveled plurals best.
: - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 20:37, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

:: What about ''kateuč'' for all the plurals? (A parallel contraction would make the 2SG ''katoin''... that's identical to the 3SG causative, though.)
:: - [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 23:45, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Let's see what happens in the other voices...

{|
|
''*-i'' (basic causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kate(d)''   || ''kači(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katet/kačin''   || ''kači''
|-
| 3   || ''katen''   || ''kači(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-aj'' (extended causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katoi(d)''   || ''katoi(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katoit/katoin''   || ''katoi''
|-
| 3   || ''katoin''   || ''katoi(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-u'' (middle)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kato(d)''   || ''kato(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katot/kačin''   || ''kato''
|-
| 3   || ''katun''   || ''kato(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-iw'' (middle of causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kači(d)''   || ''kači(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''kačit/kačin''   || ''kači''
|-
| 3   || ''kačin''   || ''kači(r)''
|}
|}

The outcomes of ''*-aw *-ij *-uw'' would be identical to those of plain ''*-a *-i *-u'', and the reflex of ''*-uj'' (causative of reflexive) would be identical to that of ''*-iw''.

With this table, I'd be in favor of adding ''-č'' in the 1PL, but leaving off the ''-d'' and ''-r'' in the 1SG/3PL. As for the 2SG, I think the ''-t'' versions are more interesting than the ''-n'' versions. [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 22:16, 14 August 2010 (UTC)

== Aspect ==
Having subject agreement seems to mean that there should be some kind of tense/aspect marked on the verb somehow. I wanted something fairly fusional, and I decided to look at Muskogean's verbal ablaut/infix system for inspiration.

The idea I think I'm going to go with is to have infixed consonants before the final vowel of the verb root, which will probably mark aspect (not only is that what they're used for in Muskogean, it's also a basic category in most of the old langs of eastern Peilaš-- including [[Talo-Edastean languages]] and [[Proto-Peninsular]]).

There are six consonants that can cluster inside the syllable like that in PEI (though I guess technically it doesn't need to be syllable-internal if it's followed by a stem vowel, does it?...): ''*s *n *r *l *j *w''. Of these, ''*n *l'' don't produce particularly interesting reflexes (they're unchanged in most of the descendents; although in Feråjin they're both deleted with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel). But ''*j *w'' produce diphthongs which give some nice vowel alternations, and ''*s *r'' produce consonant alternations in the Isthmus langs, while ''*s'' gives tonal contrasts in Miwan.

Just as a demonstration, here's what this might look like in Faraghin:

{|
| Unmarked   || *S-Grade   || *N-Grade   || *R-Grade   || *L-Grade   || *J-Grade   || *W-Grade
|-
| ''katan'' || ''kasan'' || ''kantan'' || ''kačan'' || ''kartan'' || ''koitan'' || ''keutan''
|-
| ''letan'' || ''lesan'' || ''lentan'' || ''lečan'' || ''lertan'' || ''letan'' || ''litan''
|-
| ''lupan'' || ''lufan'' || ''lumpan'' || ''ločan'' || ''lurpan'' || ''lipan'' || ''lupan''
|-
| ''rifan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rimfan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rirfan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rifan''
|}

I'm inclined to use at least ''*s *j *w'', and maybe also ''*n'' and/or ''*r''... not sure how I'd assign aspects with that many slots in the paradigm though.

- [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 08:05, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

: We'll almost have to include the R-grade because Faraghin already has repetitive/iterative/habitual forms in ''-čan''. I also like the L-grade, maybe more so than the N-grade. What we should keep in mind is that there are several verbs which phonetically fit the outcome of some grades, e.g. ''sempan'' "twist" ~ N-grade and ''krertan'' "seize, capture" ~ L-grade. If these are derived from roots with a simple coda such as ''*tsip-'' or ''*klit-'', we might mess up some cognates. On the other hand, if the infixed sonorant is part of the PEI root, we will have to find a way to affix the aspect consonant to roots with complex codas. ''*tsimp-n-an''? ''*klilt-il-an''? ''*klilt-a-l-n''? Other ideas?
: - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 20:37, 10 March 2009 (UTC)
:: I think everything depends on the way that infixation emerged. If e. g. through metathesis, then some pre-PEI had ''**kat-S-, **kat-N-, **kat-R-''; then *''tsimp-'' and *''klilt''- could be < ''**tsip-N-, **klit-l-'', with aspect forms like ''**tsip-əN-S-, **klit-əl-S; **tsip-əN-N-, **klit-əl-N; **tsip-əN-R-, **klit-əl-R-'' etc.; and these could be partly subject to the same metathesis to produce ''*tsip-əN-S-, *klit-əl-S-; *tsip-əNN-, **klit-əl-N-''; but ''**tsip-əRN-, **klit-əRl-''.--[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 21:56, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

::: I was thinking the Faraghin forms in ''-čan'' were a later development, but I suppose they could be descended from the R-grade. One problem I see with R-grade is that (with the current set of sound changes, at least) stops adjacent to ''*r'' at all three POAs merge in Proto-Isthmus; you couldn't tell, say, whether a Faraghin form ''ločan'' was a form of ''lupan'' or of some other verb ''lotan'' or ''lokan''. (Another problem is that the outcomes of ''*r'' in some positions in Isthmus langs are still up in the air...)

::: For any roots that already have a coda cluster, maybe the infix could go before it, with a reduplicated root vowel: ''*tsi-ni-mp-an'', ''*kli-li-lt-an'', etc.

::: Of course, the full system wouldn't be preserved in each daughter lang; just like with the voice system, only bits of it might survive, and it would probably tend to become derivational. The descendants probably use auxiliary constructions for a lot of their TAM stuff.
::: - [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:19, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Here's an analysis of the regular reflexes of the various grades in Faraghin. - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 10:40, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

The '''W-grade''' doesn't survive into Proto-Isthmus except:
# when the root vowel is ''*i'' (giving e.g. Far. ''letan'' (< PEI ''*lit-a-'') vs. ''litan'' (< PEI ''*liwt-a-''))
# when the ''*w'' ends up intervocalic (giving e.g. Far. ''rantan'' (< ''*zant-a-'') vs. ''rafantan'' (< ''*za<wa>nt-a-''))

The '''J-grade''' normally simply turns PEI root vowels ''*e *a *o'' into Far. ''oi'', and PEI ''*u'' into Far. ''i''. However, when the aspect marker ends up in intervocalic position, the vowels remain unchanged and the marker is reflected as Far. ''r''.

The '''R-grade''' turns root-final obstruents into PI retroflexes, and merges with the W-grade before other consonants. If the marker ends up as PEI ''*r'' or PI ''*ɖ'' in intervocalic environments, it is generally elided - the former in PI, the latter in Ferogh only. As a result, the root vowel merges with the stem vowel, or with the echo vowel in roots with coda clusters, as described in the following table (top row: PEI, left column: PI, resulting forms: Faraghin; note that a few combinations have the fortified reflex of an intervocalic glide instead):
{| class="c"
|- class="i"
| || *-ra(w)   || *-raj   || *-ri(j)   || *-riw   || *-ruj   || -ru(w)   || *-rda(w)   || *-rdaj   || *-rdi(j)   || *-rdiw/*-rduj   || -rdu(w)
|-
| ''*a-''
| a || oi || oi || aro || afe || a || a || oi || oi || oi || eu
|-
| ''*e-''
| i || i || oi || aro || afe || i || a || oi || oi || oi || eu
|-
| ''*i-''
| i || i || e || i || i || i || a || oi || e || e || i
|-
| ''*o-''
| a || oi || oi || aro || afe || a || a || oi || oi || oi || o
|-
| ''*u-''
| a || oi || i || i || i || o || a || oi || i || i || o
|-
| ''*jV-''
| i || i || i || iro || ife || i || a || oi || e || i || o
|}

The '''L-grade''' simply adds ''*l''; if this is clustered with another consonant in Proto-Ferogh, it becomes ''r''. Root-final ''*s'' is deleted in WI.

The '''N-grade''' simply adds ''*n''; this assimilates in POA to a following obstruent. Root-final ''*s'' is deleted in WI.

The '''S-grade''' lenites ''*p *t *k *d *g'' into Far. ''f s kh r gh'', and adds ''s'' in intervocalic environments. Before other root-final consonants it is not distinct from the zero-grade.

The '''L-''', '''N-''', and '''S-grades''' of PEI roots ending in ''*ŋ'' regularly merge all stem vowels except ''*i'' into Far. ''i''; for instance, a root ''*guŋ-'' (zero-grade: Far. ''gin'') would form the L-grade ''golin'', the N-grade ''gunin'', and the S-grade ''gosin'', with no inherited distinction between regular forms and extended ''*-aj-''causative; the simple PEI causatives in ''*-i-'' might remain distinct as ''golen gunen gosen'' though.

= Miscellaneous =

Okay, I just had to fix that ''pa:ntun'' issue, I just realized it was still listed the wrong way around with my correction still given as parenthetical. The word for "guitar" was specifically intended to be a metonymy taken from the music a guitar makes, which the Miw found to be colorful. The ''music'' was supposed to be the main definition of the Miw word, with only the metonymic use getting borrowed. [[User:Radius|Radius]] 16:31, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*zzz]]

Talk:Proto-Eigə-Isthmus

2014-03-15T06:56:51Z

Dunomapuka: /* Meshi words and correspondences */

= Proposed cognate sets & discussion =

'''Resources:'''
* [[Miwan languages|Miwan wordlist]]
* [[Faraghin|Faraghin wordlist]]
* [[Proto-Isthmus]]

'''Abbreviations:'''
* EMiw = Eastern Miwan
* EV = Eigə Valley
* Far = Faraghin
* FMiw = Forest Miwan
* Ng = Ngauro
* NT = Ndak Ta
* OEMiw = Old Eastern Miwan
* PEI = Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
* PEV = Proto-Eigə Valley
* PI = Proto-Isthmus
* PM = Proto-Miwan
* PNg = Proto-Ngauro

== Possible Miwan-Faraghin cognates ==

* I've found what's almost certainly a Miw/Isthmus cognate: [Eastern] Miwan ''tun'' "red" and Faraghin ''rušnen'' "paint, color" (probably from Proto-Isthmus *dzusn- or *ɖusn-).

* I've just had a startling realization: given some of the historical changes I'm considering for the Miwan languages, ''Miw'' and ''Ferogh'' may actually be cognates! In Miwan, I'm thinking proto-vowels *e *o would become *i *u; if we posit a proto-Isthmus form for Ferogh like *fejog-s or *s-pejog-s, we can imagine an early Miwan cognate *m-fijug or *m-pijug (positing a nasal prefix of some kind)... with lenition of the final *-g and deletion of the consonant after *m-, voilà, ''Miju''...!

The root *pejog/*fejog might just mean "people" or "tribe", or be an unanalyzable name (like ''Ndak'').

Proto-Isthmus *(V)s- (which must have been fairly frequent, given the amount of *s-induced lenition of initial stops in Faraghin) is probably related to (or identical with) the prefix *as- that marks the genitive/accusative case on pronouns. I think of it as a kind of relational marker: if the (pro)noun it's attached to stands next to a verb, it's the verb's object; if next to a noun, it's a genitive possessor. Attached to a verb, it might be used as a kind of subjunctive/relative marker, or maybe form causatives or something.... But anyway, it's easy to imagine an ethnonym being used in genitive constructions so much that that form became generalized: "to be (one) of the Pejog" could be the normal way to phrase ethnic identity.

::'''Basilius responds:'''

::What if the PI form of the ethnonym was *s-mejog-s? This would eliminate the need for obscure prefix in Miwan (perhaps, in PI too - if *s- is allowed to be part of root sometimes?). I couldn't find any precedents for initial *s+nasal.

::Also, the genitive/accusative marker could form adjective of even substantive ("property of..."), with appositive use; its use as acc. can be due to contamination of original finite forms with analytical ones, based on some verbal noun. --[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 16:21, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Here's a few more, not previously posted:

* FMiw ''za:ska:'' "war" could be cognate with either Far ''daghan'' "stay, camp" (< PI *dasg-), or Far ''nirgha'' "war" (if < PI *njalsga)-- this last is why I tentatively proposed PEI *nj- > Miwan z-.

(It's now proposed that ''nirgha'' is from PI *njadsga or *njadzga, and that ''za:ska'' is its cognate in Ngauro which was loaned into Miwan.)

* FMiw ''pasta'' "cloth" as a cognate with Far ''baš'' "flat" (< PI *bas, *bes, *bos) looks pretty straightforward.

* EMiw ''timpi:za'' "necklace" might possibly begin with the root seen in Far ''demen'' "give" (< PI *dim-); so might FMiw ''dimbal'' "wife", but if so the voicing is irregular.

* FMiw ''kwintas'' "bird" might share a root with Far ''ghantač'' "dragon" (< PI *s-gant-, *s-gent, *s-gont-), maybe PEI *kwen-t(a)-.

* More speculatively, FMiw ''mul'' "oblivious" might be somehow related to Far ''muns'' "soft, weak" (< PI *mun-ts).

* Similarly, maybe FMiw ''ni:glu'' "feeble" and Far ''ner'' "bad, weak" (< PI *nidz, *niɖ) are related.

== Possible Ngauro loans in Ndak Ta with Miwan or Faraghin cognates ==

* NT ''kaime'' "study", and maybe also ''kenla'' "teacher, scribe", seems to reflect the same root as FMiw ''ki:mat'' "comprehension" and probably also ''kim'' "recipe, spell, algorithm, prescription".

* NT ''mos'' "city, town" seems plausibly related to Far ''mašt'' "house, palace" (< PI *mas, *mes, or *mos, with a mystery suffix *-t added sometime after Western Isthmus).

* NT ''naka'' "god" could possibly be cognate with Far ''nagat'' "lord, chief".

* NT ''diàka'' "king, ruler" I've already noted as possibly cognate with Far ''čark'' "king" (probably < PI *ʈalk).

* NT ''ntindo'' "metal" seems similar to FMiw ''di:ndi:n'' "metal", but the borrowing, if it is one, could be in either direction.

(Zhen Lin comments: "/di:ndi:n/ sounds ideophonic, perhaps, representing the "sound" of metal.")

* NT ''alpau'' "make, create" might just possibly be somehow related to Far ''foghan'' "make, craft" (if the latter < PI *s-pug-s-).

* NT ''sai'' "female" is almost certainly cognate with Far ''šoi'' "woman" (< PI *saj, *sej, *soj)... which suggests that NT ''dado'' "male" probably reflects the Ngauro word for "man".

(However, Radius Solis comments: "...šoi's etymon is ''sai'' as recently as pre-proto-Ferogh - no need to go all the way back to PI to find that exact form, let alone PEI. And PPF was roughly contemporary with early Ndak Ta. So I think it more likely that PPF borrowed it from NT rather than it being native to the EI family.")

* NT ''eplain'' "ball" seems similar to EMiw ''plaj'' "bead"; but again the loan could be in either direction. (If it's a Ngauro loan, the initial vowel in ''eplain'' might be epenthetic: Ndak Ta doesn't allow initial clusters like /pl-/.)

* Finally, NT ''santa'' "legal", ''santau'' "illegal", and ''sanlena'' "public" seem to share a root *san-, but the derivational morphology doesn't appear to be native.... Just possibly, the root is the same as Far ''šan'' "fire" (< PI *san, *sen, *son); the idea might related to some kind of metaphorical connection between fire/cooking/sacrifice and public/legal actions...?

An alternative (maybe better) Faraghin cognate might be ''rantan'' "test (by experience), prove" (if < PI *dzant- or *s-dant-); it's just possible that FMiw ''zinti:'' "taboo" is also related...

== Proposed etymologies ==

'''cedh audmanh proposes:'''

Drawing on the established changes, I'd like to posit the following etymologies:

* PEI ''*njadz-ga'' "war" > PI ''*njadsga'' > Far. ''nirgha''; PNg. ''**nzatska'' > Ng. ''*zaska''. PEI ''*-ga'' is a suffix of some sort, maybe a verbal noun, in which case the root ''*njadz-'' might mean "to fight".
* PEI ''*dzus-n'' "red" > PI ''*dzusn-'' > Far. ''rušn-en'' "color"; PEV ''**tsun'' > EMiw ''tun'' (possibly with a lengthened vowel due to the loss of coda s). PEI ''*-n'' might be an adjectivizing suffix.
* PEI ''*dim-'' "to give" > PI ''*dim'' > Far. ''dem-en''; PEV ''**tim-'' > EMiw ''timpi:za'' "necklace"
* PEI ''*gwent-a-ts'' "bird" > PI ''*s-gont-a-ts'' > Far. ''ghantač'' "dragon"; PEV ''**kwentats'' > FMiw ''kwintas''. From this we can surmise that the voicing change for EV plosives is blocked medially after nasals. The change of coda ts > s might be a common EV phenomenon; here it is attested for Miwan, but the same thing happens in PEI ''*njadzga'' > Ngauro ''*zaska''. If ''*-a'' is an agentive suffix, the root might mean something like "to fly". I don't know how to interpret ''*-ts''.
* PEI ''*nag-a'' > PI ''*naga-t'' > Far. ''nagat'' "lord, chief"; Ng. ''**naka'', hence NT naka "god". The ''*-a'' suffix might be a honorific, or maybe a case ending, possibly agentive (see above). The meaning of the PEI word could be something like "father", but it appears to have had a fairly wide semantic range.
* PEI ''*trelk-a'' "leader, chief" > PI ''*ʈelka'' > Far. ''čark'' "king"; PEV ''**djelka'' > Ng. ''**diaka'', hence NT ''diàka'' "king".
* PEI ''*dzant-'' "to decide, to judge" > PI ''*dzant'' > Far. ''rant-an'' "to test; to verify; to prove"; PEV ''**tsant'' > Ng. ''**santa'' "legal", ''**santau'' "illegal", ''**san-lena'' "public" (all borrowed into NT).
* PEI ''*gejm-'' "to know, to understand" > PEV ''**kejm-'' > FMiw ''ki:mat'' "comprehension"; Ng. ''**kajme'' "to study" (hence NT ''kaime''). Here we have a new change for Ngauro: ej > aj.

From these words it appears the root structure of PEI should be extended to C(r,l,j,w)V(n,r,l,j,w)C.

'''Radius Solis responds:'''

That looks excellent and I see no problems with any of those etymologies.

For *gwent-a-ts, perhaps the -ts is an augmentative suffix in Isthmus that is responsible for turning "bird" into "dragon". Then the EV version might have lost its meaning over the years, or augmented forms came to be seen as default, or the -s could even be another morpheme entirely.

'''Corumayas responds:'''

I agree, it looks great overall. Thanks! Some detaily comments:

* ''PEI *njadz-ga "war" > PI *njadsga > Far. nirgha; PNg. **nzatska > Ng. *zaska. PEI *-ga is a suffix of some sort, maybe a verbal noun, in which case the root *njadz- might mean "to fight".''
* ''PEI *gwent-a-ts "bird" > PI *s-gont-a-ts > Far. ghantač "dragon"; PEV **kwentats > FMiw kwintas. From this we can surmise that the voicing change for EV plosives is blocked medially after nasals.''

I'd been thinking that the EV voicing change only occurred in onsets, so the PNg. form ancestral to FMiw ''za:ska:'' might be ''*nza(d)zka'', with *z assimilating to the voicelessness of the *k. Similarly, if my version is true the *t in FMiw ''kwintas'' isn't voiced because it's originally the coda of PEI ''*gwent-'', and the *t in Far ''nagat'' might go back to PEI and be preserved as a final glottal stop in Ngauro (which wouldn't be reflected in the Ndak Ta loan).

''New note:''
In case I might want to preserve *nj- clusters in Ngauro, I'm considering calling the initial ''*n-'' in PI ''*njadsga'' a prefix of some kind, so that the Ngauro cognate can be derived from PEV ''*jadz-ka''.

* ''The change of coda ts > s might be a common EV phenomenon; here it is attested for Miwan, but the same thing happens in PEI *njadzga > Ngauro *zaska. If *-a is an agentive suffix, the root might mean something like "to fly". I don't know how to interpret *-ts.''

''Radius Solis wrote:''
''For *gwent-a-ts, perhaps the -ts is an augmentative suffix in Isthmus that is responsible for turning "bird" into "dragon". Then the EV version might have lost its meaning over the years, or augmented forms came to be seen as default, or the -s could even be another morpheme entirely.''

I like that idea, Radius. ''*-TS'' is an attested nominalizer in Isthmus, which was still productive in Faraghin (where it's glossed as "quality"), so it might well be the same suffix as that. It's also possible that the suffixes were added independently in both daughters rather than going all the way back to PEI, and are either different morphemes or acquired different meanings in each branch.

''New note:''
However, looking at it again I've noticed that Far ''ghantač'' can't come from ''*gwent-a-ts'' at all; it has to come from PI ''*s-gonta-ʈ'', ''*s-gonta-tj[a,e,o,u]'', or ''*s-gonta-tuj''. So we are certainly dealing with two different suffixes here.

* ''PEI *dzus-n "red" > PI *dzusn- > Far. rušn-en "color"; PEV **tsun > EMiw tun (possibly with a lengthened vowel due to the loss of coda s). PEI *-n might be an adjectivizing suffix.''

EMiw ''tun'' doesn't have a long vowel though. I'm skeptical of explaining Miwan long vowels as due to compensatory lengthening anyway... the correspondences are complex and difficult to predict, and I think the reason is that length is actually part of the tonal system (which we should probably work out at some point). (Of course, deleted coda consonants are highly likely to affect tone, so they are relevant; it's just more complicated than *deleted coda > long vowel.)

* ''PEI *nag-a > PI *naga-t > Far. nagat "lord, chief"; Ng. **naka, hence NT naka "god". The *-a suffix might be a honorific, or maybe a case ending, possibly agentive (see above). The meaning of the PEI word could be something like "father", but it appears to have had a fairly wide semantic range.''

I don't think "lord" and "god" are actually too distant semantically, and neither need invoke the concept "father" (for which we have a perfectly good PI root already in ''*BAdAu''). (Also see above about the final *t: the Ngauro word might be ''*nakaʔ'').

* ''PEI *trelk-a "leader, chief" > PI *ʈelka > Far. čark "king"; PEV **djelka > Ng. **diaka, hence NT diàka "king".''

This has become the most troubling correspondence for me. Firstly, I'm not sure if Faraghin /r/ should come from *l at all (though if Radius approves of it I'll leave it alone). More bothersome, the *k looks like it should become /g/ in Ngauro. Maybe the final /a/ was added in the NT loan by analogy with naka, which would explain both its absence in Faraghin and the non-voicing of the /k/.

The PEV form should be ''*drelk(a)'', and the Ngauro word ''djak(a)''; the change *Cr > Cj occurs in Ngauro but not Miwan. I've been a little worried about what happens to the *l in the Ngauro word, but *elk > /ak/ is not unreasonable. The Proto-Miwan cognate might be ''**drilk(a)''.

* ''PEI *gejm- "to know, to understand" > PEV **kejm- > FMiw ki:mat "comprehension"; Ng. **kajme "to study" (hence NT kaime). Here we have a new change for Ngauro: ej > aj.''

I was thinking PEI ''*gajm-'', with *aj > PM *e > FM /i/ (FM lacks /e/). In fact, I've been thinking about reducing the PEI diphthongs to just *aj *aw, since I think the others attested in PI could all potentially be derived from those plus the various vowel changes induced by prevocallic *w. On the other hand, if *j *w can occur as coda consonants then there seems to be no good reason not to allow them to follow any vowel. (Incidentally, note that the ''ken-'' in NT ''kenla'' is the same Ngauro morpheme as the ''kaim-'' in ''kaime''.)

* ''From these words it appears the root structure of PEI should be extended to C(r,l,j,w)V(n,r,l,j,w)C.''

I'm amenable to that, except that the coda consonant is definitely optional (cf. PI pronouns ''*da'' "I", ''*fe'' "you[PL]", ''*njo'' "he/she"). Also, it seems like *s can show up in several places in the syllable... so maybe something like *(s)C(r,l,j,w)V(n,s,r,l,j,w)(C)...?

== More possible cognates ==

'''TzirTzi writes:'''

@Corumayas (and anyone else working on the EI family) - I've been comparing the Miwan and Proto-Isthmus lexicons, and I was wondering if the following might possibly be cognates.

The following are patchy:

* PI *DZJUF-en, 'scare', and OEMiw *traf, 'fire' (thus from PEI *dr(j)af)
* PI *Vs-gun, 'old(er)', and FMiw asku, 'polite'
* PI *mAGZ(-)Aʈ, *maGZ(-)atJU, 'loot, take as booty', and OEMiw *me:g, 'be loud, be roudy' (thus from PEI *mesg-)
* an alternative etymology to the current one for EMiw timpi:za - PI *TSImp-en, 'twist' = stimp-en, < PEI stimp- > PM timp- + -i:za = nominaliser

And the following are very patchy:

* PI *Vs-gIʈ, *Vs-gItJU, 'mighty, powerful', and FMiw aska:r, 'haunted' (thus from PEI something like *as-gar(dV))
* PI *kIL(-)t, *kIDZ, *kIjV, 'anger', and FMiw guljad, 'defeat' (thus from PEI gVlj(V)d))
* PI *Vs-gAF-en, 'steal', and OEMiw iskefli, 'lice' ('stealers (of blood)'?)
* PI *(Vs-)gJU(-)TS, 'sharp', and FMiw askini:, 'painful' (thus from PEI *as-guj-, as there are no attested Eige reflexes of PEI *uj)
* PI *tLJUB-en, 'marry', and FMiw dimbal, 'wife (vulgar) (thus from PEI *tluj(m)b, and somewhere tl -> t and uj -> u)

I realise that none of them are great, but looking for them passed the time - no worries if none of them are usable.

'''Basilius writes:'''

Another couple of crazy comparisons...

* PI *balon 'iron' (if a compound based on 'glitter', -> 'metal') ~ *bu:r OEMiw 'to shine'
* PI *dADZAd-a- dance ~ varja EMiw 'to dance' (the straightforward semantics does tempt one to add a correspondence or derivation pattern...)
--[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 17:32, 10 March 2009 (UTC)
: Based on *dADZAd-a ~ varja I just had a discussion with Basilius how this could come about. Because initial ''v z'' are both very common in Miwan but have no established source other than loans from Ngauro based on PEI ''*w *j'', we agreed that the most sensible solution for the above correspondence might be to posit PEI ''*θ'' instead of ''*f'', and also to add two voiced fricatives ''*ð *z''. In Isthmus these would be eliminated by fortition to PI ''*d *dz'', and a second shift of ''*θ'' > PI ''*f'' would remove the orphan POA. In Eigə Valley both ''*θ *ð'' would shift to labials, with voicing ''not'' being reversed.
: Such would be supported by the correspondence PI ''*dzant-a'' "to test, prove, try" ~ Ng. ''zanta'' "legal", even though this cognate set would also work with initial ''*dz'' ~ ''*s'' or ''*j'' ~ ''*z''. The evidence must therefore come from Miwan - and we've found a promising candidate: FMiw ''zinti:'' "taboo". The Faraghin ~ FMiw correspondence would work out if the PEI form was ''*zent-e-'', though Ngauro would preserve the [e] in both syllables rather than lowering it to [a]. The semantic connection looks tempting nonetheless...
--[[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 00:31, 11 March 2009 (UTC)

:: Hmm. I'm hesitant to change the phoneme inventory of PEI that much. For what it's worth, /v z ʀ/ in late EMiw may also come from earlier /b d g/ (which the EMiw wordlist lacks), so Ngauro loans aren't necessarily the only source. As an alternative explanation, maybe the first syllables of ''varja'' and ''*dADZAd-a'' are different prefixes, and the cognate root is ''*jad-''.... I'm not sure about ''zinti:'', either, since the vowels don't match; but maybe the vowel correspondences should be more complicated than they are right now.
-- [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:06, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

::: As for /v z ʀ/, it seems that it cannot be so simple... FMiw and Old EMiw appear to have both /v z/ and /b d g/ word-initially; ''zinti:'' 'taboo' comes from FMiw for which 'dance' is attested with initial v- (as ''varja:''). Also, it seems to me that PM -rj- corresponds nicely with PI -dz-, so there's rather a suffix added in PI? Or maybe some contraction in PM? --[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 03:22, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

=== Ngauro approximant codas ===
With your current revisions, the reconstruction of PEI becomes more and more solid. Cool! 
It just occurred to me that a pattern for Ngauro approximant codas appears to be emerging. Some food for thought:
*PEI diphthongs.
**''*aj *aw'' > ''ai~e au~o''
**''*ej *ow'' > ''i u''
**''*uj *uw'' > ''əu''
**''*ij *iw'' > no Ngauro reflex specified so far, except for a tentative ''*ij > ?e'' (where did that idea come from?), so what about both > ''əi'' in parallel to the above?
**''*oj *ew'' > what about ''əi əu''?
*PEI coda ''*r *l''.
**No reflex for these has been specified so far, but as ''*r'' becomes ''j'' in onsets, what about having the same change in coda position?
**Coda ''*l'' could become ''w'' in parallel. All other early EI langs seem to preserve it as /l/.
**I'd suggest the following:
***''*ar *er'' > ''*aj'' > ''ai~e''
***''*ir *ur'' > ''*ij *uj'' > ''i''
***''*or'' > ''*oj'' > ''əi''
***''*al *ol'' > ''*aw'' > ''au~o''
***''*il *ul'' > ''*iw *uw'' > ''u''
***''*el'' > ''*ew'' > ''əu''
*** The outcomes of ''*ir *ur *il *ul'' presume that liquid vocalisation takes place later than the diphthong changes listed above.
**We have to account for ''*trelk > djak'', so I'd suggest that coda vocalisation does not happen if the onset already contains a C(j,w) cluster. Instead, the liquid would just be deleted, with preceding ''*e *o'' lowering to ''a''.
**There is also Ng. ''al-pəu'' with a coda lateral. Either this one comes from a different source, or morpheme-final ''*l'' generally remains. Maybe also ''*r > l'' / _#.
-- [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 09:06, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

== Meshi words and correspondences ==

I've had some thoughts on making Meshi sound changes more interesting, while keeping them consistent with what already exists.

The native Meshi words we have so far are
* '''aysu''' "speak, communicate"
* '''aku''' "base (of mountain), source (of river)"
* '''buru''' "fortification; settlement"
* '''chima''' "large quantity"
* '''gise''' "defecate"
* '''ini''' "child"
* '''kug''' "jar"
* '''met''' "woman"
* '''sanu''' "village"
* '''unu''' "shaman"
* '''Meshi'''
Of these the only feasible cognates I can think of are...
* *''Meshi'', of course, which derives from *''ʔum-pew'' plus a suffix. I think this is most likely PEI *''siŋ'' "holy" (I prefer this version to ''*sij'' because of the sound changes I propose).
* ''chima'' ~ OEMiw ''-ten'' from a PEI root *''d(l)en'' or *'''d(l)ajn'', which works if we posit a suffix like *''-baC'' or *''-paC'' to account for the change in place of articulation - possibly PEI *''-pat'' "one", so the compount would literally mean something like "a lot, a load".
* ''unu'' might have have a first element derived from the genitive PEI *''ʔum'' plus another element - perhaps *''tow'' "sand" in the sense of "desert" or "wilderness".
* ''buru'' could conceivably be a cognate of OEMiw ''bur'' "shine".
* It's just about possible that ''kug'' is somehow related to *''gad'' "flow, float", though the change in final consonant needs to be accounted for.
Some are problematic:
* ''gise'' has no obvious cognates. The FMiw word for "shit", ''uf'', looks completely different.
* Similarly, ''aysu'' doesn't look much like the OEMiw word (''re:'') or the PEI (*''twik'', *''ts(w)ik'', *''θwik'').
* It's also hard to find a cognate for ''aku'', '''sanu''', ''ini'', or '''met'''.

So what about the sound changes? One of the key problems we have is that a lot of odd vowel-glides whose reflexes in Meshi are not established (*''ij'' *''oj'' *''uj'' *''uw'' and perhaps *''ew''), and no source of /aj aw/ in Meshi, even though these appear in ''aysu'' "to speak'' and ''Tawfwe'' "Thabīa". I propose the Meshi sound changes, from the PEV stage onward, be modified to the following:
* ts dz dz > t d z / (I don't mind much about the conditions for *''dz'' changing)
* w > v / initially and intervocalically
* a e o > Ø / finally
* nasals assimilate to a following obstruent
* a number of consonants are lost, including in codas (in some but not all instances - conditions need to be worked out, although I think a lot of clusters should go) and probably after nasals (this makes the etymologies of ''chima'' and ''unu'' much easier).
* kw gw > fw zw
* e o > i u
* t d s > ʧ ʤ ʃ / _i
* ew iw oj uj ij uw > e e e e aj aw / (this change is important as it gives us phonemic /aj aw/, explains ''Meshi'', and makes palatalised consonants phonemic)
Then some other changes to satisfy my aesthetic preferences:
* θ ð > s z / (also makes palatalisation contrast in more environments)
* ŋw > gw ''or'' w / (the latter makes /v/ phonemic)
* ŋ ŋ > n Ø / (I'd like it to vanish finally so *''siŋ'' > ''shi'' - since ''*sij'' > ''shay'' because of dissiilation - but this might be taken care of by the previous loss of final consonants. Don't really mind what happens elsewhere but it seems odd to retain it initially.)
* r l > j w / _C / (This gives a nice (C)(w/j)V(C) syllable structure.)
* Possibly more alveolars palatalise before /j/, but we could leave it as contrastive.
This leaves us with consonants /p t ʧ k b d ʤ g f s ʃ m n r l j w~v/ and vowels /a e i u aj aw/.

[[User:Thedukeofnuke|thedukeofnuke]] ([[User talk:Thedukeofnuke|talk]]) 11:40, 13 March 2014 (PDT)

: These are great. I like the first three of your proposed cognates. If the words don't correspond to any PEI roots, might as well make up some new roots, it's time we advanced our understanding of that language. I am not gonna do anything further with Meshi, please take it over if you want to develop it. (later, I may toss you a couple grammar ideas if I am so inspired.)

FMiw "uf" looks to me like an onomatopoeia, the grunt you might make while shitting. Maybe ''gise'' represents the original EI root. --[[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]] ([[User talk:Dunomapuka|talk]]) 23:56, 14 March 2014 (PDT)

=Other discussion=
== Codas ==
'''Corumayas wrote:''' "(Again, the velar nasal *ŋ is not currently attested, but we might want it anyway.)"
:Do nasals in root-final position assimilate in POA too, as nasals in pre-final position do? Because if not, I just had the idea that clusters of *ŋ plus coronal *t *d *ʦ *ʣ could be another source for the Isthmus retroflexes... [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 08:38, 17 July 2008 (UTC)
::You mean in compounds? That could work. I think the assimilation should probably only happen within morphemes. I was thinking maybe final *ŋ could become *j in PI, to be another source of diphthongs... [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:17, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

= Verbal morphology =
Just putting up my current thoughts in case anyone has comments or suggestions.

== Voice ==
This is established: PEI has a three-way distinction between active, causative, and some kind of passive/reflexive/anticausative, marked by the "stem vowel" suffixes ''*-a *-i *-u'' (respectively). It works with the little that we know of the daughter langs, and (oddly) bears a tantalizing resemblance to the "phase" markers in [[Proto-Peninsular]] (also ''*-a *-i *-u''). It might be almost too neat a system, though; should it be a little messier?

== Agreement ==
I decided Faraghin has subject agreement, which probably goes back at least to [[Proto-Isthmus]]; but only the 3SG suffix ''-n'' is known so far. If we have ''-n'' < the PI pronoun ''*njo'', what would the other agreement suffixes look like? Maybe they're all derived from pronouns. Let's stick with the PI level for now, since we don't have definitive reconstructions of the PEI pronouns yet. Here are the pronouns:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''*da''   || ''*guʈ''
|-
| 2   || ''*tujn''   || ''*fe''
|-
| 3   || ''*njo''   || ''*ludz''
|}

Now, we could just suffix these to the verb stem; the result would look like this after the Faraghin sound changes (using the verb ''katan''):

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katad''   || ''kataguč''
|-
| 2   || ''katačin''   || ''kataf''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''katalur''
|}

But that's transparent and pretty boring. We could maybe make it more interesting by having the first and second person forms grammaticalized earlier, and thus be more worn down: if they somehow lost their final consonants before the PI stage, the Faraghin system might look like this:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katad''   || ''katag''
|-
| 2   || ''katat''   || ''kataf''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''katalur''
|}

That seems a little too tidy though. Would more change help? If the voiced stops in the first person forms were somehow lenited away, and the plurals were leveled, we could have something like this in Faraghin:

{|
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kata''   || ''kateu''
|-
| 2   || ''katat''   || ''kateu''
|-
| 3   || ''katan''   || ''kateu''
|}

That's starting to look more realistic to me. I'm not sure how justifiable it is, though, since it involves changes (lenition of voiced stops, dropping of final consonants) that don't seem to happen anywhere else in the language.

Another possibility is that first and second person agreement are ''much'' older than third person, and are not visibly related to the pronouns at all, or are merged somehow with the "stem vowel" suffix, or something. (That last version is already starting to do both of those, actually...)

: Another option would be to contract the endings ''before'' the final consonants are lost. In this case the 1 and 3 pl endings at the PI stage might be something like ''*-uʈ'' and ''*-ldz'', which would make the Faraghin reflexes of these forms of the sample verb ''kateuč'' and ''katar'' respectively.
: Looking at it closely, even though the ''-euč'' suffix is cool, I think I still like your third table with leveled plurals best.
: - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 20:37, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

:: What about ''kateuč'' for all the plurals? (A parallel contraction would make the 2SG ''katoin''... that's identical to the 3SG causative, though.)
:: - [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 23:45, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Let's see what happens in the other voices...

{|
|
''*-i'' (basic causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kate(d)''   || ''kači(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katet/kačin''   || ''kači''
|-
| 3   || ''katen''   || ''kači(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-aj'' (extended causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''katoi(d)''   || ''katoi(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katoit/katoin''   || ''katoi''
|-
| 3   || ''katoin''   || ''katoi(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-u'' (middle)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kato(d)''   || ''kato(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''katot/kačin''   || ''kato''
|-
| 3   || ''katun''   || ''kato(r)''
|}
| 
|
''*-iw'' (middle of causative)
{| {{softtable}}
|   || SG   || PL
|-
| 1   || ''kači(d)''   || ''kači(č)''
|-
| 2   || ''kačit/kačin''   || ''kači''
|-
| 3   || ''kačin''   || ''kači(r)''
|}
|}

The outcomes of ''*-aw *-ij *-uw'' would be identical to those of plain ''*-a *-i *-u'', and the reflex of ''*-uj'' (causative of reflexive) would be identical to that of ''*-iw''.

With this table, I'd be in favor of adding ''-č'' in the 1PL, but leaving off the ''-d'' and ''-r'' in the 1SG/3PL. As for the 2SG, I think the ''-t'' versions are more interesting than the ''-n'' versions. [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 22:16, 14 August 2010 (UTC)

== Aspect ==
Having subject agreement seems to mean that there should be some kind of tense/aspect marked on the verb somehow. I wanted something fairly fusional, and I decided to look at Muskogean's verbal ablaut/infix system for inspiration.

The idea I think I'm going to go with is to have infixed consonants before the final vowel of the verb root, which will probably mark aspect (not only is that what they're used for in Muskogean, it's also a basic category in most of the old langs of eastern Peilaš-- including [[Talo-Edastean languages]] and [[Proto-Peninsular]]).

There are six consonants that can cluster inside the syllable like that in PEI (though I guess technically it doesn't need to be syllable-internal if it's followed by a stem vowel, does it?...): ''*s *n *r *l *j *w''. Of these, ''*n *l'' don't produce particularly interesting reflexes (they're unchanged in most of the descendents; although in Feråjin they're both deleted with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel). But ''*j *w'' produce diphthongs which give some nice vowel alternations, and ''*s *r'' produce consonant alternations in the Isthmus langs, while ''*s'' gives tonal contrasts in Miwan.

Just as a demonstration, here's what this might look like in Faraghin:

{|
| Unmarked   || *S-Grade   || *N-Grade   || *R-Grade   || *L-Grade   || *J-Grade   || *W-Grade
|-
| ''katan'' || ''kasan'' || ''kantan'' || ''kačan'' || ''kartan'' || ''koitan'' || ''keutan''
|-
| ''letan'' || ''lesan'' || ''lentan'' || ''lečan'' || ''lertan'' || ''letan'' || ''litan''
|-
| ''lupan'' || ''lufan'' || ''lumpan'' || ''ločan'' || ''lurpan'' || ''lipan'' || ''lupan''
|-
| ''rifan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rimfan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rirfan'' || ''rifan'' || ''rifan''
|}

I'm inclined to use at least ''*s *j *w'', and maybe also ''*n'' and/or ''*r''... not sure how I'd assign aspects with that many slots in the paradigm though.

- [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 08:05, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

: We'll almost have to include the R-grade because Faraghin already has repetitive/iterative/habitual forms in ''-čan''. I also like the L-grade, maybe more so than the N-grade. What we should keep in mind is that there are several verbs which phonetically fit the outcome of some grades, e.g. ''sempan'' "twist" ~ N-grade and ''krertan'' "seize, capture" ~ L-grade. If these are derived from roots with a simple coda such as ''*tsip-'' or ''*klit-'', we might mess up some cognates. On the other hand, if the infixed sonorant is part of the PEI root, we will have to find a way to affix the aspect consonant to roots with complex codas. ''*tsimp-n-an''? ''*klilt-il-an''? ''*klilt-a-l-n''? Other ideas?
: - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 20:37, 10 March 2009 (UTC)
:: I think everything depends on the way that infixation emerged. If e. g. through metathesis, then some pre-PEI had ''**kat-S-, **kat-N-, **kat-R-''; then *''tsimp-'' and *''klilt''- could be < ''**tsip-N-, **klit-l-'', with aspect forms like ''**tsip-əN-S-, **klit-əl-S; **tsip-əN-N-, **klit-əl-N; **tsip-əN-R-, **klit-əl-R-'' etc.; and these could be partly subject to the same metathesis to produce ''*tsip-əN-S-, *klit-əl-S-; *tsip-əNN-, **klit-əl-N-''; but ''**tsip-əRN-, **klit-əRl-''.--[[User:Basilius|Basilius]] 21:56, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

::: I was thinking the Faraghin forms in ''-čan'' were a later development, but I suppose they could be descended from the R-grade. One problem I see with R-grade is that (with the current set of sound changes, at least) stops adjacent to ''*r'' at all three POAs merge in Proto-Isthmus; you couldn't tell, say, whether a Faraghin form ''ločan'' was a form of ''lupan'' or of some other verb ''lotan'' or ''lokan''. (Another problem is that the outcomes of ''*r'' in some positions in Isthmus langs are still up in the air...)

::: For any roots that already have a coda cluster, maybe the infix could go before it, with a reduplicated root vowel: ''*tsi-ni-mp-an'', ''*kli-li-lt-an'', etc.

::: Of course, the full system wouldn't be preserved in each daughter lang; just like with the voice system, only bits of it might survive, and it would probably tend to become derivational. The descendants probably use auxiliary constructions for a lot of their TAM stuff.
::: - [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]] 22:19, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

Here's an analysis of the regular reflexes of the various grades in Faraghin. - [[User:Cedh|Cedh]] 10:40, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

The '''W-grade''' doesn't survive into Proto-Isthmus except:
# when the root vowel is ''*i'' (giving e.g. Far. ''letan'' (< PEI ''*lit-a-'') vs. ''litan'' (< PEI ''*liwt-a-''))
# when the ''*w'' ends up intervocalic (giving e.g. Far. ''rantan'' (< ''*zant-a-'') vs. ''rafantan'' (< ''*za<wa>nt-a-''))

The '''J-grade''' normally simply turns PEI root vowels ''*e *a *o'' into Far. ''oi'', and PEI ''*u'' into Far. ''i''. However, when the aspect marker ends up in intervocalic position, the vowels remain unchanged and the marker is reflected as Far. ''r''.

The '''R-grade''' turns root-final obstruents into PI retroflexes, and merges with the W-grade before other consonants. If the marker ends up as PEI ''*r'' or PI ''*ɖ'' in intervocalic environments, it is generally elided - the former in PI, the latter in Ferogh only. As a result, the root vowel merges with the stem vowel, or with the echo vowel in roots with coda clusters, as described in the following table (top row: PEI, left column: PI, resulting forms: Faraghin; note that a few combinations have the fortified reflex of an intervocalic glide instead):
{| class="c"
|- class="i"
| || *-ra(w)   || *-raj   || *-ri(j)   || *-riw   || *-ruj   || -ru(w)   || *-rda(w)   || *-rdaj   || *-rdi(j)   || *-rdiw/*-rduj   || -rdu(w)
|-
| ''*a-''
| a || oi || oi || aro || afe || a || a || oi || oi || oi || eu
|-
| ''*e-''
| i || i || oi || aro || afe || i || a || oi || oi || oi || eu
|-
| ''*i-''
| i || i || e || i || i || i || a || oi || e || e || i
|-
| ''*o-''
| a || oi || oi || aro || afe || a || a || oi || oi || oi || o
|-
| ''*u-''
| a || oi || i || i || i || o || a || oi || i || i || o
|-
| ''*jV-''
| i || i || i || iro || ife || i || a || oi || e || i || o
|}

The '''L-grade''' simply adds ''*l''; if this is clustered with another consonant in Proto-Ferogh, it becomes ''r''. Root-final ''*s'' is deleted in WI.

The '''N-grade''' simply adds ''*n''; this assimilates in POA to a following obstruent. Root-final ''*s'' is deleted in WI.

The '''S-grade''' lenites ''*p *t *k *d *g'' into Far. ''f s kh r gh'', and adds ''s'' in intervocalic environments. Before other root-final consonants it is not distinct from the zero-grade.

The '''L-''', '''N-''', and '''S-grades''' of PEI roots ending in ''*ŋ'' regularly merge all stem vowels except ''*i'' into Far. ''i''; for instance, a root ''*guŋ-'' (zero-grade: Far. ''gin'') would form the L-grade ''golin'', the N-grade ''gunin'', and the S-grade ''gosin'', with no inherited distinction between regular forms and extended ''*-aj-''causative; the simple PEI causatives in ''*-i-'' might remain distinct as ''golen gunen gosen'' though.

= Miscellaneous =

Okay, I just had to fix that ''pa:ntun'' issue, I just realized it was still listed the wrong way around with my correction still given as parenthetical. The word for "guitar" was specifically intended to be a metonymy taken from the music a guitar makes, which the Miw found to be colorful. The ''music'' was supposed to be the main definition of the Miw word, with only the metonymic use getting borrowed. [[User:Radius|Radius]] 16:31, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*zzz]]

Lukpanic languages

2014-01-30T06:30:21Z

Dunomapuka: Paic

{{Article}}
[[Image:Sc_shore-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|The coast north of [[Isi]].]]

The '''Lukpanic''' family of languages was found along a stretch of the coast of Western [[Peilaš]] until ca. -200 YP, in half a dozen city-states of similar size and culture. This sophisticated urban culture arose ca. -1600, and its language, [[Proto-Lukpanic]], was spoken ca. -1200, but the speakers may have come to the area about a millennium before this. Lukpanic is one branch of the broader [[Paic]] phylum, the other members being spoken by hunter-gatherer or garden agriculturalist tribes scattered across the northwestern part of the continent.

The proto-language was unwritten, though the speakers made use of numeral glyphs and ideographic symbols, for ritual and commercial purposes. Writing proper was picked up via contact with the greater Xšali sphere ca. -1000; formally, the result was a Lukpanic-Xšali hybrid. The [[Proto-Coastal-Western|Coastal Western]]-speakers first used Lukpanic as the written norm, when they cared to write. The script was adapted in various ways to their own languages some centuries later.

The term '''Lukpanic''' is derived from the Proto-speakers' self-appellation '''Gbagba Lukpani''', "the people facing toward the sea," where '''gbagba''' means "people; nation," '''lu'''- means "ocean," and -'''kpani''' is a directional suffix meaning "facing towards." They also called themselves the '''Lukpanab''', using an agentive form. They usually referred to their language, however, as '''Hu Mitali''' -- "flowing speech."

The proto-language differentiated into a dozen very similar tongues which were encountered by [[Proto-Coastal-Western|Coastal Western]] peoples when they began to wander into the area. By the year -200 the Lukpanic languages had died out in their core territory, having been replaced by [[Western languages|Western]] tongues via gradual absorption. Their urban and maritime culture continued in a fairly similar form, though with heavy Western influence.

Lukpanic languages remained in the western hinterlands and in the island city-state of [[Poalugbum]]. The latter came to be known as a multiethnic crossroads - and a den of vice - but the locals spoke their unique, strange dialect, laconically known as [[Fu]].

At least 25% of Coastal Western vocabulary is Lukpanic in origin.

==Overview==
{{:Languages of Akana/Lukpanic}}

==Dialects==
By the year -600 or so, Lukpanic had differentiated into various recognizable dialects, the most prestigious being those of the central cities of [[Isi]] and [[Siŋmeasita]]. Variation between the dialects was mostly phonological and lexical; this variation is reflected in the form of words borrowed into the Coastal Western languages. A comparative table is here included to illustrate the major sound changes that had occured since the proto-language.

The Poalugbum Dialect, as listed, is contemporaneous with the other dialects, and can be thought of as Proto-Fu; [[Fu]] is the language descended from it.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
! gloss
! ''Proto''
! ''Doanu''
! ''[[Lukpanic languages/Isi dialect|Isi]]''
! ''[[Lukpanic languages/Siŋmeasita dialect|Siŋmeasita]]''
! ''[[Lukpanic languages/Kpitamoa dialect|Kpitamoa]]''
! ''[[Lukpanic languages/Naəgbum dialect|Naəgbum]]''
! ''Poalugbum''
! ''[[Fu]]''
|-
! "cloud"
| '''toaba'''
| '''toba'''
| '''toba'''
| '''twaba'''
| '''towa'''
| '''toaba'''
| '''twava'''
| '''twav'''
|-
! "liver"
| '''kpugba'''
| '''kpugba'''
| '''kuba'''
| '''kubba'''
| '''kuba'''
| '''kʷugʷa'''
| '''kubba'''
| '''kup'''
|-
! "death"
| '''eadami'''
| '''edɑmi'''
| '''edɒme'''
| '''yadãi'''
| '''eyãi'''
| '''eadãi'''
| '''yalẽ'''
| '''jan'''
|-
! "whale"
| '''gitib'''
| '''gitiw'''
| '''ɦichib'''
| '''gitsib'''
| '''gitib'''
| '''gitəb'''
| '''gitsib'''
| '''gičp'''
|-
! "hair"
| '''huəb'''
| '''ow'''
| '''ob'''
| '''hub'''
| '''ɸub'''
| '''ʀuəb'''
| '''fuob'''
| '''fwop'''
|-
! "rib"
| '''taəsa'''
| '''taiza'''
| '''taza'''
| '''tasa'''
| '''tasa'''
| '''təsa'''
| '''təsa'''
| '''tüs'''
|-
! "white"
| '''savu'''
| '''sɑwu'''
| '''sɒβu'''
| '''savu'''
| '''sau'''
| '''sau'''
| '''savu'''
| '''sav'''
|-
! autonym
| '''lukpani'''
| '''lukpɑni'''
| '''lupɒne'''
| '''luppãi'''
| '''lupãi'''
| '''lukʷãi'''
| '''luttẽ'''
| '''ɽut'''
|}

These dialects are listed west to east.

== See also ==

* [[Proto-Lukpanic]]
* [[Proto-Lukpanic/Lexicon|A lexicon of Proto-Lukpanic]]

[[Category:Lukpanic languages|*]]
[[Category:Language families]]

Huyfárah

2014-01-22T04:22:41Z

Dunomapuka:

{{Nation
| nation = Huyfárah
| native = lu-serin æm Huyfárah
| map = [[Image:Huyfarah.gif|250px|Map of Huyfárah c. 130 YP]]
| capital = Ussor
| cities = Miədu Mæmedéi Sertek
| language = [[Fáralo]]
| demonym = Fáralo
| gov-type = monarchy
| rise = c. -400 YP
| fall = c. 800 YP
| succ = Wippwâ Mɨdu etc.
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([[Faraghin]]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the [[Eigə]] delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer [[Oltu]] valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against [[Feråjin]] on the [[Poráš]].
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades [[Kasca]], and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers [[Siixtaguna]], bringing back several [[Etúgə]]ist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the [[Dagæm islands]], beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the [[Tlaliolz|Talo]] and [[Puoni]].
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* Mid-300's: The port town of [[Azbǽbu]] grows to great size.
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Maléi dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of [[Buruya]].
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmana-hŋ-Talam. A planned city is begun.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of Ŋamíga I.
* 405–443: Declining stability: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward [[Sertek]] as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in [[Ussor]]).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The decline begins: Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Meanwhile Athalē encroaches along the Eigə. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of Fmana-hŋ-Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the island.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war, among three principal factions. In the aftermath, the Maléi Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as [[Lewsfárah]] ("Free Fárah"), a federation of city-states run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the ''Zgeiru'', "Atheists").
* 579–584: Lewsfárah stops fighting Huyfárah, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 600's: [[Takuña]] pirates establish small footholds in areas of ineffectual rule within the disintegrating empire; [[Čisse]] secedes as an independent city-state.
* 786: The bitter end of the empire comes with the sack of Ussor by a faction of the [[Doroh]].
* late 700's: Lewsfárah is dissolved, and splits into its constituent city-states. [[Mɨdu]] and [[Azbǽbu]] vie for naval dominance.
* 786-800's: Isthmus chieftains rule over the Oltu Valley. Gradually they are linguistically absorbed by Fáralo-speakers.
* mid-800's: Fáralo landowners depose the Doroh rulers, and proclaim a kingdom of [[Woldulaš]], consisting mostly of the Oltu Valley.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==
<div style="position:relative">
[[Image:Peilaš regions.png|thumb|right|300px|A map of northeastern Peilaš. The location of '''Huyfárah''' is indicated.]]
<div style="position:absolute; top:58px; right:135px; font-size:smaller">
'''Huyfárah'''
</div>
</div>

In ancient times, the [[Oltu]] river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Eigə]] river. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak Empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==
[[Image:Sc_valley-1_.png|thumb|right|300px|A valley in the hills of north-central Huyfárah.]]

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==
[[Image:Huyfarah-provs.gif|thumb|right|300px|The provinces of Classical Huyfárah.]]

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgəist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgəists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as indentured servants, who eventually became known as the [[Toło]] ethnic group. A sizeable portion of these were sold to foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Eigə]] river. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

[[Image:Athale-and-huyfarah-400.png|thumb|right|500px|'''Huyfárah''' and its greatest rival, the '''Empire of Athalē''', c. 400 YP]]
Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs, and within a generation - by the middle of the 4th century - many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters. Once free, they formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as [[Miədu]] and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin by marriage, Baodan of the House of Maléi, was named. The Maléi were based in the [[Poráš]] Valley, near [[Sertek]]; they were the first noble family of Feråjin descent to rule the nation (at this point the ancient tribal distinction was merely ceremonial).

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə - the Temple was given heightened powers - keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He also built up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, such that a diminutive form of his name later came to actually mean "statue" in some dialects.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, led to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century YP and perhaps continuing into the fifth. It was so called because the Golden Age was looked back to as a time of perfect, strict morality and social harmony; the Silver Age empire far surpassed it in wealth and power, but its multicultural atmosphere was frequently attacked as "decadent", and certain societal fissures were emerging that caused an atmosphere of increasing uneasiness. (''The usage of "Gold" and "Silver" here is merely a translation into familiar Western terminology. The Fáralo terms were in fact the "Red Age" and the "Little Red Age.")

At the dawn of the fifth century Huyfárah, under the reign of Lewspran II, was at its territorial and perhaps cultural zenith. It commanded outposts from [[Lasomo]] to the jungles of the [[Mrisaŋfa]] peninsula to the rocky islands of [[Sumarušuxi]]. New and strange religious cults were imported and intermingled, though nearly all under the umbrella of loyalty to the great Temple of Etúgə in Ussor - the largest social organization of its era.

The Temple was conceived as the apex of a great pyramid governing the social and moral structure of society. Likewise the Imperial Court was situated at the top of its own pyramid, representing the state's power to protect and feed its citizens. But these two seemingly omnipotent and parallel forces were in fact countered by two powerful classes - one of ancient lineage, the other only nascent.

The first were the aristocratic landowners - conservative, locally-minded, wealthy but rustic, priding themselves on pure Faraghin (occasionally Feråjin) descent, at least on the male line. Once they had ruled the nation, but now in effect represented only a portion of it - the Home Provinces north of Ussor. The aristocrats were found elsewhere (the South, the East, Kazəgad, Dagæm), but only as local toeholds of the families from the homeland. There they commanded large estates, raised beautiful horses, and intermingled as little as possible with the locals, especially in [[Kazəgad]].

Each noble family sent a representative to the Senate in Ussor, whose power was only advisory, except in the matter of resolving dynastic disputes and confirming the new emperor.

The second, nascent class was the rising bourgeoisie in the cities (''pei lu-zmeibu'', the "Big Traders"), especially in the South, who largely controlled luxury trades and financial services. They were typically loyal to the emperor, only ambivalently loyal to the Temple, and contemptuous of the lords. They were noted for frequently taking a faddish interest in the various foreign cults.

Of final note, the most impressive technological development of this era was the construction of bigger and sturdier sailing ships. The coastal town of [[Azbǽbu]], located at the northern edge of Suš Tæm Province, had a deep harbor that could accommodate these deeper-keeled vessels. It flourished as a major port, quadrupling in size during the fourth century, and becoming one of the major cities of the Empire. Its people were said to be fast-talking, hyperactive, and friendly but unscrupulous.

==The Fifth Century==
Various unrelated developments must be discussed here, all of which are cited as contributors to the later decline of the Empire.

A disastrous hurricane struck [[Kazəgad]] in 405, causing widespread destruction and rerouting several river channels. It became apparent that the Fáralo administrators had no understanding of the land and exercised little real control over the locals, especially as open rebellion began in the aftermath of the disaster, spearheaded by a bizarre, nihilistic cult known as the "Insects". The army was called in to put down the rebellion and became stationed there indefinitely. The situation was increasingly felt as a quagmire - the Imperial coffers were being "drowned in the mud".

The [[Kennan]], an audacious and apparently fearless people from the east, ushered in a new Age of Piracy, disrupting trade routes and even mounting direct attacks on several Fáralo colonial outposts.

Lewspran relocated his court to Sertek during the summer, presumably to keep an eye on his cousins. When he died, one branch of these made a claim for the throne, but Lewspran's son Baodan III was ultimately upheld. Baodan and the later Maléi were ineffective and fairly uninteresting rulers, said to be controlled by their wives and advisors. The court moved to Sertek full-time.

Finally, beyond the empire's borders, in [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], there lived a political philosopher named [[Mak'ed ge-Hoi]] (F. ''Maké''), a member of the growing Etúgə presence among the [[Ndok]]. In an age dominated by two massive empires, with his city sitting uneasily in between the two, he envisioned a new kind of political structure, marrying the ancient republican customs of the [[Dāiadak]] with the ethical philosophy of Etúgə. In his imagined realm, power derives from the wealth of cities - the ideal being a patchwork of strong, individualistic city-states. It is a world of serenity, prosperity, and great religious devotion.

The end of the Silver Age is variously pinpointed at 405 (with the hurricane), 411 (the death of Lewspran II) or 444 (war with Athalē).

==The Athalēran Wars==
The southern half of [[Lasomo]] was ruled by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]], and by now largely spoke Adāta. Most of the northern half, excluding some fringe territories under Huyfárah, was controlled by several Ndok kingdoms. Previously these had been unified under the dominion of the great city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], though in the past half-century its power had waned and the various city states had each gone their own way.

Emperor Mennat I took note of this fragmentary situation and invaded in the spring of 444, taking Oigop'oibauxeu by midsummer. The rest of the year was spent subduing the smaller neighboring kingdoms, and soon the region was essentially secure. Initially a repeat was feared of Etou's blunder, two centuries prior - but the natives remained fairly docile. Their attitude was one of bitter relief that Athalē, whose rule would surely be twice as disruptive and overbearing, had not invaded instead.

The smoke of the Fáralo campfires could be seen from [[Akelodo]]; Athalē inevitably sent its own force to counterattack. The fighting was fierce; what had been a fairly casual foray now became the focus of a national war effort. The frontier shifted back and forth several times, but nearly a decade later, with perhaps half a million dead and several cities burned, Akelodo capitulated.

Lasomo was reorganized as a client state; the Fáralo strategy was to subjugate the [[Adāta]]-speaking southerners to the [[Ndok Aisô|Ndok]]-speaking northerners, while promulgating, in a rather two-faced way, a new spirit of national unity. A northerner, married to Mennat's sister, was crowned as king of Akelodo.

The spirit in Ussor was euphoric - the government in the following decades set to work repairing roads, building new ships and temples, and holding great religious ceremonies. The nobles toasted each other with the endless supply of Lasomoran sweet wine.

Athalēran power could be kept at bay as long as their former subjects were pacified, but it was a losing strategy. Akelodo rebelled in 489 and Athalē came to its aid. The king was publicly executed. In a mirror-image of the previous war, the Athalēran armies crossed the Eigə to the northern side and laid siege to Oigop'oibauxeu. A Fáralo army came to relieve the city but were beaten back deep into their own territory.

The Athalērans took Buruya in 494, and were advancing ominously towards Miədu when Huyfárah finally surrendered. Athalē held onto Buruya, and reasserted control over southern Lasomo; the northern half was allowed to remain free with Athalē's protection, once more acting as a buffer state.

The Ndok were in a nationalistic mood, and seeing as they were largely free to do as they wished, reorganized their state as a league of republics under the now wildly popular principles of Maké, who was being elevated as a national saint.

The Senate in Ussor cited an ancient right, unused in centuries, to remove emperor Mennat II, in 496. His replacement, Kečemin of Barnágo, was ultimately descended from the Balanin line; the notion was to make a clean start by symbolically going back to the beginning. The imperial court was moved back to Ussor; Mennat remained under house arrest in Sertek.

Kečemin spent two years rooting out pro-Maléi partisans, then was assassinated by a bodyguard. Mennat was reinstated, but himself was assassinated in 503. He had no children; the crown went to his nephew Jorin.

==Political Crisis==
The empire was still extremely powerful and influential and enjoyed a state of relative prosperity, but the national pride had been severely injured, and the chief problem now was a growing internal division between supporters of the Houses of Maléi and Kečemin. This translated essentially into a conflict between the populous Ussor Valley and the sparser but vast eastern provinces. The conflict was carried out mostly through terrorism and assassination, and the government was felt to be in an alarmingly weak and unstable position. Several outlying areas were subject to pirate raids of increasing intensity, some by the Kennan, who were terrorizing the Eastern nations, some by groups of [[Doroh]] and [[Sošunami]]. The navy was called in to repel a massive Kennan invasion of [[Dagæm]] in 533.

The southerners generally took neither side in the succession dispute, which had taken the lives of various government officials. Increasingly their anger was turned toward Imperial rule itself, though due to fear of overbearing reprisals against them, and also perhaps in emulation of Maké's restrained style, they tended to phrase their dissent in fairly gentle, metaphorical language. For Maké had recently been translated into Fáralo, and was a growing success among the Big Traders, especially now that their neighbor, Lasomo, seemed to be flourishing under his proposed political framework.

Nobody called for revolution explicitly, but merely for the integration of republican elements into the existing system. The running joke was that everyone had started speaking Adāta; you couldn't walk down the street without hearing people talking about ''alégadu'', ''halenadu'', ''satar''. The Makéists first were derided as the flavor of the month; then, as they seemed to be growing in influence, the government issued propaganda condemning them as ''zgeiru'', "atheists." The name stuck around as an epithet, then as an ironic badge of pride used by the Makéists themselves, finally being taken as the basic name for the movement.

Meanwhile, the Big Traders worked with the municipal governments in the southern cities to improve fortifications for defense against "partisans and vagabonds".

[[Buruya]], too, was under the grip of Maké. It re-established itself as a city-state after a largely bloodless rebellion against Athalē in 519.

The partisan crisis came to a head when Mennat IV was killed in 545. The House of Kečemin had gained the approval of the Senate once again; 20-year-old Kečemin II became the new emperor. He took - in his adolescent way - a hardline stance: In 547 armed thugs were sent out in a general pogrom against the Zgeiru and pro-Maléi partisans, as well as, for good measure, the Toło. Hundreds were killed; residential areas in Ussor, [[Mæmedéi]] and Sertek burned for a week. Privately funded militias began springing up in the southern cities, and Zgeiru rhetoric now took on an explicitly revolutionary tone, calling for rule by elected officials, and in some cases, the removal of the Temple hierarchy.

==The Civil War==
Kečemin dispatched the army to force the cities to disband the militias. The troops, once inside the walls, were subject to covert terrorist attacks; the local officials feigned ignorance and blamed pro-Maléi partisans.

Meanwhile, the real partisans, funded by local aristocracy, rebelled in the east; a coalition of noblemen issued a declaration of their support for the Maléi pretender, Mennat V. The armies were largely withdrawn from the south to go deal with the bigger problem in the north.

The first major battle was fought in the early summer of 547, at the town of Derač in Sætlaš province. At first it looked like an easy victory for Kečemin's forces, as they advanced eastward, and his navy occupied Sertek and Oltumosou (Čisse Province supported him also, and remained largely outside the conflict). Kečemin himself served as a general at the front lines, and was killed in 550. His brother Jorinago was too young to rule, so the administration was effectively handled by their mother Deušan.

During this transition the Kečemins faltered, and some local armies switched allegiances: In 551 the pro-Mennat forces took Barnágo, then began a slow, bloody advance down the river to Ussor for the next two years. When it was clear the city would fall, the Imperial Court fled to Agumosou, with much of the Navy following.

The Zgeiru, meanwhile, were firmly in control of Miədu and Azbǽbu. Mæmedéi was ruled by a Kečemin faction; the revolutionaries made a provisional alliance with Mennat, and took the city. Then, in the winter of 553 the combined armies entered Ussor. Mennat was named as emperor by a reduced Senate consisting of only his supporters; he maintained a tenuous grip on the entire mainland except Čisse Province.

Now the war entered a strange latent phase while Mennat attempted to root out rebellion, but allowed the South to operate de facto independently. Deušan sat in her island paradise plotting revenge, building an impressive network of spies and assassins on the mainland. Mennat, uneasy, moved the court and even the Senate back to Sertek.

Peace on the mainland was shaky. Several new pretenders to the throne emerged, gathering local support in their territories and causing considerable havoc. A new, apocalyptic cult emerged among the southern revolutionaries, who advocated the violent destruction of all existing political systems. But the balance of power lay with the wealthy, Etúgəist core of the Zgeiru, which was in the process of consolidating control over local governments.

==Secession==
The revolutionaries were wildly optimistic at this point, still hoping that they could conquer Ussor and institute republican rule over the entire country. The strategy, for now, was to play the two imperial factions against each other. They drew up a constitution for a "free Huyfárah" in 558, but sent aid when pro-Kečemin elements revolted in the Oltu Valley. The alliance with Mennat was dissolved.

The new constitution appeased the Southern nobles by giving them ministerial positions and seats in the new Senate. Many also served as commanders of the Southern armies, a decisive factor as now they began to engage Mennat's forces directly.

Mennat spent the next year fighting the revolutionaries for control of Ussor. Deušan sent in the Navy, along with Sošunami mercenaries. Ussor was retaken, and Jorinago, now come of age, returned as emperor in 563.

He attempted to appease the revolutionaries, while executing thousands to liquidate any support for Mennat; most of the high-ranking clergy, who had been ruling the city, were put to the sword as traitors. This endeared the emperor to the merchant classes, especially in Ussor, some of whom repudiated the Zgeiru. Naval and land trade partially resumed in the region.

From mid-563 the rest of the second phase of the war was spent in a slow, bloody and monotonous advance by Jorinago against Mennat across the countryside. Mennat had very few naval forces, and relied on Doroh mercenaries to counter Jorinago's ships, but these tended to act more like pirates then soldiers, and could be easily co-opted.

Meanwhile it had become clear to the Zgeiru that the revolution would have to confine itself, for now, to the South, where it had broad popular support. The "Free Republic of Huyfárah" was proclaimed in Miədu, in 567. The Republic assumed control of Kasca, the southern coastal colonies, Dagæm and the Southern Isles.

The political schism was mirrored in a religious one. Originally the revolutionaries had no intent of withdrawing their religious allegiance from Ussor, but soon they gave way to the repeated Fáralo tendency to use their religion as a tool of the state. Several high-ranking priests were dismissed, and a separate Great Temple was established in Miədu. Etúgə was split in two.

Mennat's forces and court were driven continuously eastward by Jorinago, with some help from the Republic. In 575 he fled with a sizeable force to Dagæm. This began the third phase of the war, largely consisting of naval battles against the Republic. Mennat took control of Dagæm, then invaded the Southern Isles, and proclaimed a "Kingdom of the Isles" ruled from Agumosou.

Meanwhile, Jorinago was unable to negotiate a successful arrangement to re-integrate the Republic, so he half-heartedly declared war; the Republic allied with Lasomo and was victorious, the two dividing the western marches between them. Republican support had waned in Mæmedéi; the city was retaken by force, and its government repopulated with political allies.

By now the nation was - or rather the two nations were - too exhausted to carry on the fight; peace was declared in 584.

Jorinago had himself re-crowned in a large ceremony in Ussor, and toured around the countryside, but the nation he presided over was in shambles: garlands and colorful banners were being strewn over burnt ruins. But the country was soon invigorated, as it periodically was, by a new religious revival - this time, mournful and Epimethean in nature, reflecting on fallen glories and preaching coming destruction. Macabre parades of mourners marched through the cities, painting their faces white, weeping and laughing hysterically.

The nation, even after accounting for territorial losses, had lost perhaps a fifth of its population, and its borders had shrunk essentially to the long, narrow strip of fertile land between the Oltu Valley and Čisse. The destruction was worst in the countryside, particularly in the heartland, which suffered from famine and disease for the next decade.

The Fáralo acted with unity of purpose in rebuilding their nation - but without unity of organization. While the contenders in the long war had fought for control of the whole nation, the fighting itself had ironically revealed the people's chief allegiances as being local and regional. The Empire itself had been discredited as an institution, and much of the rebuilding and reorganizing in this period was the work of minor nobles.

==Lewsfárah==
But the empire's new rival was hardly robust. Initially it appeared it would crumble amid infighting between various political factions. Chiefly the conflict was between the Zgeiru, now representing the mainstream, and a loose network of anarchist and anti-clerical elements, partially descended from the apocalyptic cultists who had emerged during the war. This latter faction was known as lu-Zjægə, "the wrathful ones."

The cities of Lewsfárah - "free-Fárah," as the Republic was informally known - experienced bouts of urban warfare for a decade. But soon the forces of order prevailed, and the Zjægə leaders were executed ''en masse'' .

The urban [[Toło]] population had been instrumental in supporting the Zgeiru, who repaid them with full citizenship under the new constitution. The Toło began to play a major role in the public and political life of the Republic. Their religion originally had been oriented, by necessity, around the concepts of secrecy and imminent divine vengeance; gradually it now drifted in doctrine and aesthetics back in line with Etúgə, though retaining a certain mystical air.

The climate of the Empire had been generally one of religious freedom, if somewhat inconsistently and at the whim of individual governments. The Republic, for all its egalitarian airs, actually took a step away from this: only Etúgəists could be citizens. (Epɨmya was simply reclassified as a "brother sect" of Etúgə.)

The new nation was organized as a federation of three city-state republics - [[Miədu]], [[Azbǽbu]], [[Mæmedéi]] - under the umbrella of a single government, with Miədu as the de facto capital. The federal government administered the peripheral territories: parts of Kasca, and the southern coastal colonies. The Republic's position was strengthened by alliance with Buruya and Lasomo; this was often called the Etúgə League, representing their claim to be the new, true masters of the faith.

Lasomo was a moderately powerful nation in its own right, and boasted a sophisticated and literate culture; its inclusion in the League guaranteed massive cultural cross-exchange with the Fáralo sphere. Among the most interesting results was that Lewsfárah (and Buruya) abandoned the old Fáralo calendar, instead switching their dating system to the Year of the Prophet. Meanwhile, Lasomo adopted the Fáralo eight-day week.

The official language of Lewsfárah was Fáralo, but increasingly this was a Fáralo that used distinctively southern grammatical forms, vocabulary and pronunciation. What evolved as the standard was essentially a compromise dialect with features of the three main cities. It was still quite conservative compared to vernacular speech.

The Republic had little interest in ruling the Kascan Delta, and let it go its own way. Ñolo was absorbed by Buruya, while the Republic maintained control of Puwa and the barrier islands, both now mostly Fáralo-speaking.

==The New Nations==
Lewsfárah saw itself as being sustained by a kind of ferocious spiritual resolve; to any outsider it was clear that its strength was an economic one. It stood at the nexus between land routes to the west and sea routes to the south, and had use of what had been the best shipbuilding facilities in the Empire, and several of the best harbors. Soon the Republic assumed the old Imperial project of colonizing the South Coast (that is, south of Kasca). This was a project that had dragged on with a feeling of permanence for centuries, but now had stagnated: the inherited colony consisted of a string of fortified outposts connected more to the motherland than to each other, producing little, ruling over little more than the strip of beach, looking away from the wild forested interior which lay outside its grasp.

The Republic moved many colonists into the existing towns, and established a new capital, called Lu-Alégadu (elided in the local dialect to Lalegdu or Laleddo), "Constitution." Soon the influence of the state began creeping inland.

The obvious stumbling-block for the Republic was the Maléi rump state, the Kingdom of the Isles. This was a grim Fáralo oligarchy ruling over a Komejech- and Peninsular-speaking serfdom. Mennat's successors were petty and capricious, some outright insane. They maintained order brutally, and the kingdom drifted into political isolation. Within a couple generations authority had broken down and the islands became a haven for pirates, an anarchic land of warlords with nominal allegiance to a mad king who sometimes called himself "emperor."

The pirate bands were ethnically quite diverse, claiming members from among all the seafaring peoples - Takuña, Fáralo, Doroh, Affanonic, Lotoka, Sošunami - but the lingua franca was a form of Takuña.

The Republic invaded Dagæm in 638, quickly subduing it, then proceeded to the Southern Isles. The king was routed easily; many of the pirates, after a bloody struggle, were chased northward, into Imperial waters. They established various footholds within Huyfárah, east of the Poráš river.

The empire's institutions were atrophied, the Navy ineffective; the pirates - usually known as "the Takuña" - could not be dislodged. Strengthened by new arrivals from the east, they became entrenched in the area, right within the Fáralo heartland. The empire's old ally Affalinnei had for centuries acted as a buffer against pirates from the east, but it too was under control of Takuña bands.

The Doroh lords were unsettled by this shift in the balance of power. Previously disunified, they solemnly established an alliance (soon including Affalinnei as well), and drove the Takuña from their lands. The Takuña, in turn, invaded Čisse in 644.

Lewsfarah's merchant marine avoided these pirate-infested waters by making the eastward crossing directly from the Southern Isles to trade with Sumarušuxi. The Sošunami League was in a period of disunity, and Lewsfárah's commercial expeditions in the area soon led to an involvement in local political disputes; little by little, this involvement blossomed into a colonization of much of the area. The Republic now in effect controlled trade across the entire Bay of Kasca.

==The Age of Three Leagues==
The new ruling dynasty in Huyfárah, the Sattek, was bent on restoring absolute rule, and did so without any sense of moderation or judiciousness. The crippled Empire in effect wasted its remaining energy oppressing its own people and brutally crushing even the most innocuous forms of dissent. The next century and a half consisted essentially of a power struggle between three political blocs attempting to digest what they could of the crumbling state.

The first bloc was the Doroh-Affalinnei league, known as the Koyroh (D. Kojroh). Its raison d'être was to repel pirate attacks and ensure free trade in the region; in effect this resulted in a gradual absorption of Fáralo areas for "defensive purposes." Its internal structure was decentralized and complex to the point of impenetrability, being based on various reciprocal agreements between the clans. Nonetheless, the effective center of power was the westernmost Doroh state, Dəiṭah. Its dialect, Dəiṭomai, gained a level of prestige in the region.

Čisse threw off its Takuña overlords in a popular uprising in 655. The locals elected to set up an autonomous republican government. The various factions within the Empire, meanwhile, were unable or unwilling to fight this latest secession. After hurried negotiations the government chose to align itself with its neighbors - the Koyroh.

The second bloc, the Sošunami League, was not an effective force until later in this period. Disunified and hobbled by tribal vendettas, it concentrated its efforts on a unifying cause: keeping the Fáralo away from their ancestral capital, Umuhètha, on Pikàthìnuṭu Island. As the Republic had taken over most of Ikím, their center of gravity shifted to Wihe.

The third bloc, of course, was the Republic and its allies - the "Etúgə league."

Dəiṭah sent a large invasion force right into the middle of Huyfárah, near Sertek. The Emperor, seeing that the Doroh intended to stay indefinitely, attempted to expel them, but they counterattacked, taking Peimast (672), then Sertek (678), and later Barnágo (702).

Meanwhile, Lewsfárah invaded the Oltumosou and the Kučil valley. The Fáralo there found themselves as colonial vassals of overseas powers - the Republic, for all its moralistic pretenses, ruled quite despotically.

Finally the Empire was left with only the lower Oltu and lands immediately to the east; often it was now referred to merely as "Ussor." The pirates had never quite been eliminated from the coast, and their power ebbed and flowed, supplanted periodically by new arrivals. The emperor remained in place by playing them and the Koyroh states against each other.

This situation remained stable for half a century: it was the height of Lewsfárah's influence and prestige. During this brief flowering it boasted perhaps the most sophisticated and literate culture in the world, envied and imitated all across the sea. Petty tribal states styled themselves as republics, and their chieftains as Etúgə scholars, learned and urbane men dedicated to peace and poetry.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈib.li]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈha.ziː.li]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfa.rah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [ˈpuj.va.rə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Wippwo|Wippwo]]
| Fuβera
| [ˈfu.βɛ.ra]
| ← Naidda ''Puivara''
|-
! [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
| Xuyfá’ah
| [xujˈfa.ʔah]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Hoifaxa
| [hɔjˈfaː.ʔa]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Mavakhalan]]
| haźiľ
| [ˈha.ʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Ayāsthi]]
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑ.ʒiː.lɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Hæzili
| [ˈhæ.zi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Asíli
| [aˈʒi.li]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔ.ɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Puoni]]
| Rufara; Ragui
| [rʊˈfa.rɜ], [rɜˈgwi]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'', ''Hagíbəl''
|-
! [[Woltu Falla]]
| Hüfarā
| [hyː.faˈɾɑː]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Cəssın]]
| Çarah
| [ˈɕɑ.ɾɑx]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
! [[Affanonic]]
| Falarlinnei (''esp. for the state''); Falaril (''esp. the territory'')
| [fa.laʀ.ˈlin.nei], [ˈfa.la.ʀil]
| derived from ''falar'' (adj.) ← Faraghin ''Faragh'' "the Faraghin people" (borrowed)
|}

= See also =

* [[Fáralo]]

[[Category:Nations]]
[[Category:Huyfárah|*]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Talk:Nåmúþ

2014-01-22T03:48:37Z

Dunomapuka: Created page with "Never noticed this. Good work. If I want to work on a future Namɨdu, I guess I will put it somewhere in the colonies. A semicreole, maybe. --~~~~"

Never noticed this. Good work. If I want to work on a future Namɨdu, I guess I will put it somewhere in the colonies. A semicreole, maybe. --[[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]] ([[User talk:Dunomapuka|talk]]) 19:48, 21 January 2014 (PST)

Namɨdu

2013-05-16T22:34:42Z

Dunomapuka: /* Numbers */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect. 
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła'''). 
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
! x + 10
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
| tsewen
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
| ñiwen
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
| woswen
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
| buwen
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
| dwewen
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
| eswen
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
| myemwen
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
| hudwen
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
| niłwen
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
| ñiro
|}

As, due to the long grind of sound change, '''ñiro''' "twenty" has come to sound like '''niro''' "ninety", these are occasionally disambiguated as '''nom ñiro''' and '''pya niro''', particularly when shouting over heavy noise. Another alternate term for "ninety" is '''weñu ro''', "[one hundred] minus ten." In military jargon, this is abbreviated to '''weñu''', and '''ɨbweddu''' to '''ɨb'''.

The "teen" forms derive from Fáralo constructions like ''[ro] dou-oun'' "ten-and-five" > '''dwewen'''.

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yegłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayegłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yegłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu

2013-03-07T01:03:37Z

Dunomapuka: /* Sound Changes from Fáralo */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect. 
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła'''). 
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yegłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayegłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yegłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu

2013-03-07T01:02:49Z

Dunomapuka: dł > gł

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect.
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła''').
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yegłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayegłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yegłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu

2013-03-07T01:01:23Z

Dunomapuka: /* Details */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect.
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła''').
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Phonetic Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*The pronunciation of /ɨ/ is quite unstable in colloquial speech. In Mɨdu itself, it tends to assimilate to [u] if /u/ or /w/ is found in the following syllable; otherwise it lowers to [ɛ] in final position and becomes [i] elsewhere. Among the Toło and in rural dialects it often becomes [e], distinct from /ɛ/. In colonial dialects, it may generally merge with /i/ or /u/, or be conserved; in the city of Puwa, it's [y] or [ʏ].
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yedłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayedłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yedłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu

2013-03-07T00:52:25Z

Dunomapuka: /* Sound Changes from Fáralo */

{{DEFAULTSORT:Namidu}}
{{Language
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = [nɐˈmɨ.du]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of [[Fáralo]] spoken in the city of [[Mɨdu]] (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of [[Huyfárah]] and the portion of [[Kasca]] north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from [[Ussor]] south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' ([[Mæmedéi]], [[Fallo na Mendia|local]] ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' ([[Azbǽbu]]; [[Farwo n-Abebbu‎|local]] ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the [[Oltu]] valley including Ussor (which speaks [[Woltu Falla]]) and areas further north (which speak [[Cəssın]] and related dialects).

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Somewhat sporadically, the initial unstressed ''e''- of Fáralo that derives from NT syllabic nasals is dropped. It remains, for example, in ''epé'' "to sit" ➝ '''epe''', but is dropped in ''egól'' "foot" > '''yoł.''' However, these words retain the ''e''- in prefixed forms. 
15. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
16. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
17. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
18. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
19. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
20. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
21. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
22. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/ in the standard dialect; both to [ʒ] in the [[Toło]] dialect.
23. The sequences /tl dl/ are generally not tolerated; they are modified through metathesis (*''otlol'' "storage area" > '''ołtoł''') or dissimilation (*''yedlu'' "city" > '''yegłu'''; *''ɨdlula'' "sunrise" > '''ɨdruła''').
24. The marginal /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/; geminate /vv/ appears to shift to /bb/, but there are few examples. 
25. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/; in the Toło dialect, /rr/ > /ʀ/. 
26. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as (marginally) phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically (compare '''alo''' "swamp"; '''ała''' "flower").

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Labial''
! ''Dental''
! ''Alveolar''
! ''Palatal''
! ''Velar''
! ''Glottal''
|-
! ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
! ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
! ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
! ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! ''Front''
! ''Central''
! ''Back''
|-
! ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
! ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Details===
*'''p t ts k''' are slightly aspirated in the onset of stressed syllables.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. [[Toło|Some speakers]] may use [ʀ] for the trill and historical /rr/, but this feature is gradually disappearing.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*/ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpʰwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpʰwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkʰus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Nominal Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for number and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
|-
! Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
|-
! Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before any of /h s z/. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied.

*There is a class of words that prefixes '''ke'''- rather than '''ka'''- for the nom. plural: '''kya''' "egg"; nom. pl. '''kekya'''.

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forło''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworło''' "of Fáralo"). 

Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''wa'''- "this", '''si'''- "that" and the indefinite '''edu'''- have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new case prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her"). Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.

===Personal Pronouns===
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Nom.
! Acc.
! Gen.
! Dat.
|-
! I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
! thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''yeku'''
| '''lekum'''
|-
! he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''ya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''yetsi'''
| '''lɨtam'''
|-
! you
| '''do'''
| '''dwa'''
| '''yeñu'''
| '''dwem'''
|-
! they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yeya'''
| '''yem'''
|-
! who
| '''dza'''
| '''dzu'''
| '''yedza'''
| '''dzum'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3rd person, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself." The other persons do not require a special reflexive: '''sen i ɨbu kodda''', etc. Use '''okobu''' ("they-them") for a reciprocal object in the 3p: '''sen ok okobu kodda''' "they covered each other."

An impersonal expression can be formed with '''zrud''', originally meaning "men," but which nonetheless takes singular verb forms. The nominative is '''krud''', the other cases formed as expected for a noun: '''azrud''', '''nazrud''', '''yezrud'''.

===Quantifiers===
Fáralo's quantifiers have been preserved rather conservatively, though ''næme'' "some" has fallen into disuse.
*'''mi''' no; none
*'''miwa''' none at all (emphatic; from ''mi wa-'' "none of these")
*'''mos''' a few
*'''os''' many; much
*'''weba''' almost all
*'''yak''' all; every one (from ''ege ak'', "all them")

===Other Pronouns===
There are two demonstrative pronouns, '''wosse''' "this one; this person" and '''dzeddze''' "that one; that person" These inflect normally for case and number, with the ''w-'' of '''wosse''' mutating to ''s-'' in the nominative.

Besides these, there are the various interrogative and indefinite (etc.) pronouns:
*'''iya''' which?; what?
*'''nyeba''' something
*'''nyebru''' someone (''næbə rud'' "some man")
*'''mipi''' nothing (''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail")
*'''miru''' nobody (''mi rud'' "no man")
*'''yotu''' everything (''ege atu'' "every possession")
*'''yeru''' everyone (''ege rud'' "every man")
 
*'''mola''' where?
*'''weł''' here
*'''siruł''' there
*'''miwe''' nowhere (''mi hewe'' "no water")
*'''nyebwe''' somewhere (''næbə hewe'' "some water")
*'''nyeł''' somewhere (alternate form)
*'''yewe''' everywhere (''ege hewe'' "every water")
 
*'''hola''' when?
*'''ÿosso''' now
*'''sisso''' then
*'''nyebło''' sometimes
*'''yesso''' always (''ege ešo'' "all-always")
*'''myati''' never (''mi eioti'' "no day")
 
*'''dugga''' why?

===Numbers===

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! x
! 10x
|-
! 1
| tse
| ro
|-
! 2
| ñi
| ñiro
|-
! 3
| wos
| woslo
|-
! 4
| bu
| buro
|-
! 5
| dwa
| dwero
|-
! 6
| es
| eslo
|-
! 7
| myem
| myembro
|-
! 8
| hudde
| hudro
|-
! 9
| nił
| niro
|-
! 10
| ro
| ɨbweddu
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
===The Main Verb===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject. The singular is unmarked, and the plural adds -'''k''' after vowels. Consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

===Auxiliary Conjugation===
The preceding half of the verb phrase is the auxiliary. Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, preterite, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
! can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
! should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
! conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
! plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
! seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
! need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
! want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
! start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
! stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
! cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
! just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
! progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
! emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
! disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}
 
The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.

===The Copula===
The copula functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg}}
!
! Present
! Preterite
! Imperfect
! Neg. Present
! Neg. Perf.
! Neg. Imp.
|-
! Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
! Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

===The Conjunct Imperative===
The conjunct imperative is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

==Derivational Morphology==
Namɨdu has inherited the general Edastean tendency toward zero-derivation - words can often function as nouns or verbs. Nonetheless, some derivational morphology exists. This is a list of morphemes, followed by their usage and etymology:

*'''-ł''', originally a diminutive suffix, now is a general nominalizer, though mostly for small, concrete things. (''-l'')
*'''ña-''' forms an agentive noun from a verb. (''ŋa-'' participle)
*'''ña-''' + '''-ed''' forms a participial adjective from a verb. (''ŋa-'' + ''-ed'' borrowed from the imperfect of verbs?)
*'''-bu''' forms agentive nouns (mostly from nouns and adjectives); some derived words are male but mostly gender-neutral. (''-bu'')
*'''-sa''' denotes a female agentive noun; this has fallen by the wayside in favor of the gender-neutral ''-bu''. (''-sa'')
*'''-los''' and '''-łas''' (the former being the more productive) create toponyms. (''los'' and older ''laš'' "land")
*'''-(i)n''' is a general adjectivizer. (-''in'')
*'''-so''' forms a transitive or causative verb from any other part of speech. (''soy'' "cause")
*'''-ya''' is equivalent to "-ism;" it denotes an ideology or pattern of behavior. (extracted from Etúgə terms such as '''motya''', '''zyetya''')
*'''-enna''' denotes a world or realm. (extracted from '''Ketsenna''' "the world" and '''isyenna''' "the spiritual world")
*'''-nte''' denotes a science or practice, something like English "-ology." (''-mate'')
*'''lu-''', from the definite article, is a nominalizer the denotes the definitive or primary instance of something. (''lu-'')
*'''-u''', no longer productive, denotes an associated object. (''-u'')

== Syntax ==
===Word Order===
Default sentence order is auxiliary - subject - object - main verb. 
'''sis i mik hob.''' 
I'm eating some bread. 
'''sen a mu gyopsa epe.''' 
He sat on the sheep.

Indirect objects fill the same slot as direct objects. 
'''misen ok yeweł odduk.''' 
They should not have come here. 

If both are present, the direct object comes first. 
'''we Ñe Badat wiło ɨm yoz.''' 
Mrs. Badat is going to paint my house (lit., "paint me the house"). 

Some auxiliaries can be combined as needed: 
'''yeda to luki zbyenyoło epsek.''' 
We need to stop destroying old temples.

===Noun Phrases===
The order for noun phrases is Pr Num A N Phr, where "Pr" is a possessive pronoun, "Num" is a number, "A" is an adjective, and "Phr" is a participle, prepositional phrase, modifying noun or relative clause. 

'''kɨnzo sossa''' good woman 
'''wos kɨnzo zasossa''' three good women 
'''yets wos kɨnzo zasossa''' my three good women 
'''kɨnzo sossa ñawɨmed''' the good living woman 
'''sossa nɨ mots''' the woman in the kitchen 
'''sossa rema sen i kozził''' the woman I saw 
'''sossa nawarełbu''' the politician's woman 

To express possession of a noun that is in one of the oblique cases (appositive, dative, genitive), a genitive pronoun is not used - a subject pronoun is substituted, and moved to after the noun. 
'''lepeło yebodde i''' the throne of my father 
'''mobbe nañuffe a''' her cat's mouth 

This development appears odd syntactically. Historically, the full expression would have used an intervening ''yem'': '''mobbe nañuffe yem a''', but by the ninth century the ''yem'' was dropped.

===Case Usage===
The accusative case is used for direct objects. 
'''yede i zgossu demu''' I'm hunting rabbits. 
'''sis leku yeku tottsa ryettu le?''' do you hear your sister?

As the least marked form, it is also used for either object of the copula or verbs of location, vocative usage, and syntactically undefined references (list items, etc). Of course, most singular nouns do not distinguish accusative and nominative forms anyway. 
'''styoñgas yedek nɨ wɨñÿeło''' the punts are in the canal 
'''ała odun hya''' the flower was blue 
'''eyoddu, ñuffe!''' come here, pussycat

The nominative case is used for the subject, both in transitive and intransitive sentences. 
'''sis yets dottsa ɨbu ryettu''' my sister hears me 
'''sis sosse amale bÿonte ÿere''' this guy enjoys astronomy 
'''yede kayossu optuk''' the rabbits are spooked

The genitive case indicates possession, or some kind of general attributive relationship. 
'''skełbo nahyołbu''' the foreigner's clothes 
'''yedłu nawibbał''' a northern town

The dative case mainly indicates the recipient of an action. 
'''sen ok yewemmu ɨroppo syeppek''' they gave the lady some vinegar

It is also used to indicate the relationship between two people (esp. family members), where English would typically use a possessive. 
'''mekot yesira''' the brother of the prositute

But if a pronoun is substituted for the head noun, it takes the genitive, not the dative. 
'''ya mekot''' her brother

The appositive case is used primarily for appositive phrases. 
'''i amekot yelɨdoł wa yełuñɨb''' I, brother to the sun and moon 
'''Denoggo arɨnassa''' priestess Deunagho

The appositive may be used where English would introduce a relative clause. 
'''male amekot yesira''' the guy who is the brother of the prostitute

It is used in lieu of adjectival "this" and "that" - the main noun is put in the appositive with the noun "this" or "that" preceding it. 
'''wosse adeññeł''' this finger 
'''dzeddze adeññeł''' that finger

The reverse construction '''deññeł awosse''' is also possible; it adds a slight ironic or distancing effect, something like "this finger here."

===Questions===
If an interrogative word is used, it is moved to the front of the phrase. Otherwise, word order is the same as indicative statements. All questions compulsorily use the interrogative particle '''le''' at the end of the phrase. 

'''sen a mu gyopsa epe le?''' 
did he sit on the sheep? 

'''yede senat kwuła le?''' 
is the minister speaking? 

'''dza odu kawu nɨ wosse ayedłu le?''' 
who is the priest in this town? 

'''mola yede tɨ le?''' 
where is the door? 

===Reported Speech===
Reported speech is usually phrased as a direct quotation. It is prefaced by the quotative particle '''bi''', and can be terminated with the particle '''sip'''. 
'''sen i me bi: "odu myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said, "the cow is dead." 

The person spoken to is in the dative. 
'''sen i yem me bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił" sip.''' 
I said to him, "your cow is dead." 

The closing '''sip''' is optional, but is left in for emphatic or rhetorical effect. It is not used after questions. 
'''sen i yem byenna bi: "odu yeku myessa pissił le?"''' 
I asked him: is your cow dead? 

===Relativization===
Basic relativization is accomplished by the particle '''rema''' (from Fáralo ''roumə''). 
'''sen a tɨ loz''' she shut the door > '''tɨ rema sen a loz''' the door that she shut 
'''sen do pissił myessa kozlek''' you (pl.) saw the dead cow > '''pissił myessa rema sen do kozlek''' the dead cow that you saw 

Normal sentence syntax is retained within the relative clause. If the clause modifies a noun in the subject case, then a pronoun is repeated within the clause; but if it modifies an object then this repetition does not occur. 
'''myessa rema sis i kozził''' the cow that I see 
'''myessa rema sis a yebu kozził''' the cow that sees me 

Relative "when" uses the particle '''sorma''', and relative "where" uses '''rułma''' (from Fáralo ''sišo roumə'', ''sirul roume''). 
'''sorma we i gyo Usso nwen''' when I plan to go to Ussor 
'''yedłu rułma sen i zoño hob''' the town where I ate the crayfish 

Fáralo used a ''lu''- determiner to mark that a sentence was the object of a preposition; in Namɨdu this became fused to the preposition, creating yet more relative particles: '''isłu''' "before," '''ugłu''' "after," '''gyorikłu''' "until." 
'''isłu sen leku nora''' before you left 
'''gyorikłu sis i nubazzi potte''' until I reach enlightenment

== Sample Texts ==
See [[Namɨdu/Texts]].

==Lexicon==
[[Namɨdu/Lexicon]]

==See also==
*[[Farwo n-Abebbu‎]], the dialect spoken in Abebbu
*[[Fallo na Mendia]], the dialect spoken in Mendia
*[http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm The Fáralo language]
*[[Culture of Mɨdu]]
*[[Toło]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]

Namɨdu/Lexicon

2013-03-07T00:39:50Z

Dunomapuka: /* Lexicon of Namɨdu */

==Lexicon of Namɨdu==

'''See also:'''
* [[Namɨdu|Namɨdu grammar]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* WF = [[Woltu Falla]]
* Æð. = [[Æðadĕ]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* unmarked = [[Fáralo]]

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! '''Namɨdu Word'''
! '''Definition'''
! '''Etymon'''
|-
| aba
| mason; metalworker
| ''aoba''
|-
| akodag
| a sweet wine from [[Lasomo]]
| from the city of ''Akôdaig''
|-
| alo
| swamp
| ''aə'' "swamp" + ''-lo''
|-
| ała
| flower
| ''alóu''
|-
| Andok
| of the Ndok people
| ''əndók'' < {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| Andokasa
| the Ndok Aisô language
| ''əndokáisə'' < {{NAis|Ndok Aisô}}
|-
| alegdu
| constitution; contract
| ''alégadu''
|-
| anyen
| dry
| ''anǽn''
|-
| areł
| politics
| back-formation from ''arełbu''
|-
| arełbu
| politician
| ''arélibu'' "dissident"
|-
| asezzuł [pl. ''asezlek'']
| conquer
| ''as ezul'' "utterly take"
|-
| awobbo
| unhappy
| ''avávo'' "poor"
|-
| aya
| anxiety
| ''aogə'' "uncertainty"
|-
| Azbyebbu
| a city
| ''As Bǽbu'' "many anchors"
|-
| azin
| sophisticated
| {{Aedh|āz}} "city dweller" + ''-in''
|-
| babde
| uncle (father's older brother)
| ''baobadew''
|-
| badał
| statue
| from dim. of ''Baodan'', a 4th c. emperor
|-
| balɨ
| fifth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''baoluy''
|-
| Banoggo
| a city
| ''Barnágo''
|-
| bes
| first day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''bewš''
|-
| bible
| to massage
| {{Ndd|bivle}} "to touch gently"
|-
| biddzi
| leg
| *''biji'' < {{Ndd|bizri}}
|-
| bissa
| practical knowledge; to teach it
| ''bista'' < {{Aedh|biþta}} "to educate"
|-
| bɨda
| to be convinced; to take advice
| ''buədə'' "to listen"
|-
| bɨdaso
| to persuade; persuasion
| "cause to be convinced"
|-
| boddał
| grape
| {{Ndd|badal}} "berry"
|-
| bodde
| father
| ''badew''
|-
| bomma
| wheat; wheat flour
| ''bomə''
|-
| bop [stem ''-ebop'']
| chant (n.)
| ''ebóp'' "music"
|-
| borda
| to buy
| {{Ndd|bårëda}} "to acquire"
|-
| borɨ
| to appoint
| ''baruy''
|-
| bos
| calm; content
| ''bas''
|-
| bosse
| large branch; spine
| ''baše''
|-
| boÿon
| landlord
| {{Ndd|båwayån}} "lord"
|-
| bu
| four
| ''bu''
|-
| bura
| to decide; pick; vote
| ''ebúrə''
|-
| but
| near
| ''but''
|-
| bwes
| ox
| ''bous''
|-
| bwettsa
| daughter
| ''boéča''
|-
| Bwɨba
| [[Bwimbai]] (river); [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] (esp. in historical contexts)
| ''Boíəba''
|-
| bwogge
| to stir; mix
| ''boáge'' "push; impel"
|-
| byenna
| to ask
| ''bæna'' "to beg"
|-
| byenyoło
| non-Etúgə temple
| ''bænéilo''
|-
| byopsa
| vagina (somewhat impolite); all-purpose insult
| ''beibulsa''
|-
| byottsa
| leg (metaphorical); branch of a river
| ''beiča''
|-
| bÿa
| star
| ''boéi''
|-
| bÿonte
| astronomy
| ''boéimate''
|-
| bÿoya
| declination (of a star); latitude
| ''boéiægə''
|-
| bÿossi
| chaos
| ''boéisti'' "orgy"
|-
| dadan [pl. ''dadnak'']
| to dance
| ''daodan''
|-
| darud
| man (somewhat formal)
| ''dau'' "male" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| deło
| stage; porch; broad staircase
| ''edélo'' "theater; stage"
|-
| debło
| autumn; fall
| ''edébelo''
|-
| demu
| to hunt
| ''dewmuh''
|-
| deññeł
| finger
| {{Ndd|dëñe}} + -''l''
|-
| dettsin
| ink
| (from the name of a flower)
|-
| didda
| improbable
| ''dida'' "possible"
|-
| dizza
| stuff; pieces
| {{Ndd|diza-diza}}
|-
| dɨbo
| lard
| ''diəbo'' "fat, oil"
|-
| dɨlo
| secret; hidden thing
| back-formation from ''nadɨlo'' "hidden"
|-
| dobba
| white
| ''daba''
|-
| dobzyet
| silver
| ''daba'' "white" + ''syet'' "gold"
|-
| doggɨ
| to be in charge; command; host
| ''daguy'' "host"
|-
| Dok
| foreigner, but esp. the peoples of Kasca; (collq.) poor schmuck
| ''Edák''; but felt as the second element of ''Andok'', ''Doydok''
|-
| dorats
| lunch; dinner (large midday meal)
| ''dorač''
|-
| dos
| to pursue; sneak attack
| ''das'' "fight"
|-
| Doya
| Ndak paganism
| {{Ndd|Dï'aya}}
|-
| Doydok
| the Dāiadak people (archaic)
| ''dayadok''
|-
| dukkas
| teacher
| ''dukəs''
|-
| dumbi
| stray animal
| {{Aedh|dūmvi}} "homeless; stray"
|-
| dwa
| five
| ''dou''
|-
| dwemma
| glass
| ''doumah''
|-
| dya
| thumb
| ''deiŋ'' "finger"
|-
| dye
| hill
| ''dæŋ'' "mountain"
|-
| Dyeññał
| a hill and district in Mɨdu
| ''dæŋəl'' "little hill"
|-
| dyempɨ
| goat
| ''dæŋ pir'' "mountain-goat"
|-
| dyok
| haunted
| back-formation from ''dyokło''
|-
| dyokło
| haunted area
| ''deiklo''
|-
| dyonne
| facility; skill
| ''deine'' "smarts; cunning"
|-
| dyop
| punk, insolent youngster
| ''deip'' "young (of an animal)"
|-
| dzappa
| insult
| ''jeipə''
|-
| dzeddze
| that one; that person
| ''jæje''
|-
| dzegga
| belligerent
| ''jægə'' "wrathful"
|-
| dzen
| knife
| ''jæn''
|-
| dzes
| maybe
| ''ješ'' "probably"
|-
| dzibbe
| evil
| ''jibe'' "bad"
|-
| dzibbɨs
| to wheeze
| ''jibe uəš'' "badly breathe"
|-
| dzɨku
| strong
| ''jiəku'' "hard"
|-
| dzɨna
| slow
| ''jiwnə''
|-
| dzɨnaba
| ironsmith
| ''dzɨni'' + ''aba''
|-
| dzɨni
| iron
| ''jiənih''
|-
| dzombu
| traveler
| ''dzoññu'' + ''-bu''
|-
| dzoññu
| to travel
| ''jaŋu'' "to move"
|-
| dzoritsi
| to wake up
| ''jori'' "awaken" + ''-tsi'' reflexive
|-
| ebe
| short
| ''ebewr''
|-
| ebu
| to sleep
| ''eobu''
|-
| ebyeru
| tree bark
| ''ebǽru''
|-
| ebyeruł
| husk of a fruit
| ''ebǽru'' + -''l''
|-
| edastan
| of the Edastean peoples
| reborrowing of ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" + -''n''
|-
| eddenilos
| holy land (a formulation of some religious texts)
| ''edewnin'' "holy" + ''los''
|-
| Edossa
| the [[Naidda]] language
| ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" (latter is now ''Ñÿeru Edossa'')
|-
| edya
| tree
| ''edéi''
|-
| edyołas
| forest
| ''edéi'' + ''laš''
|-
| Edzada
| the Æðadĕ language; or one of its speakers (collq. and slightly despective)
| {{Aedh|Æðadĕ}}
|-
| egyottsa
| stairs
| ''egéi čeiŋ'' "up-walk"
|-
| ekɨ
| blessing; third day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''ekúi''
|-
| Eklodo
| [[Akelodo]], the largest city of Lasomo
| {{Aedh|Æxloðo}}
|-
| ełpe
| to melt (intr.)
| ''elpe''
|-
| ełpso
| to melt (tr.); heat up
| ''elpe'' + -''so''
|-
| ente
| to be unsure
| ''eomate'' "to guess"
|-
| Entsełde
| historical name for Akelodo
| ''Enčélade''
|-
| epa
| likeness
| ''ewpa'' "statue"
|-
| epał
| figurine
| ''ewpa'' "statue" + ''-l''
|-
| epe
| to sit; stay
| ''epé''
|-
| Epɨm
| a follower of Epɨmya in the religious sense, cf. Toło
| ''epúonim'' "heathen"
|-
| Epɨmya
| the religion of the Epɨm
| ''Epɨm'' + -''ya''
|-
| eppa
| light; easy
| ''epaf''
|-
| eps
| destruction; to destroy
| ''epš''
|-
| epsło
| encampment
| ''epšilo'' "ruins"
|-
| ero
| nasty (of behavior; weather; events)
| {{Ndd|eddor}} "caustic"
|-
| es
| six
| ''eš''
|-
| esko
| hospitable
| {{Aedh|æþko}}
|-
| essen [pl. ''esnek'']
| to act; behave
| ''ešen''
|-
| etsa
| to lose [a game; battle]
| ''eočeiŋ'' "to stumble"
|-
| Etugga
| the Etúgə religion
| ''Etúgə''
|-
| Etugenna
| the Etúgə world
| ''Etúgə'' + ''-enna''
|-
| ewa
| snake
| ''ewa''
|-
| fissas
| criminal (n.)
| ''fistaš'' "unlawful"
|-
| fogga
| make; create
| ''foga''
|-
| foggał
| small artwork; knicknack
| ''foga'' "create" + -''l''
|-
| fogło
| store; shop
| ''fogalo'' "workshop"
|-
| Forło
| a Fáralo language, or simply "language"; of Fáralo culture
| ''Fáralo''
|-
| forłobu
| a Fáralo person (male)
| ''forło'' + -''bu''
|-
| forłosa
| a Fáralo person (female)
| ''forło'' + -''sa''
|-
| gas
| boat
| ''gaos''
|-
| gets
| fourth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''geoč''
|-
| gitsa-gitsa
| wait a minute (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| gɨppi
| to answer; reply
| ''guətu ebí'' "therefore say"
|-
| go [pl. ''gohek'']
| to reject; dismiss
| ''gah'' "to mock"
|-
| goffats
| crime
| ''gafač''
|-
| gonnin
| elder brother
| ''gonin''
|-
| gossu
| rabbit
| ''gašu''
|-
| gottats
| galley
| ''gatač''
|-
| gotte
| wood
| ''gate''
|-
| gotteł
| floor
| ''gatel'' "board"
|-
| gubbe
| to let go; let out (from)
| ''gube'' "to survive; escape"
|-
| gurima
| to betray
| {{Aedh|gujrima}}
|-
| gwa
| road
| ''gou''
|-
| gwedda
| dream
| ''goudah''
|-
| gwegga
| to break; rip
| ''gouga''
|-
| gyo
| to; at
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyorit
| until
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyopsa
| sheep
| ''geipša''
|-
| hadɨ
| out; outside of
| ''hadír''
|-
| handya
| small town; village
| {{Aedh|hānðjĕ}}
|-
| Hayibbał
| the Fáralo sphere (comprising former Huyfárah)
| ''Hagíbəl''
|-
| hebben
| mumble
| ''heben''
|-
| hebu
| single; particular; specific
| ''hewbu'' "solitary"
|-
| hesom
| coat
| {{Aedh|hesom}} "outer garment"
|-
| hessara
| to organize; sort; tidy up
| {{Aedh|hestara}}
|-
| hewe
| water, liquid
| ''hewe''
|-
| hinna
| to lie
| {{Aedh|himna}}
|-
| hisłu
| son
| ''hislu'' "heir"
|-
| Hissɨna
| northeastern Peilaš, beyond Huyfárah
| ''Histuənə'' "[[Siixtaguna]]"
|-
| hitya
| the physical world (Etúgə terminology)
| ''hitugə''
|-
| hɨbɨ
| to cook
| ''hiəbur'' "to boil"
|-
| hɨbu
| frog
| *''hiəbu'' < ''hiebu''
|-
| hɨm
| cloud
| ''hiəm''
|-
| hɨnsa
| to fix; tend to
| ''huənšar'' "help; aid"
|-
| hɨte
| strange; disconcerting
| ''hiəteŋ'' "different"
|-
| Hɨwora
| the old Fáralo nation; the entire Fáralo sphere (obs.)
| ''Huyfárah''
|-
| ho
| meat
| ''ha''
|-
| hob
| to eat
| ''hab''
|-
| hobasa
| esophagus
| ''hab'' "to eat" + ''harsa'' "tube"
|-
| hodzan
| mountain pass
| {{Aedh|xōðan}}
|-
| hokez
| caveat
| {{Aedh|xokez}}
|-
| hołnadu
| republic
| ''halenadu''
|-
| howe
| broth
| ''ho hewe'' "meat-water"
|-
| howen
| food
| ''[mik] ha-oun'' "bread and meat"
|-
| hudde
| eight
| ''hude''
|-
| Huppa
| Sútapaj, a philosopher/saint of the Etúgə tradition
| ''Hutaba''
|-
| huz
| rat
| ''huz'' "mouse"
|-
| hwa
| beach
| ''hou'' "coast"
|-
| hwezzu
| left (side)
| ''houzuŋ''
|-
| hya
| blue
| ''hei''
|-
| hyoł
| foreign country; unknown place
| ''heil'' "foreign"
|-
| hyołbu
| foreigner
| ''heil'' + -''bu''
|-
| hyomma
| wait; delay
| ''heimə''
|-
| hyotte
| correct
| ''heite'' "neat; proper"
|-
| ibbał
| north
| ''ibəl''
|-
| ibbe
| handle; use; operate
| ''ibe'' "touch; use"
|-
| ibbu
| weapon
| ''ibu'' "tool"
|-
| idɨ
| sea; ocean
| ''idúəŋ''
|-
| idɨnda
| fisherman
| ''idúəŋ-dau'' "sea-man"
|-
| idɨño
| salt
| ''idúəŋ-oa'' "sea-salt"
|-
| idÿe
| arm
| ''idwæ''
|-
| iłseza
| morning glory
| {{Ndd|ilseza}}
|-
| iłts
| black
| ''ilč''
|-
| iłtsaz
| to forbid
| ''ilč eiz'' "paint black"
|-
| iłtsazin
| forbidden
| ''iłtsaz'' + ''-in''
|-
| Iłtsizɨme
| the river that runs through Mɨdu
| ''Ilčizúəme'', from local Ndd. *''ilči sume'' "black water"
|-
| igga
| unknown thing; thingamajig
| ''igə'' "which one"
|-
| igri
| receive; let in; tolerate; put in place
| ''igrih'' "absorb; dissolve"
|-
| ippa
| to taste; smell
| ''ipah'' "to perceive"
|-
| ippi
| liver
| ''ipi''
|-
| irło
| window
| ''iru'' "to open" + ''-lo''
|-
| isa
| before
| ''isə''
|-
| isezzuł
| to put forth; take; hold
| ''isə ezul'' "take before"
|-
| issape
| summer; (metaphorically) flourishing; success
| ''išaupe''
|-
| isso
| cotton
| {{Ndd|isceo}}
|-
| isyenna
| salvation; the spiritual world
| ''ifisænə''
|-
| Ittizan
| of the Hitatc peoples
| {{Ad|Itatizan}}
|-
| iznɨs
| gasp
| ''izin uəš'' "suddenly breathe"
|-
| ɨb
| month
| ''iəb''
|-
| ɨbweddu
| one hundred
| ''iəb'' + ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| ɨda
| term of address for men; "sir"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''dau'' "male"
|-
| ɨdołyog
| sunset; dusk
| ''iodol'' "sun" + ''egág'' "put [down]"
|-
| ɨdruła
| sunrise; dawn
| *ɨdłuła < ''iodol'' "sun" + ''ulə'' "rise"
|-
| ɨlo
| non-Etúge person
| ''uwlo'' "barbarian"
|-
| ɨmya
| yellow
| ''uwméi''
|-
| ɨmyał
| egg yolk
| ''uwméi'' + ''-l''
|-
| ɨñe
| term of address for women; "ma'am"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ɨño
| to kill
| {{Ndd|ïño}}
|-
| ɨroppo
| vinegar
| ''ior apo'' "sour fruit"
|-
| ɨs
| to breathe
| ''uəš''
|-
| ɨsala
| noble house (in the northern states)
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''üšala''
|-
| ɨseło
| household; family; noble house (obs.)
| ''io šælo'' "noble hearth"
|-
| ɨta
| weigh; measure
| ''iətə'' "hang; suspend"
|-
| ɨzi
| pickled apple
| ''ior zi'' "sour apple"
|-
| kałto
| wind
| ''kaltó''
|-
| kattsa
| aunt
| ''kaotača''
|-
| katya
| gold
| {{Ad|kātia}}
|-
| kawu
| Etúgəist priest
| ''kəwú''
|-
| kaya
| fog
| ''kaogə''
|-
| kayoddin
| uncle (father's younger brother)
| ''kaogádin''
|-
| kaza-kaza
| leave me alone (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| kebbats
| supper (evening meal)
| ''kebač'' "dinner"
|-
| kełbo
| item of clothing
| {{Bur|kɛlbo}} "cloak"
|-
| kets
| angry; annoyed
| ''keoč''
|-
| Ketsenna
| the world
| ''Kečǽnə''
|-
| kettsem
| to bless; dedicate; honor [a ceremony]
| ''kečem''
|-
| kippa
| alcohol; booze
| ''kipa'' "rice alcohol"
|-
| Kɨkkałto
| the north wind
| ''kuət kaltó'' "demon wind"
|-
| kɨnzo
| good
| {{Ndd|kïnzo}} "kind"
|-
| kɨta
| demon
| ''kuət'' - with possible interference by {{Ndd|kwɨda}}
|-
| kodda
| to cover; paint over; a curtain
| ''kodə''
|-
| kodda
| to work tirelessly
| ''ekádə'' "to continue; persist"
|-
| kokło
| border
| ''kaklo''
|-
| koppe
| ages past; "way back when"
| ''kape'' "last year"
|-
| koya
| language
| {{Ad|koia}} "tongue"
|-
| Kozyad
| the nation of [[Kasca]]
| ''Kazəgad''
|-
| kozził [pl. ''kozlek'']
| to see; look at
| ''kazil''
|-
| kpɨma
| smoke
| ''kpuəma''
|-
| kreta
| to capture; seize goods
| ''kreota''
|-
| kros
| brave (esp. in warfare); mighty
| ''kraš''
|-
| kryewa
| breakfast
| ''kræwa'' "porridge"
|-
| ku
| spirit; mind
| ''ku''
|-
| kuffas
| Etúgəist temple
| ''kufas''
|-
| kukka
| hiccup
| ''kuka''
|-
| kumpeł
| tomb
| ''kumepél'' "graveyard"
|-
| kusryem
| olive
| ''kusræm''
|-
| kussu
| to cough
| ''kušu''
|-
| kuz
| book
| ''kuz'' "records; archives"
|-
| kuzło
| cabinet; bookshelf
| ''kuzlo'' "library; archive"
|-
| kwañopsi
| brooch
| {{Bur|kwəñápsi}}
|-
| kweñña
| ring (jewelry)
| {{Bur|kwɛña}}
|-
| kwin
| sacred
| ''kuin''
|-
| kwo
| awful, terrible
| {{Ndd|kwå}} "stinky"
|-
| kwodmał
| to break in (shoes, clothes)
| {{Ndd|kwado'mal}}
|-
| kwosso
| skin rash
| {{Ndd|kwashor}}
|-
| kwuła
| to speak
| ''kouwə ulə'' "raise the tongue"
|-
| kya [stem -''ekya'']
| egg
| ''ekéi''
|-
| kyedda
| ash
| ''kæda''
|-
| kyelin
| wool
| ''kænil'' "hair" + ''-in''
|-
| kyennił
| hair (coll.)
| ''kænil''
|-
| kyewe
| egg white
| ''ekéi hewe'' "egg-water"
|-
| kyołu
| tunic; shirt
| ''keilu''
|-
| kyonte
| medicine
| ''keipmate'' "herblore"
|-
| kyop
| grass
| ''keip''
|-
| kyopło
| field; meadow
| ''keipło'' "pasture"
|-
| kyozze
| snow
| ''keize''
|-
| lama
| tall
| ''laoma'' "long"
|-
| lasa
| hour
| by haplology from *''lāsāsa'' < ''laršaošə''
|-
| le
| question particle; yes (informal)
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| legga
| word (esp. as a formula or declaration)
| ''lega''
|-
| leggał
| to write
| ''legal''
|-
| legyossa
| poetry; verse
| ''legéiša''
|-
| leł
| to jot down; scribble
| {{Ndd|lëål}} "write"
|-
| lepeło
| throne
| ''lu-epélo'' "the chair"
|-
| les
| free (in legal sense); unattached; acting at will
| ''lews''
|-
| Lesfora
| [[Lewsfárah]], the southern Fáralo republican state
| ''lews'' "free" + ''-fárah'' from ''Huyfárah''
|-
| lesso
| to set free; liberate
| "cause to be free"
|-
| lestsa
| steady; resolute; undeterred
| ''lews čeiŋ'' "walking freely"
|-
| leswɨm
| free (politically)
| ''lews wiəm'' "living freely"
|-
| lette
| yes
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| lettse
| eighth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''lečew''
|-
| Lidɨ [Nanozza]
| the ocean to the east of Peilaš
| late {{Fá|lu-idúəŋ na-nazə}} "the eastern ocean"
|-
| liwu
| loser
| {{Aedh|lwīvu}}
|-
| lizyuł
| to shiver
| ''lizegu'' "to shake" + dim.
|-
| lɨdoł
| the sun
| ''lu-iodol''
|-
| lɨmu
| smile; be pleased
| ''liəmu''
|-
| lobba
| snub
| ''labaf'' "ignore"
|-
| lod
| good; honest
| ''lad'' "healthy"
|-
| lodzu
| history
| ''lu-adulsu'' "the story"
|-
| lołpo
| heal; cure
| ''lalpo''
|-
| lonte
| quackery; nonsensical practice
| ''ladmate'' "medicine"
|-
| Lonto
| the Ici Forest
| {{Bur|lo ntɔh}} "the forest"
|-
| loñeñga
| ceremony
| ''lu-oyŋǽŋga'' "something solemn"
|-
| los
| land; nation; region
| ''laš''
|-
| losał
| agreement; pact
| ''lu-ošyal'' "proposal"
|-
| Losmu
| the nation of Lasomo
| ''Lašumu''
|-
| loz
| to shut
| ''laz''
|-
| luboz
| sixth day of the week
| ''lu-ubáz''
|-
| Ludyoddin
| the god of the Epɨm
| ''lu-Deidin'' "the numinous"
|-
| lumessɨ
| Namɨdu (collq.)
| ''lu-'' + {{Ndd|mestïng}} "dialect"
|-
| lumbye
| to act foolishly
| ''luba mæ'' "believe a falsehood"
|-
| luñɨb
| the moon
| ''luŋ-iəb''
|-
| lusek
| personal name
| ''lu-sek'' "the name"
|-
| lyod
| year
| ''leid''
|-
| lyoło
| birdcage
| ''lei'' "bird" + -''lo''
|-
| lyosło
| winter
| ''leišolo'' "cold time"
|-
| lyosso
| boring
| ''leišo'' "cold"
|-
| lÿenna
| hunger
| ''lu-æna''
|-
| madottɨ
| to disapprove
| ''madátuy'' "not allow"
|-
| madzen
| something useless or ineffective
| ''mau jæn'' "dull knife"
|-
| male
| man, guy
| {{Ndd|malë}} "old man"
|-
| malusme
| houseboat
| {{Bur|mlusɔmɛ}}
|-
| mamma
| mother
| baby-talk formation
|-
| mappÿa
| astrolabe
| ''mateboéi''
|-
| mareła
| to ignore; neglect
| ''maróulə'' "not care for"
|-
| mas
| hammer
| ''marš''
|-
| masa
| cow milk
| {{NAis|maisa}}
|-
| masere
| to hate; despise
| ''mašǽre'' "not love"
|-
| masobba
| to miss; make a mistake
| ''mašábə'' "not hit"
|-
| mayuttsił
| to enjoy oneself; be leisurely; take one's time
| ''makúčil'' "not rush"
|-
| me
| to say (used for reported speech)
| {{Ndd|me}}
|-
| mede
| semen; to ejaculate
| ''meode'' "spurt; splatter"
|-
| mekot
| younger brother; subordinate
| ''meokát''
|-
| midzenna
| to have an affair
| ''midišǽna'' "to fornicate"
|-
| mezzeł
| greet; say hello
| ''mezel''
|-
| mik
| [loaf of] bread
| ''mik''
|-
| mipma
| drugs (as a raw substance)
| ''mipimə'' "dough"
|-
| mipi
| nothing
| ''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail"
|-
| mipoł
| impolite
| ''mipól'' "indecent"
|-
| mise
| to give
| ''mišǽf'' "to owe"
|-
| mitsen
| cold
| ''mi čæn'' "no fire"
|-
| mittsidde
| to bake
| ''mik ečíde'' "to cook bread"
|-
| mɨbzin
| primitive
| ''muəbazin'' "anarchic"
|-
| mɨdo
| blind
| ''miordo''
|-
| Mɨdu
| a major city
| ''Miədu''
|-
| mɨmisso
| to bewilder; enchant
| ''muymis'' "stupid" + ''-so''
|-
| mɨpa
| deaf
| ''miopə''
|-
| mo
| color
| {{Ndd|mo}}
|-
| mobbe
| mouth
| ''mabe''
|-
| moddesen
| violence; force
| ''made ešen'' "violent action"
|-
| modu
| chest
| ''mordu''
|-
| modu
| in front of
| ''umórdu''
|-
| moła
| full
| ''mola''
|-
| moła
| to choose
| ''molar'' "prefer"
|-
| mołna
| to notice
| ''molinə'' "to not not know"
|-
| moppał
| magnet; compass
| ''matibəl''
|-
| mospo
| penis
| {{Ndd|mospo}} (has lost rude connotations)
|-
| mossin
| urban; public; societal
| ''mastin'' "governmental; public" AND ''mosin'' "civilized; urban"
|-
| moswe
| harbor; port town
| ''mosou''
|-
| mots
| kitchen
| ''mač'' "table"
|-
| mottsud
| slave
| ''mačud''
|-
| motya
| the physically impossible (Etúgə terminology)
| ''matugə''
|-
| motyan
| impossible
| ''motya'' + ''-n''
|-
| mowe
| sex act
| {{Ndd|måwë}} "to fellate"
|-
| mu
| on; above
| *''wiəmú'' < ''wiəmu'' (stress shift via analogy with ''wægól'')
|-
| mubba
| worm
| ''muba''
|-
| mudzada
| to take drugs (esp. hallucinogens)
| {{Aedh|mūðada}}
|-
| muła
| ice
| ''mula''
|-
| mus
| grow, become
| ''mus''
|-
| mussuta
| ideology; belief
| ''mušidutə''
|-
| mya
| trade; to trade
| ''mei''
|-
| mwa
| skin
| ''mou''
|-
| mweddu
| number; quantity
| ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| mweru
| narrow
| ''mouru''
|-
| myebił
| pastry; cookie
| dim. of ''myebim''
|-
| myebim
| cake
| {{Aedh|mjebim}} "dough"
|-
| myeg
| day
| ''mæg'' "today"
|-
| myem
| seven
| ''mæm''
|-
| myessa
| cow
| ''mæsa''
|-
| myoł [pl. ''myołk'']
| to read
| ''meil''
|-
| myosko
| drunk
| {{Ndd|myåsko}} "to party"
|-
| nadɨ
| in; at
| ''nadír''
|-
| nadɨlo
| secret; hidden
| ''nadírlo''
|-
| nadyog
| to put in
| ''nadír egág''
|-
| nanu
| to separate; cut
| ''naonu''
|-
| nañga
| split; schism
| ''naoŋga''
|-
| naplekɨ
| goodbye (formal)
| ''enouplu-ekúi'' < ''enóun pein lu-ekúi'' "go with blessing"
|-
| naro
| horse (arch. or poetic)
| ''narór''
|-
| [koya] Nasomo
| the Æðadĕ language
| partial calque of {{Aedh|Gujĕ æx Somo}} "language of Lasomo"
|-
| nazdya
| next to; touching
| ''na-zdeiŋ'' "at the fingers"
|-
| nazyoł
| among; between
| ''na-zegól'' "at the feet"
|-
| nełdzen
| to tweak; adjust
| ''neljæn'' "to twist"
|-
| negge
| (the) best
| ''nege'' "the most"
|-
| nes
| sick; ill
| ''neos''
|-
| nił
| nine
| ''nil''
|-
| niñi
| pointless
| {{Ndd|ni'ñi}} "pointlessly"
|-
| nɨlo
| mass grave
| ''niogalo'' "battlefield"
|-
| nɨma
| condescending
| ''nuəma'' "to boast"
|-
| nɨs
| to cheat
| ''nuəš''
|-
| nɨya
| war
| ''nioga''
|-
| nobbe
| dark red (esp. as a heraldic color)
| ''nabe''
|-
| nobwima
| clay
| ''nabe wimə'' "red mud"
|-
| nogga
| pagan god
| ''nagə''
|-
| nogga
| interior; room
| ''naga'' "inner"
|-
| noggu
| bear (animal)
| ''nagu''
|-
| nogya
| paganism
| ''nogga'' + -''ya''
|-
| nokwi
| (a) fur
| {{Bur|nakwi}}
|-
| nokwimya
| fur trade
| ''nokwi'' + ''mya''
|-
| noł
| mouse
| {{Ndd|nål}}
|-
| nołñu
| to clean (one's house); tidy up
| ''naluŋuh'' "to arrange; organize"
|-
| nom
| small
| Coastal Ndd. ''nam''
|-
| nonnanu
| to cut into small pieces
| ''nom'' + ''nanu''
|-
| nora
| to exit (from a building)
| {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noskɨ
| to take off; remove
| ''naskuy'' "exile; cast out"
|-
| noyo
| work; job
| ''naei''
|-
| noyu
| noodles (now a staple)
| ''nayu''
|-
| nozza
| east
| ''nazə''
|-
| nubazzi
| religious epiphany; enlightenment
| ''nubázi'' (reborrowing)
|-
| nweło
| street
| ''noulo''
|-
| nwen [pl. ''nweñk'']
| to go; leave
| ''noun''
|-
| nwentsi
| to forget
| reflexive of ''noun'' "to go"
|-
| nyedde
| to feel (an emotion); intuit
| ''enǽde''
|-
| nyemmu
| red
| ''næmuh'' "orange"
|-
| ñabba
| toe
| ''ŋeibə''
|-
| ñadde
| to clean
| ''ŋeide'' "to wipe"
|-
| ñadɨbu
| dog
| ''ŋa-duəbu'' "sniffer"
|-
| ñagosso
| leather
| {{NAis|ngagôstad}}
|-
| ñalazbod
| confusing (esp. visually)
| ''ŋalər zebód'' "too many colors"
|-
| ñanɨma
| jerk; asshole
| ''ŋa-nuəma'' "boaster"
|-
| ñassis
| traitor; enemy
| ''ŋastís'' "villain"
|-
| Ñe
| title for women; "Mrs."/"Ms."
| ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ñegłu
| to accompany
| {{Bur|ñedɛlu}}
|-
| ñenne
| neck
| ''ŋæne''
|-
| ñi
| two
| ''ŋi''
|-
| ñɨbuł
| needle
| ''ŋiəbul''
|-
| ñɨne
| neurotic; overly cautious
| ''ŋuəne'' "prudent; cautious"
|-
| ñoł
| more
| ''ŋal'' "very"
|-
| ñołdzɨ
| tall
| ''ŋal jiə'' "very tall"
|-
| ñołyoł
| flood
| ''ŋalleil''
|-
| ñonne
| business connection
| {{Bur|ñanɛ}} "connection"
|-
| ñopsa
| thick; heavy
| ''ŋapšə''
|-
| Ñoru
| of the Ngauro people
| ''ŋouru'' (reborrowing)
|-
| ñosłok
| idiot
| ''ŋa-oslók'' "forgetter"
|-
| ñuffe
| cat
| ''ŋufew'' < {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñura
| brown
| ''ŋura''
|-
| Ñÿalo
| the city of Ñolo in Kasca
| ''Ŋourlo''
|-
| ñÿeru
| ancient
| ''ŋouru''
|-
| obbo
| peccadillo; misdemeanor
| {{Ndd|avå}} "break the law"
|-
| oddu
| to come
| ''odu''
|-
| odoł
| eye
| ''ordo'' + -''l''
|-
| odwa
| unclear
| ''adwə'' "dark"
|-
| odza
| to tell [a story]
| ''adulsə''
|-
| odzu
| story
| ''adulsu''
|-
| oggu
| happy
| ''agu''
|-
| ogło
| inn; lodging; (euph.) brothel
| ''odulo'' "destination"
|-
| ogyu
| expectation; to expect
| ''agiu'' "hope"
|-
| okmu
| wax
| ''akremu''
|-
| okrem
| seal; to seal closed
| back-formation from ''akremu''
|-
| olo
| ugly (of views; objects)
| {{Ndd|åilo}}
|-
| oł [pl. ''ołk'']
| to want; desire
| ''al''
|-
| ołdo
| to inherit
| ''oludo'' "deserve"
|-
| ołdu
| inheritance; property (land; money)
| ''oludu'' "deserts"
|-
| ołgo
| despite; against; than
| ''algo''
|-
| ołmo
| to steal; filch (esp. from a street vendor)
| {{Ndd|ålmo}}
|-
| ołna
| to not know
| ''olinə''
|-
| ołpo
| to build; to craft; a craft
| ''olpo'' "manufacture"
|-
| ołpu
| craftsman
| ''alpobu''
|-
| ołtoł
| storage area
| ''atelol''
|-
| Ołtu
| a river of central Huyfárah
| ''Oltu''
|-
| ombe
| thunder; to thunder
| ''abunde''
|-
| ombu
| criminal
| ''ammubu'' "thief"
|-
| oñan
| unreachable
| {{Ndd|ålña}} "to fly" + -''in''
|-
| oño
| crayfish
| {{Ndd|orñevo}}
|-
| oppał
| ear
| ''opə'' + -''l''
|-
| oppo
| fruit
| ''apo''
|-
| optu
| something unsettling; to be perturbed
| ''apridu'' "horror"
|-
| opwo
| a type of stew
| {{NAis|[seu od] ópôxeu}} "meat and fruit"
|-
| oreł
| to ignite
| {{Ndd|oreål}} "to catch fire"
|-
| osał
| to propose; suggest
| ''ošyal''
|-
| osawu
| human sacrifice
| ''oisawú'' < {{NAis|oisaxud}}
|-
| oso
| play a game
| {{Ndd|oiså}} "participate"
|-
| ospu
| chief (of a tribe); leader (of a work group, etc.); head (of a queue, etc.)
| ''ašubu'' "chieftain"
|-
| ossin
| heavy
| ''asin''
|-
| otte
| to guard
| ''ate'' "to keep"
|-
| ottebu
| a guard
| ''otte'' + -''bu''
|-
| ottu
| wealth
| ''atu'' "possession"
|-
| ottun
| wealthy
| ''ottu'' + -''in''
|-
| Oypawa
| Oigop'oibauxeu
| Æð. ''Ojpavaw''
|-
| pada
| valley
| ''pardə''
|-
| pagu
| horse
| {{Bur|pə’águ}} "pack horse"
|-
| peppe [stem ''-epeppe'']
| breast
| ''epépe''
|-
| pesen
| ready; alert
| ''pea ešen'' "readily act"
|-
| pi
| small thing; trifle
| ''pi'' "fingernail"
|-
| piggał
| main; primary
| ''pigəl'' "first"
|-
| piła
| to send
| ''pila''
|-
| piñña
| chicken
| {{Ndd|piña}}
|-
| pissił
| dead
| ''pišil'' "grey, pale"
|-
| pɨ
| child (collq.)
| ''pir'' "goat"
|-
| pɨdyemis
| understand; realize
| ''piədæmis''
|-
| połge
| orange (fruit)
| ''Palge'', a [[Kasca|Kascan]] city which exports oranges
|-
| ponda
| purple
| {{Ndd|panada}}
|-
| poppu
| disgust; to be disgusted
| ''popu'' "fear"
|-
| potsna
| to count
| ''pačuna''
|-
| potte
| to find; obtain
| ''epáte'' "to investigate; research"
|-
| pryen
| to design
| ''præn''
|-
| pubbɨt
| to attack
| ''pubiət'' "to threaten"
|-
| puwa
| nose
| ''puwə''
|-
| pwekku
| snub; slight; insult
| ''pouku'' "refuse; deny"
|-
| pwen
| island
| ''poun''
|-
| pya
| big; great
| ''pei''
|-
| pyen
| bite; chew; kiss (inf.)
| ''pæn''
|-
| pyodde
| loud
| ''peide''
|-
| Pyołas
| the continent on which Mɨdu is situated
| ''Peilaš''
|-
| pyombu
| (a) bourgeois; business owner
| ''pei meibu'' "big trader", but often explained as ''pyon-bu'' "with-person"
|-
| pyon
| with; having
| ''pein''
|-
| Pyopros
| the Poráš river
| ''pei'' "great" + ''Poráš''
|-
| pyossa [stem ''-epyossa'']
| fish
| ''epéiša''
|-
| pÿeggo
| waterfront
| {{Ndd|pyuego}} "dock"
|-
| pÿen [stem ''-epÿen'']
| ball; lump
| ''epoǽn''
|-
| rał
| to pour
| ''raul'' "to fill"
|-
| re
| smooth; flat; straight
| ''rewŋ''
|-
| rełga
| hot
| ''relga''
|-
| rełgło
| cauldron; cooking pot; stew
| ''relga'' + ''-lo''
|-
| rełsa
| caretaker; nurse
| ''roulə'' "care for" + -''sa''
|-
| reñał
| platform; deck [of a ship]; storey
| ''rewŋəl''
|-
| Reñło
| the plains of SW Huyfárah
| ''rewŋlo'' "plains"
|-
| rettsɨs
| menstruation
| ''rečiəs''
|-
| rezdowa
| to waste time
| {{Aedh|rwezidova}}
|-
| rɨna
| priest (non-Etúgəist)
| ''ruənah''
|-
| ro
| ten
| ''ro''
|-
| rołña
| to be insane
| {{Ndd|rålña}}
|-
| rodda
| to have; own
| ''roda''
|-
| roddu
| possessions; property
| ''rodu''
|-
| rote
| to eat (collq.)
| {{Aedh|rote}}
|-
| roznu
| voter
| ''rozaru''
|-
| rubbo
| to masturbate
| {{Ndd|ruvïvo}}
|-
| rubosso
| to haggle
| {{Ndd|rubåsto}} "be agressive"
|-
| rud
| member; citizen; person; man (arch.)
| ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rudza
| woman (somewhat formal)
| ''rud'' "man" + ''-sa''
|-
| russan [pl. ''rusnek'']
| to slander
| ''rušan'' "blame"
|-
| ryeddeł
| jar; container
| ''rædel''
|-
| ryeł [pl. ''ryełk'']
| to ride [a horse]
| ult. Gezoro *''rɜ̃lɛk''; final -''k'' re-analyzed as pl. suffix
|-
| ryen
| like; alike; as
| ''ræpen'' "instead of"
|-
| ryeñu
| instead of
| ''ræpen'' "instead of" + ''ouŋu'' "without"
|-
| ryeppu
| decoy; substitute
| ''ræpenbu'' "person instead of [someone else]"
|-
| ryettu
| to hear
| ''rætu''
|-
| ryommɨ
| earthquake
| ''reimur''
|-
| sadwa
| flatbread; sandwich
| {{Ndd|saodwa}}
|-
| seggan
| hurricane
| Coastal Ndd. ''segan''
|-
| sek
| name; nickname; word
| ''sek''
|-
| sekka
| to name; call
| ''seka''
|-
| seło
| hearth; cooking fire; stove; home (poetic)
| ''šælo''
|-
| sełsa
| dragonfly
| ''selo'' "spear" + ''-sa''
|-
| senat
| minister; official
| ''sernat''
|-
| sesan
| seventh day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''seošan''
|-
| sessɨ
| to crown a ruler (in a monarchy)
| ''šesuy''
|-
| sestsinte
| genealogy
| ''seziči'' "to be born" + -''nte'' (calque of {{Aedh|sīramĕd}})
|-
| Setek
| a city
| ''Sertek''
|-
| setim
| discuss; argue
| ''eséotim''
|-
| settsin
| profitable; fortunate
| ''sečasin''
|-
| siggił [pl. ''siglek'']
| to urinate
| ''sigil''
|-
| siło
| tooth
| ''silo''
|-
| sipa
| crab-claw sail
| [[Takuña]] ''sîpa''
|-
| sipagas
| type of ship
| ''sipa'' + ''gaos'' "boat"
|-
| sira
| prostitute
| back-formation from ''siralo'' < {{Ndd|siddalo}} "brothel"
|-
| sis
| mangy animal; cur; general insult
| ''sis'' "dog"
|-
| sissa
| general insult/profane exclamation
| ''sissa'' "female dog" and/or {{Ndd|sisha}} "piss"
|-
| sisyozza
| tomorrow [morning]
| ''si-seiza'' "that morning"
|-
| sɨn [pl. ''sɨñk'']
| to drink
| ''siən''
|-
| sɨnsɨ
| the day after tomorrow
| ''sur na-sur'' "the tomorrow of tomorrow"
|-
| sɨs
| good; kind (of actions or temperament)
| ''šuys'' "merciful, compassionate"
|-
| sɨso
| last night
| ''si-išo'' "that night"
|-
| sɨts
| both; each
| ''siəč'' "separate; apart"
|-
| slora
| to briefly forget
| {{Ndd|sloira}}
|-
| smoło
| gossip
| {{Ndd|smalo}} "seamstress' parlor"
|-
| smote
| farm
| irregular abbr. of ''musmate'' "agriculture"
|-
| smotebu
| farmer
| ''smote'' + -''bu''
|-
| snon
| land; ground
| {{Ndd|snan}}
|-
| -so
| causative suffix
| ''soy'' "to cause"
|-
| sobren
| clever person
| {{Aedh|sovren}} "expert"
|-
| sołan
| fat
| {{Ndd|shalan}} "obese"
|-
| sos
| second day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''sos''
|-
| sossa
| woman
| ''sossa'' "nubile girl"
|-
| sotya
| false knowledge (of the physical world - Etúgə terminology)
| ''satugə''
|-
| sozzi
| onion
| {{Ndd|sazi}}
|-
| stobi
| funny appendages on hats - a fashion of the decadent 5th century
| ''s''- pl. + {{Ndd|tobi}} "antler"
|-
| suddzi
| olive oil
| ''suji'' "to press"
|-
| sussilos
| neighboring country
| ''sušin'' "neighbor" + ''los''
|-
| swa
| knee; corner; bend (in a road)
| ''souŋ''
|-
| swebło
| bag; sack
| {{Ndd|swëvlo}}
|-
| syep
| to perform; effect; emit; utter; give (of acts; emotions; etc)
| ''sæp'' "to give"
|-
| syet
| money
| ''sæt'' "gold"
|-
| syetya
| virtue; morality
| ''sætugə''
|-
| syos
| parasite
| ''seiš'' "louse"
|-
| syoskaya
| mist
| "morning-fog"
|-
| syozza
| morning
| ''seiza'' "dawn"
|-
| te
| with; by
| ''eté''
|-
| teg [stem -''eteg'']
| thicket; cluster; patch; scattered group
| ''etéwg'' "forest"
|-
| tekka
| large crowd
| ''teka'' "army"
|-
| tid
| flea; speck
| ''tid''
|-
| tiddin
| small; slight; insignificant
| ''tid'' "flea" + ''-in''
|-
| tikwa
| anchor
| ''tikóu'' "stone"
|-
| tikweł
| stone; rock
| ''tikóu'' + -''l''
|-
| tɨ
| door
| ''tir''
|-
| tɨdu [stem -''etɨdu'']
| metal
| ''etíədu''
|-
| tɨnsał
| moment; second
| ''tiəŋišəl'' dim. of "flash; spark"
|-
| tɨñño
| stone (material)
| {{Ndd|tïño}}
|-
| tɨpas
| frame; doorway
| ''tir'' "door" + ''paš'' "socket"
|-
| toł
| light (n.), lamp; to shine; set alight
| ''tol''
|-
| Toło
| a member of the ethnic subgroup that follows Epɨmya
| ''Talo''
|-
| tos
| lawful; legal
| ''taš''
|-
| tosse
| around; surrounding; during
| ''etáše''
|-
| tottsa
| older sister
| ''tača''
|-
| tsa [pl. ''tsaññek'']
| to walk
| ''čeiŋ''
|-
| tsak
| king
| ''čaok''
|-
| tsanizzu
| outlaw; exile; fugitive
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''čanizzu''
|-
| tsanno
| to ask
| ''čeino''
|-
| tsapso
| to sneeze
| ''tsap'' (imit.) + ''-so''
|-
| tse
| one
| ''če''
|-
| tsebu
| student
| ''čeobu''
|-
| tsek
| to cast; scatter
| ''ček'' "throw''
|-
| tsełts
| danger; risk
| ''čelč''
|-
| tsemmał
| religious school; sect; faction
| ''ičǽməl'' "study; knowledge"
|-
| tsennu
| fire
| ''čæn'' "fire" + -''u''
|-
| tsenso
| to embarrass
| ''čæn'' "to burn" + -''so''
|-
| tsessum
| insignificant; pompous; over-stuffed
| ''čæšum'' "powerful; great" (via sarcastic usage)
|-
| tset
| to go bad (of milk etc.); perish; expire
| ''ečét'' "to wilt"
|-
| tsił
| barley
| ''čil''
|-
| tsiłsɨn
| beer
| "barley-drink" (calque from {{Ndd|sågïl}})
|-
| tsittsi
| lightning
| ''čičih''
|-
| tsɨpał
| denounce; curse
| ''čiəpal'' "whine; rant"
|-
| tsɨssɨnza
| barely make it through
| {{Ndd|cïstïnza}} "rough it"
|-
| tsɨza
| respectful address for a woman (an archaism); "milady"
| ''æč ioza'' "my lady"
|-
| tsoro
| junk; worthless stuff
| {{Ndd|coddo}} "dust"
|-
| tsure
| some other time [to avoid commitment]
| {{Ndd|cure}} "tomorrow"
|-
| twa
| lake
| ''tou''
|-
| twełyo
| duck
| ''tou'' "lake" + ''lei'' "bird"
|-
| twen
| hand
| ''toun''
|-
| twen
| thin; slim
| ''otóun''
|-
| tyeddi
| house; building; dwelling
| ''tædi'' "shelter"
|-
| tyem
| south
| ''tæm''
|-
| tyoñgas
| punt (used for transportation on Mɨdu's canals)
| ''teiŋgas''
|-
| tyossał
| pudenda (polite)
| ''teiš'' "fold" + -''l''
|-
| tyottu
| wide
| ''teitu''
|-
| Uboz
| the Ndak mother goddess (Ombási)
| ''Ubáz''
|-
| uggas
| storm
| ''ugaš'' "be a storm"
|-
| uła
| lift; pick up
| ''ulə''
|-
| ułga
| taste
| ''ulgə''
|-
| uksɨ
| to conspire; plot (a crime)
| ''ukšúy'' "to covet, long for the forbidden"
|-
| uro
| hostile; belligerent
| {{Ndd|uddo}}
|-
| ussa
| hello
| source equivalent to {{Ndd|usa}}
|-
| Usso
| the old capital of Huyfárah
| ''Ussor''
|-
| uyo
| after
| ''ugə''
|-
| wamyeg
| today
| ''wa-mæg'' "this today"
|-
| waso
| tonight
| ''wa-išo'' "this night"
|-
| wasyozza
| this morning
| ''wa-seiza''
|-
| wedde
| vegetable
| ''wede''
|-
| weddɨbye
| pickle (typically of root vegetables)
| ''wede diəbæŋ'' "vegetable-preserve"
|-
| weddza
| vixen; seductress
| ''oudisa'' "witch"
|-
| wegga
| in back of
| ''ougə''
|-
| wemmoł
| younger sister
| ''oumol''
|-
| wemmu
| older or distinguished woman, "lady"
| ''oumu'' "mother"
|-
| weñña
| ugly
| ''ouŋa'' "vulgar"
|-
| weñu
| without; except; but
| ''ouŋu''
|-
| weñÿebu
| tired
| ''ouŋu eobu'' "without sleep"
|-
| weppu
| to remember
| ''oupu''
|-
| wes
| friend
| {{NAis|wêbes}}
|-
| wezzu
| yesterday
| ''ouzu''
|-
| wiło [nom. ''siło'']
| house
| ''wilo''
|-
| wimma [nom. ''simma'']
| marsh
| ''wimə'' "mud"
|-
| wizza
| to make a commotion
| ''wiza'' "to shout"
|-
| wizze
| feast
| {{Ndd|vize}}
|-
| wɨm
| to live
| ''wiəm''
|-
| wɨmba
| papyrus
| {{Ndd|wïmva}}
|-
| wɨnseło
| grill; to grill
| ''wiəmu šælo'' "over the hearth"
|-
| wɨñgwe
| bridge
| ''wiəmu gou'' "over-road"
|-
| wɨñÿeło
| city canal
| ''wiəŋ noulo'' "wet street"
|-
| wobba
| to strike (with an object)
| ''wabə'' "to hit"
|-
| woddeł [pl. ''wodlek'']
| to wear (clothing)
| ''wodel''
|-
| wogga
| peace; quiet
| ''wagah''
|-
| wogyo
| shellfish
| {{Ndd|wogïño}} "shell"
|-
| Wołdulas
| the Fáralo kingdom centered on [[Ussor]]
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''Woldulaš''
|-
| woñoł
| shoe
| {{Ndd|woñol}} "boot"
|-
| wos
| to bury
| ''waš'' "to dig"
|-
| wos
| three
| ''wos''
|-
| wossats
| trireme
| ''wozgatač''
|-
| wosse
| this one; this person
| ''waše''
|-
| wozzon [pl. ''woznek'']
| to mess up
| {{Ndd|wåzon}} "to sneeze"
|-
| wuł
| country villa
| {{Aedh|vul}} "estate"
|-
| wuggu
| to cast blame; find guilty
| ''wugu''
|-
| yak
| all
| ''ege'' "all" + ''ak'' "them"
|-
| yane
| hidden; unclear; bizarre
| ''eione'' "obscure"
|-
| yanente
| esoteric study; mysticism
| ''eione'' "obscure" + -''mate''
|-
| yati
| week; calendar
| ''eioti'' "day"
|-
| yebba
| cool-witted; practical; smart
| ''æba'' "sober"
|-
| yedda
| corpse
| ''æda''
|-
| yedde
| to stand
| ''æde''
|-
| yegłu
| city; town
| ''ædelu''
|-
| yekka
| air
| ''ækə''
|-
| yemmał
| fly (insect)
| ''æməl''
|-
| yenna
| hungry
| ''æna''
|-
| yeñało
| army
| ''æŋéilo'' "military"
|-
| yestsoł
| bird
| {{Ndd|yësco}} "songbird" + ''-l''
|-
| yegwebbu
| rebel; deviant
| ''ægóubu'' "eccentric"
|-
| yettu
| old; former
| ''ætu''
|-
| Yetwa
| a district of Mɨdu
| ''ætu aə'' "old swamp"
|-
| yob
| green
| abbr. of ''yobbał'' < ''eibəl''
|-
| yobbin
| very cold
| ''eib'' "to freeze" + ''-in''
|-
| yobbɨ
| to swim
| ''eibur''
|-
| yodda
| spring (season)
| ''eibidə''
|-
| yodÿetti
| waterfall
| ''eidu æti'' "falling river"
|-
| yog
| put down; put away
| ''egág'' "to put"
|-
| Yogga
| the [[Aiwa|Eigə River]]
| ''Eigə''
|-
| yoha
| stupid
| {{NAis|ixoha}}
|-
| yokka
| animal
| ''eikə''
|-
| yokku
| to slaughter [an animal]
| ''eiku'' "to kill" - meaning influenced by ''yokka''
|-
| yoł [stem -''eyoł'']
| foot, base
| ''egól''
|-
| yorya
| string
| {{Ndd|yaddiga}}
|-
| yossi
| saw (tool)
| {{Ndd|yasi}} or {{Ad|iāsi}}
|-
| yoweł
| west
| ''eiwəl''
|-
| yoz
| to paint
| ''eiz''
|-
| yozzu
| paint, dye (n.)
| ''eiz'' + -''u''
|-
| ÿa
| wrong; no
| ''yeÿá'' < ''ægóu'' "wrong"
|-
| ÿem
| right (side)
| ''oæm''
|-
| ÿeppum
| useless
| ''wæpum'' "hollow"
|-
| ÿere
| to love; enjoy
| ''wære''
|-
| ÿeta
| of; for; about
| ''wætə''
|-
| ÿoł
| below; under
| ''wægól''
|-
| ÿoło
| garden; park
| ''weilo''
|-
| ÿosso
| now
| ''weišo''
|-
| zera
| copper
| {{Ad|zēra}}
|-
| zetsan
| pig
| {{Aedh|zæþṇ}}
|-
| zguruł
| intestines
| (pl. of ''guru'' "intestines" + ''-l'')
|-
| zi
| apple
| Miwan ''zi''
|-
| zin
| wine
| {{Ndd|zin}}
|-
| zmebło
| countryside
| (pl. of ''mebelo'' "farm")
|-
| znyoñɨbɨ
| tea; tisane
| ''zneiŋə hiəbur'' "to boil leaves"
|-
| zodwen
| face
| ''[lu-mabe] zordo-oun'' "the mouth and eyes"
|-
| zułk
| cheese
| {{Aedh|zūlx}}
|-
| zuma
| to loiter
| {{Aedh|zūma}} "to wait"
|-
| zyetya
| immorality
| ''huzyetya'' < ''huzǽtugə''
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Namɨdu/Lexicon

2013-02-21T23:16:22Z

Dunomapuka: /* Lexicon of Namɨdu */

==Lexicon of Namɨdu==

'''See also:'''
* [[Namɨdu|Namɨdu grammar]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* WF = [[Woltu Falla]]
* Æð. = [[Æðadĕ]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* unmarked = [[Fáralo]]

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! '''Namɨdu Word'''
! '''Definition'''
! '''Etymon'''
|-
| aba
| mason; metalworker
| ''aoba''
|-
| akodag
| a sweet wine from [[Lasomo]]
| from the city of ''Akôdaig''
|-
| alo
| swamp
| ''aə'' "swamp" + ''-lo''
|-
| ała
| flower
| ''alóu''
|-
| Andok
| of the Ndok people
| ''əndók'' < {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| Andokasa
| the Ndok Aisô language
| ''əndokáisə'' < {{NAis|Ndok Aisô}}
|-
| alegdu
| constitution; contract
| ''alégadu''
|-
| anyen
| dry
| ''anǽn''
|-
| areł
| politics
| back-formation from ''arełbu''
|-
| arełbu
| politician
| ''arélibu'' "dissident"
|-
| asezzuł [pl. ''asezlek'']
| conquer
| ''as ezul'' "utterly take"
|-
| awobbo
| unhappy
| ''avávo'' "poor"
|-
| aya
| anxiety
| ''aogə'' "uncertainty"
|-
| Azbyebbu
| a city
| ''As Bǽbu'' "many anchors"
|-
| azin
| sophisticated
| {{Aedh|āz}} "city dweller" + ''-in''
|-
| babde
| uncle (father's older brother)
| ''baobadew''
|-
| badał
| statue
| from dim. of ''Baodan'', a 4th c. emperor
|-
| balɨ
| fifth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''baoluy''
|-
| Banoggo
| a city
| ''Barnágo''
|-
| bes
| first day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''bewš''
|-
| bible
| to massage
| {{Ndd|bivle}} "to touch gently"
|-
| biddzi
| leg
| *''biji'' < {{Ndd|bizri}}
|-
| bissa
| practical knowledge; to teach it
| ''bista'' < {{Aedh|biþta}} "to educate"
|-
| bɨda
| to be convinced; to take advice
| ''buədə'' "to listen"
|-
| bɨdaso
| to persuade; persuasion
| "cause to be convinced"
|-
| boddał
| grape
| {{Ndd|badal}} "berry"
|-
| bodde
| father
| ''badew''
|-
| bomma
| wheat; wheat flour
| ''bomə''
|-
| bop [stem ''-ebop'']
| chant (n.)
| ''ebóp'' "music"
|-
| borda
| to buy
| {{Ndd|bårëda}} "to acquire"
|-
| borɨ
| to appoint
| ''baruy''
|-
| bos
| calm; content
| ''bas''
|-
| bosse
| large branch; spine
| ''baše''
|-
| boÿon
| landlord
| {{Ndd|båwayån}} "lord"
|-
| bu
| four
| ''bu''
|-
| bura
| to decide; pick; vote
| ''ebúrə''
|-
| but
| near
| ''but''
|-
| bwes
| ox
| ''bous''
|-
| bwettsa
| daughter
| ''boéča''
|-
| Bwɨba
| [[Bwimbai]] (river); [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] (esp. in historical contexts)
| ''Boíəba''
|-
| bwogge
| to stir; mix
| ''boáge'' "push; impel"
|-
| byenna
| to ask
| ''bæna'' "to beg"
|-
| byenyoło
| non-Etúgə temple
| ''bænéilo''
|-
| byopsa
| vagina (somewhat impolite); all-purpose insult
| ''beibulsa''
|-
| byottsa
| leg (metaphorical); branch of a river
| ''beiča''
|-
| bÿa
| star
| ''boéi''
|-
| bÿonte
| astronomy
| ''boéimate''
|-
| bÿoya
| declination (of a star); latitude
| ''boéiægə''
|-
| bÿossi
| chaos
| ''boéisti'' "orgy"
|-
| dadan [pl. ''dadnak'']
| to dance
| ''daodan''
|-
| darud
| man (somewhat formal)
| ''dau'' "male" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| deło
| stage; porch; broad staircase
| ''edélo'' "theater; stage"
|-
| debło
| autumn; fall
| ''edébelo''
|-
| demu
| to hunt
| ''dewmuh''
|-
| deññeł
| finger
| {{Ndd|dëñe}} + -''l''
|-
| dettsin
| ink
| (from the name of a flower)
|-
| didda
| improbable
| ''dida'' "possible"
|-
| dizza
| stuff; pieces
| {{Ndd|diza-diza}}
|-
| dɨbo
| lard
| ''diəbo'' "fat, oil"
|-
| dɨlo
| secret; hidden thing
| back-formation from ''nadɨlo'' "hidden"
|-
| dobba
| white
| ''daba''
|-
| dobzyet
| silver
| ''daba'' "white" + ''syet'' "gold"
|-
| doggɨ
| to be in charge; command; host
| ''daguy'' "host"
|-
| Dok
| foreigner, but esp. the peoples of Kasca; (collq.) poor schmuck
| ''Edák''; but felt as the second element of ''Andok'', ''Doydok''
|-
| dorats
| lunch; dinner (large midday meal)
| ''dorač''
|-
| dos
| to pursue; sneak attack
| ''das'' "fight"
|-
| Doya
| Ndak paganism
| {{Ndd|Dï'aya}}
|-
| Doydok
| the Dāiadak people (archaic)
| ''dayadok''
|-
| dukkas
| teacher
| ''dukəs''
|-
| dumbi
| stray animal
| {{Aedh|dūmvi}} "homeless; stray"
|-
| dwa
| five
| ''dou''
|-
| dwemma
| glass
| ''doumah''
|-
| dya
| thumb
| ''deiŋ'' "finger"
|-
| dye
| hill
| ''dæŋ'' "mountain"
|-
| Dyeññał
| a hill and district in Mɨdu
| ''dæŋəl'' "little hill"
|-
| dyempɨ
| goat
| ''dæŋ pir'' "mountain-goat"
|-
| dyok
| haunted
| back-formation from ''dyokło''
|-
| dyokło
| haunted area
| ''deiklo''
|-
| dyonne
| facility; skill
| ''deine'' "smarts; cunning"
|-
| dyop
| punk, insolent youngster
| ''deip'' "young (of an animal)"
|-
| dzappa
| insult
| ''jeipə''
|-
| dzeddze
| that one; that person
| ''jæje''
|-
| dzegga
| belligerent
| ''jægə'' "wrathful"
|-
| dzen
| knife
| ''jæn''
|-
| dzes
| maybe
| ''ješ'' "probably"
|-
| dzibbe
| evil
| ''jibe'' "bad"
|-
| dzibbɨs
| to wheeze
| ''jibe uəš'' "badly breathe"
|-
| dzɨku
| strong
| ''jiəku'' "hard"
|-
| dzɨna
| slow
| ''jiwnə''
|-
| dzɨnaba
| ironsmith
| ''dzɨni'' + ''aba''
|-
| dzɨni
| iron
| ''jiənih''
|-
| dzombu
| traveler
| ''dzoññu'' + ''-bu''
|-
| dzoññu
| to travel
| ''jaŋu'' "to move"
|-
| dzoritsi
| to wake up
| ''jori'' "awaken" + ''-tsi'' reflexive
|-
| ebe
| short
| ''ebewr''
|-
| ebu
| to sleep
| ''eobu''
|-
| ebyeru
| tree bark
| ''ebǽru''
|-
| ebyeruł
| husk of a fruit
| ''ebǽru'' + -''l''
|-
| edastan
| of the Edastean peoples
| reborrowing of ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" + -''n''
|-
| eddenilos
| holy land (a formulation of some religious texts)
| ''edewnin'' "holy" + ''los''
|-
| Edossa
| the [[Naidda]] language
| ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" (latter is now ''Ñÿeru Edossa'')
|-
| edya
| tree
| ''edéi''
|-
| edyołas
| forest
| ''edéi'' + ''laš''
|-
| Edzada
| the Æðadĕ language; or one of its speakers (collq. and slightly despective)
| {{Aedh|Æðadĕ}}
|-
| egyottsa
| stairs
| ''egéi čeiŋ'' "up-walk"
|-
| ekɨ
| blessing; third day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''ekúi''
|-
| Eklodo
| [[Akelodo]], the largest city of Lasomo
| {{Aedh|Æxloðo}}
|-
| ełpe
| to melt (intr.)
| ''elpe''
|-
| ełpso
| to melt (tr.); heat up
| ''elpe'' + -''so''
|-
| ente
| to be unsure
| ''eomate'' "to guess"
|-
| Entsełde
| historical name for Akelodo
| ''Enčélade''
|-
| epa
| likeness
| ''ewpa'' "statue"
|-
| epał
| figurine
| ''ewpa'' "statue" + ''-l''
|-
| epe
| to sit; stay
| ''epé''
|-
| Epɨm
| a follower of Epɨmya in the religious sense, cf. Toło
| ''epúonim'' "heathen"
|-
| Epɨmya
| the religion of the Epɨm
| ''Epɨm'' + -''ya''
|-
| eppa
| light; easy
| ''epaf''
|-
| eps
| destruction; to destroy
| ''epš''
|-
| epsło
| encampment
| ''epšilo'' "ruins"
|-
| ero
| nasty (of behavior; weather; events)
| {{Ndd|eddor}} "caustic"
|-
| es
| six
| ''eš''
|-
| esko
| hospitable
| {{Aedh|æþko}}
|-
| essen [pl. ''esnek'']
| to act; behave
| ''ešen''
|-
| etsa
| to lose [a game; battle]
| ''eočeiŋ'' "to stumble"
|-
| Etugga
| the Etúgə religion
| ''Etúgə''
|-
| Etugenna
| the Etúgə world
| ''Etúgə'' + ''-enna''
|-
| ewa
| snake
| ''ewa''
|-
| fissas
| criminal (n.)
| ''fistaš'' "unlawful"
|-
| fogga
| make; create
| ''foga''
|-
| foggał
| small artwork; knicknack
| ''foga'' "create" + -''l''
|-
| fogło
| store; shop
| ''fogalo'' "workshop"
|-
| Forło
| a Fáralo language, or simply "language"; of Fáralo culture
| ''Fáralo''
|-
| forłobu
| a Fáralo person (male)
| ''forło'' + -''bu''
|-
| forłosa
| a Fáralo person (female)
| ''forło'' + -''sa''
|-
| gas
| boat
| ''gaos''
|-
| gets
| fourth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''geoč''
|-
| gitsa-gitsa
| wait a minute (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| gɨppi
| to answer; reply
| ''guətu ebí'' "therefore say"
|-
| go [pl. ''gohek'']
| to reject; dismiss
| ''gah'' "to mock"
|-
| goffats
| crime
| ''gafač''
|-
| gonnin
| elder brother
| ''gonin''
|-
| gossu
| rabbit
| ''gašu''
|-
| gottats
| galley
| ''gatač''
|-
| gotte
| wood
| ''gate''
|-
| gotteł
| floor
| ''gatel'' "board"
|-
| gubbe
| to let go; let out (from)
| ''gube'' "to survive; escape"
|-
| gurima
| to betray
| {{Aedh|gujrima}}
|-
| gwa
| road
| ''gou''
|-
| gwedda
| dream
| ''goudah''
|-
| gwegga
| to break; rip
| ''gouga''
|-
| gyo
| to; at
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyorit
| until
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyopsa
| sheep
| ''geipša''
|-
| hadɨ
| out; outside of
| ''hadír''
|-
| handya
| small town; village
| {{Aedh|hānðjĕ}}
|-
| Hayibbał
| the Fáralo sphere (comprising former Huyfárah)
| ''Hagíbəl''
|-
| hebben
| mumble
| ''heben''
|-
| hebu
| single; particular; specific
| ''hewbu'' "solitary"
|-
| hesom
| coat
| {{Aedh|hesom}} "outer garment"
|-
| hessara
| to organize; sort; tidy up
| {{Aedh|hestara}}
|-
| hewe
| water, liquid
| ''hewe''
|-
| hinna
| to lie
| {{Aedh|himna}}
|-
| hisłu
| son
| ''hislu'' "heir"
|-
| Hissɨna
| northeastern Peilaš, beyond Huyfárah
| ''Histuənə'' "[[Siixtaguna]]"
|-
| hitya
| the physical world (Etúgə terminology)
| ''hitugə''
|-
| hɨbɨ
| to cook
| ''hiəbur'' "to boil"
|-
| hɨbu
| frog
| *''hiəbu'' < ''hiebu''
|-
| hɨm
| cloud
| ''hiəm''
|-
| hɨnsa
| to fix; tend to
| ''huənšar'' "help; aid"
|-
| hɨte
| strange; disconcerting
| ''hiəteŋ'' "different"
|-
| Hɨwora
| the old Fáralo nation; the entire Fáralo sphere (obs.)
| ''Huyfárah''
|-
| ho
| meat
| ''ha''
|-
| hob
| to eat
| ''hab''
|-
| hobasa
| esophagus
| ''hab'' "to eat" + ''harsa'' "tube"
|-
| hodzan
| mountain pass
| {{Aedh|xōðan}}
|-
| hokez
| caveat
| {{Aedh|xokez}}
|-
| hołnadu
| republic
| ''halenadu''
|-
| howe
| broth
| ''ho hewe'' "meat-water"
|-
| howen
| food
| ''[mik] ha-oun'' "bread and meat"
|-
| hudde
| eight
| ''hude''
|-
| Huppa
| Sútapaj, a philosopher/saint of the Etúgə tradition
| ''Hutaba''
|-
| huz
| rat
| ''huz'' "mouse"
|-
| hwa
| beach
| ''hou'' "coast"
|-
| hwezzu
| left (side)
| ''houzuŋ''
|-
| hya
| blue
| ''hei''
|-
| hyoł
| foreign country; unknown place
| ''heil'' "foreign"
|-
| hyołbu
| foreigner
| ''heil'' + -''bu''
|-
| hyomma
| wait; delay
| ''heimə''
|-
| hyotte
| correct
| ''heite'' "neat; proper"
|-
| ibbał
| north
| ''ibəl''
|-
| ibbe
| handle; use; operate
| ''ibe'' "touch; use"
|-
| ibbu
| weapon
| ''ibu'' "tool"
|-
| idɨ
| sea; ocean
| ''idúəŋ''
|-
| idɨnda
| fisherman
| ''idúəŋ-dau'' "sea-man"
|-
| idɨño
| salt
| ''idúəŋ-oa'' "sea-salt"
|-
| idÿe
| arm
| ''idwæ''
|-
| iłseza
| morning glory
| {{Ndd|ilseza}}
|-
| iłts
| black
| ''ilč''
|-
| iłtsaz
| to forbid
| ''ilč eiz'' "paint black"
|-
| iłtsazin
| forbidden
| ''iłtsaz'' + ''-in''
|-
| Iłtsizɨme
| the river that runs through Mɨdu
| ''Ilčizúəme'', from local Ndd. *''ilči sume'' "black water"
|-
| igga
| unknown thing; thingamajig
| ''igə'' "which one"
|-
| igri
| receive; let in; tolerate; put in place
| ''igrih'' "absorb; dissolve"
|-
| ippa
| to taste; smell
| ''ipah'' "to perceive"
|-
| ippi
| liver
| ''ipi''
|-
| irło
| window
| ''iru'' "to open" + ''-lo''
|-
| isa
| before
| ''isə''
|-
| isezzuł
| to put forth; take; hold
| ''isə ezul'' "take before"
|-
| issape
| summer; (metaphorically) flourishing; success
| ''išaupe''
|-
| isso
| cotton
| {{Ndd|isceo}}
|-
| isyenna
| salvation; the spiritual world
| ''ifisænə''
|-
| Ittizan
| of the Hitatc peoples
| {{Ad|Itatizan}}
|-
| iznɨs
| gasp
| ''izin uəš'' "suddenly breathe"
|-
| ɨb
| month
| ''iəb''
|-
| ɨbweddu
| one hundred
| ''iəb'' + ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| ɨda
| term of address for men; "sir"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''dau'' "male"
|-
| ɨdołyog
| sunset; dusk
| ''iodol'' "sun" + ''egág'' "put [down]"
|-
| ɨdruła
| sunrise; dawn
| *ɨdłuła < ''iodol'' "sun" + ''ulə'' "rise"
|-
| ɨlo
| non-Etúge person
| ''uwlo'' "barbarian"
|-
| ɨmya
| yellow
| ''uwméi''
|-
| ɨmyał
| egg yolk
| ''uwméi'' + ''-l''
|-
| ɨñe
| term of address for women; "ma'am"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ɨño
| to kill
| {{Ndd|ïño}}
|-
| ɨroppo
| vinegar
| ''ior apo'' "sour fruit"
|-
| ɨs
| to breathe
| ''uəš''
|-
| ɨsala
| noble house (in the northern states)
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''üšala''
|-
| ɨseło
| household; family; noble house (obs.)
| ''io šælo'' "noble hearth"
|-
| ɨta
| weigh; measure
| ''iətə'' "hang; suspend"
|-
| ɨzi
| pickled apple
| ''ior zi'' "sour apple"
|-
| kałto
| wind
| ''kaltó''
|-
| kattsa
| aunt
| ''kaotača''
|-
| katya
| gold
| {{Ad|kātia}}
|-
| kawu
| Etúgəist priest
| ''kəwú''
|-
| kaya
| fog
| ''kaogə''
|-
| kayoddin
| uncle (father's younger brother)
| ''kaogádin''
|-
| kaza-kaza
| leave me alone (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| kebbats
| supper (evening meal)
| ''kebač'' "dinner"
|-
| kełbo
| item of clothing
| {{Bur|kɛlbo}} "cloak"
|-
| kets
| angry; annoyed
| ''keoč''
|-
| Ketsenna
| the world
| ''Kečǽnə''
|-
| kettsem
| to bless; dedicate; honor [a ceremony]
| ''kečem''
|-
| kippa
| alcohol; booze
| ''kipa'' "rice alcohol"
|-
| Kɨkkałto
| the north wind
| ''kuət kaltó'' "demon wind"
|-
| kɨnzo
| good
| {{Ndd|kïnzo}} "kind"
|-
| kɨta
| demon
| ''kuət'' - with possible interference by {{Ndd|kwɨda}}
|-
| kodda
| to cover; paint over; a curtain
| ''kodə''
|-
| kodda
| to work tirelessly
| ''ekádə'' "to continue; persist"
|-
| kokło
| border
| ''kaklo''
|-
| koppe
| ages past; "way back when"
| ''kape'' "last year"
|-
| koya
| language
| {{Ad|koia}} "tongue"
|-
| Kozyad
| the nation of [[Kasca]]
| ''Kazəgad''
|-
| kozził [pl. ''kozlek'']
| to see; look at
| ''kazil''
|-
| kpɨma
| smoke
| ''kpuəma''
|-
| kreta
| to capture; seize goods
| ''kreota''
|-
| kros
| brave (esp. in warfare); mighty
| ''kraš''
|-
| kryewa
| breakfast
| ''kræwa'' "porridge"
|-
| ku
| spirit; mind
| ''ku''
|-
| kuffas
| Etúgəist temple
| ''kufas''
|-
| kukka
| hiccup
| ''kuka''
|-
| kumpeł
| tomb
| ''kumepél'' "graveyard"
|-
| kusryem
| olive
| ''kusræm''
|-
| kussu
| to cough
| ''kušu''
|-
| kuz
| book
| ''kuz'' "records; archives"
|-
| kuzło
| cabinet; bookshelf
| ''kuzlo'' "library; archive"
|-
| kwañopsi
| brooch
| {{Bur|kwəñápsi}}
|-
| kweñña
| ring (jewelry)
| {{Bur|kwɛña}}
|-
| kwin
| sacred
| ''kuin''
|-
| kwo
| awful, terrible
| {{Ndd|kwå}} "stinky"
|-
| kwodmał
| to break in (shoes, clothes)
| {{Ndd|kwado'mal}}
|-
| kwosso
| skin rash
| {{Ndd|kwashor}}
|-
| kwuła
| to speak
| ''kouwə ulə'' "raise the tongue"
|-
| kya [stem -''ekya'']
| egg
| ''ekéi''
|-
| kyedda
| ash
| ''kæda''
|-
| kyelin
| wool
| ''kænil'' "hair" + ''-in''
|-
| kyennił
| hair (coll.)
| ''kænil''
|-
| kyewe
| egg white
| ''ekéi hewe'' "egg-water"
|-
| kyołu
| tunic; shirt
| ''keilu''
|-
| kyonte
| medicine
| ''keipmate'' "herblore"
|-
| kyop
| grass
| ''keip''
|-
| kyopło
| field; meadow
| ''keipło'' "pasture"
|-
| kyozze
| snow
| ''keize''
|-
| lama
| tall
| ''laoma'' "long"
|-
| lasa
| hour
| by haplology from *''lāsāsa'' < ''laršaošə''
|-
| le
| question particle; yes (informal)
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| legga
| word (esp. as a formula or declaration)
| ''lega''
|-
| legyossa
| poetry; verse
| ''legéiša''
|-
| leł
| to write
| {{Ndd|lëål}}
|-
| lepeło
| throne
| ''lu-epélo'' "the chair"
|-
| les
| free (in legal sense); unattached; acting at will
| ''lews''
|-
| Lesfora
| [[Lewsfárah]], the southern Fáralo republican state
| ''lews'' "free" + ''-fárah'' from ''Huyfárah''
|-
| lesso
| to set free; liberate
| "cause to be free"
|-
| lestsa
| steady; resolute; undeterred
| ''lews čeiŋ'' "walking freely"
|-
| leswɨm
| free (politically)
| ''lews wiəm'' "living freely"
|-
| lette
| yes
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| lettse
| eighth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''lečew''
|-
| Lidɨ [Nanozza]
| the ocean to the east of Peilaš
| late {{Fá|lu-idúəŋ na-nazə}} "the eastern ocean"
|-
| liwu
| loser
| {{Aedh|lwīvu}}
|-
| lizyuł
| to shiver
| ''lizegu'' "to shake" + dim.
|-
| lɨdoł
| the sun
| ''lu-iodol''
|-
| lɨmu
| smile; be pleased
| ''liəmu''
|-
| lobba
| snub
| ''labaf'' "ignore"
|-
| lod
| good; honest
| ''lad'' "healthy"
|-
| lodzu
| history
| ''lu-adulsu'' "the story"
|-
| lołpo
| heal; cure
| ''lalpo''
|-
| lonte
| quackery; nonsensical practice
| ''ladmate'' "medicine"
|-
| Lonto
| the Ici Forest
| {{Bur|lo ntɔh}} "the forest"
|-
| loñeñga
| ceremony
| ''lu-oyŋǽŋga'' "something solemn"
|-
| los
| land; nation; region
| ''laš''
|-
| losał
| agreement; pact
| ''lu-ošyal'' "proposal"
|-
| Losmu
| the nation of Lasomo
| ''Lašumu''
|-
| loz
| to shut
| ''laz''
|-
| luboz
| sixth day of the week
| ''lu-ubáz''
|-
| Ludyoddin
| the god of the Epɨm
| ''lu-Deidin'' "the numinous"
|-
| lumessɨ
| Namɨdu (collq.)
| ''lu-'' + {{Ndd|mestïng}} "dialect"
|-
| lumbye
| to act foolishly
| ''luba mæ'' "believe a falsehood"
|-
| luñɨb
| the moon
| ''luŋ-iəb''
|-
| lusek
| personal name
| ''lu-sek'' "the name"
|-
| lyod
| year
| ''leid''
|-
| lyoło
| birdcage
| ''lei'' "bird" + -''lo''
|-
| lyosło
| winter
| ''leišolo'' "cold time"
|-
| lyosso
| boring
| ''leišo'' "cold"
|-
| lÿenna
| hunger
| ''lu-æna''
|-
| madottɨ
| to disapprove
| ''madátuy'' "not allow"
|-
| madzen
| something useless or ineffective
| ''mau jæn'' "dull knife"
|-
| male
| man, guy
| {{Ndd|malë}} "old man"
|-
| malusme
| houseboat
| {{Bur|mlusɔmɛ}}
|-
| mamma
| mother
| baby-talk formation
|-
| mappÿa
| astrolabe
| ''mateboéi''
|-
| mareła
| to ignore; neglect
| ''maróulə'' "not care for"
|-
| mas
| hammer
| ''marš''
|-
| masa
| cow milk
| {{NAis|maisa}}
|-
| masere
| to hate; despise
| ''mašǽre'' "not love"
|-
| masobba
| to miss; make a mistake
| ''mašábə'' "not hit"
|-
| mayuttsił
| to enjoy oneself; be leisurely; take one's time
| ''makúčil'' "not rush"
|-
| me
| to say (used for reported speech)
| {{Ndd|me}}
|-
| mede
| semen; to ejaculate
| ''meode'' "spurt; splatter"
|-
| mekot
| younger brother; subordinate
| ''meokát''
|-
| midzenna
| to have an affair
| ''midišǽna'' "to fornicate"
|-
| mezzeł
| greet; say hello
| ''mezel''
|-
| mik
| [loaf of] bread
| ''mik''
|-
| mipma
| drugs (as a raw substance)
| ''mipimə'' "dough"
|-
| mipi
| nothing
| ''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail"
|-
| mipoł
| impolite
| ''mipól'' "indecent"
|-
| mise
| to give
| ''mišǽf'' "to owe"
|-
| mitsen
| cold
| ''mi čæn'' "no fire"
|-
| mittsidde
| to bake
| ''mik ečíde'' "to cook bread"
|-
| mɨbzin
| primitive
| ''muəbazin'' "anarchic"
|-
| mɨdo
| blind
| ''miordo''
|-
| Mɨdu
| a major city
| ''Miədu''
|-
| mɨmisso
| to bewilder; enchant
| ''muymis'' "stupid" + ''-so''
|-
| mɨpa
| deaf
| ''miopə''
|-
| mo
| color
| {{Ndd|mo}}
|-
| mobbe
| mouth
| ''mabe''
|-
| moddesen
| violence; force
| ''made ešen'' "violent action"
|-
| modu
| chest
| ''mordu''
|-
| modu
| in front of
| ''umórdu''
|-
| moła
| full
| ''mola''
|-
| moła
| to choose
| ''molar'' "prefer"
|-
| mołna
| to notice
| ''molinə'' "to not not know"
|-
| moppał
| magnet; compass
| ''matibəl''
|-
| mospo
| penis
| {{Ndd|mospo}} (has lost rude connotations)
|-
| mossin
| urban; public; societal
| ''mastin'' "governmental; public" AND ''mosin'' "civilized; urban"
|-
| moswe
| harbor; port town
| ''mosou''
|-
| mots
| kitchen
| ''mač'' "table"
|-
| mottsud
| slave
| ''mačud''
|-
| motya
| the physically impossible (Etúgə terminology)
| ''matugə''
|-
| motyan
| impossible
| ''motya'' + ''-n''
|-
| mowe
| sex act
| {{Ndd|måwë}} "to fellate"
|-
| mu
| on; above
| *''wiəmú'' < ''wiəmu'' (stress shift via analogy with ''wægól'')
|-
| mubba
| worm
| ''muba''
|-
| mudzada
| to take drugs (esp. hallucinogens)
| {{Aedh|mūðada}}
|-
| muła
| ice
| ''mula''
|-
| mus
| grow, become
| ''mus''
|-
| mussuta
| ideology; belief
| ''mušidutə''
|-
| mya
| trade; to trade
| ''mei''
|-
| mwa
| skin
| ''mou''
|-
| mweddu
| number; quantity
| ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| mweru
| narrow
| ''mouru''
|-
| myebił
| pastry; cookie
| dim. of ''myebim''
|-
| myebim
| cake
| {{Aedh|mjebim}} "dough"
|-
| myeg
| day
| ''mæg'' "today"
|-
| myem
| seven
| ''mæm''
|-
| myessa
| cow
| ''mæsa''
|-
| myoł [pl. ''myołk'']
| to read
| ''meil''
|-
| myosko
| drunk
| {{Ndd|myåsko}} "to party"
|-
| nadɨ
| in; at
| ''nadír''
|-
| nadɨlo
| secret; hidden
| ''nadírlo''
|-
| nadyog
| to put in
| ''nadír egág''
|-
| nanu
| to separate; cut
| ''naonu''
|-
| nañga
| split; schism
| ''naoŋga''
|-
| naplekɨ
| goodbye (formal)
| ''enouplu-ekúi'' < ''enóun pein lu-ekúi'' "go with blessing"
|-
| naro
| horse (arch. or poetic)
| ''narór''
|-
| [koya] Nasomo
| the Æðadĕ language
| partial calque of {{Aedh|Gujĕ æx Somo}} "language of Lasomo"
|-
| nazdya
| next to; touching
| ''na-zdeiŋ'' "at the fingers"
|-
| nazyoł
| among; between
| ''na-zegól'' "at the feet"
|-
| nełdzen
| to tweak; adjust
| ''neljæn'' "to twist"
|-
| negge
| (the) best
| ''nege'' "the most"
|-
| nes
| sick; ill
| ''neos''
|-
| nił
| nine
| ''nil''
|-
| niñi
| pointless
| {{Ndd|ni'ñi}} "pointlessly"
|-
| nɨlo
| mass grave
| ''niogalo'' "battlefield"
|-
| nɨma
| condescending
| ''nuəma'' "to boast"
|-
| nɨs
| to cheat
| ''nuəš''
|-
| nɨya
| war
| ''nioga''
|-
| nobbe
| dark red (esp. as a heraldic color)
| ''nabe''
|-
| nobwima
| clay
| ''nabe wimə'' "red mud"
|-
| nogga
| pagan god
| ''nagə''
|-
| nogga
| interior; room
| ''naga'' "inner"
|-
| noggu
| bear (animal)
| ''nagu''
|-
| nogya
| paganism
| ''nogga'' + -''ya''
|-
| nokwi
| (a) fur
| {{Bur|nakwi}}
|-
| nokwimya
| fur trade
| ''nokwi'' + ''mya''
|-
| noł
| mouse
| {{Ndd|nål}}
|-
| nołñu
| to clean (one's house); tidy up
| ''naluŋuh'' "to arrange; organize"
|-
| nom
| small
| Coastal Ndd. ''nam''
|-
| nonnanu
| to cut into small pieces
| ''nom'' + ''nanu''
|-
| nora
| to exit (from a building)
| {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noskɨ
| to take off; remove
| ''naskuy'' "exile; cast out"
|-
| noyo
| work; job
| ''naei''
|-
| noyu
| noodles (now a staple)
| ''nayu''
|-
| nozza
| east
| ''nazə''
|-
| nubazzi
| religious epiphany; enlightenment
| ''nubázi'' (reborrowing)
|-
| nweło
| street
| ''noulo''
|-
| nwen [pl. ''nweñk'']
| to go; leave
| ''noun''
|-
| nwentsi
| to forget
| reflexive of ''noun'' "to go"
|-
| nyedde
| to feel (an emotion); intuit
| ''enǽde''
|-
| nyemmu
| red
| ''næmuh'' "orange"
|-
| ñabba
| toe
| ''ŋeibə''
|-
| ñadde
| to clean
| ''ŋeide'' "to wipe"
|-
| ñadɨbu
| dog
| ''ŋa-duəbu'' "sniffer"
|-
| ñagosso
| leather
| {{NAis|ngagôstad}}
|-
| ñalazbod
| confusing (esp. visually)
| ''ŋalər zebód'' "too many colors"
|-
| ñanɨma
| jerk; asshole
| ''ŋa-nuəma'' "boaster"
|-
| ñassis
| traitor; enemy
| ''ŋastís'' "villain"
|-
| Ñe
| title for women; "Mrs."/"Ms."
| ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ñegłu
| to accompany
| {{Bur|ñedɛlu}}
|-
| ñenne
| neck
| ''ŋæne''
|-
| ñi
| two
| ''ŋi''
|-
| ñɨbuł
| needle
| ''ŋiəbul''
|-
| ñɨne
| neurotic; overly cautious
| ''ŋuəne'' "prudent; cautious"
|-
| ñoł
| more
| ''ŋal'' "very"
|-
| ñołdzɨ
| tall
| ''ŋal jiə'' "very tall"
|-
| ñołyoł
| flood
| ''ŋalleil''
|-
| ñonne
| business connection
| {{Bur|ñanɛ}} "connection"
|-
| ñopsa
| thick; heavy
| ''ŋapšə''
|-
| Ñoru
| of the Ngauro people
| ''ŋouru'' (reborrowing)
|-
| ñosłok
| idiot
| ''ŋa-oslók'' "forgetter"
|-
| ñuffe
| cat
| ''ŋufew'' < {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñura
| brown
| ''ŋura''
|-
| Ñÿalo
| the city of Ñolo in Kasca
| ''Ŋourlo''
|-
| ñÿeru
| ancient
| ''ŋouru''
|-
| obbo
| peccadillo; misdemeanor
| {{Ndd|avå}} "break the law"
|-
| oddu
| to come
| ''odu''
|-
| odoł
| eye
| ''ordo'' + -''l''
|-
| odwa
| unclear
| ''adwə'' "dark"
|-
| odza
| to tell [a story]
| ''adulsə''
|-
| odzu
| story
| ''adulsu''
|-
| oggu
| happy
| ''agu''
|-
| ogło
| inn; lodging; (euph.) brothel
| ''odulo'' "destination"
|-
| ogyu
| expectation; to expect
| ''agiu'' "hope"
|-
| okmu
| wax
| ''akremu''
|-
| okrem
| seal; to seal closed
| back-formation from ''akremu''
|-
| olo
| ugly (of views; objects)
| {{Ndd|åilo}}
|-
| oł [pl. ''ołk'']
| to want; desire
| ''al''
|-
| ołdo
| to inherit
| ''oludo'' "deserve"
|-
| ołdu
| inheritance; property (land; money)
| ''oludu'' "deserts"
|-
| ołgo
| despite; against; than
| ''algo''
|-
| ołmo
| to steal; filch (esp. from a street vendor)
| {{Ndd|ålmo}}
|-
| ołna
| to not know
| ''olinə''
|-
| ołpo
| to build; to craft; a craft
| ''olpo'' "manufacture"
|-
| ołpu
| craftsman
| ''alpobu''
|-
| ołtoł
| storage area
| ''atelol''
|-
| Ołtu
| a river of central Huyfárah
| ''Oltu''
|-
| ombe
| thunder; to thunder
| ''abunde''
|-
| ombu
| criminal
| ''ammubu'' "thief"
|-
| oñan
| unreachable
| {{Ndd|ålña}} "to fly" + -''in''
|-
| oño
| crayfish
| {{Ndd|orñevo}}
|-
| oppał
| ear
| ''opə'' + -''l''
|-
| oppo
| fruit
| ''apo''
|-
| optu
| something unsettling; to be perturbed
| ''apridu'' "horror"
|-
| opwo
| a type of stew
| {{NAis|[seu od] ópôxeu}} "meat and fruit"
|-
| oreł
| to ignite
| {{Ndd|oreål}} "to catch fire"
|-
| osał
| to propose; suggest
| ''ošyal''
|-
| osawu
| human sacrifice
| ''oisawú'' < {{NAis|oisaxud}}
|-
| oso
| play a game
| {{Ndd|oiså}} "participate"
|-
| ospu
| chief (of a tribe); leader (of a work group, etc.); head (of a queue, etc.)
| ''ašubu'' "chieftain"
|-
| ossin
| heavy
| ''asin''
|-
| otte
| to guard
| ''ate'' "to keep"
|-
| ottebu
| a guard
| ''otte'' + -''bu''
|-
| ottu
| wealth
| ''atu'' "possession"
|-
| ottun
| wealthy
| ''ottu'' + -''in''
|-
| Oypawa
| Oigop'oibauxeu
| Æð. ''Ojpavaw''
|-
| pada
| valley
| ''pardə''
|-
| pagu
| horse
| {{Bur|pə’águ}} "pack horse"
|-
| peppe [stem ''-epeppe'']
| breast
| ''epépe''
|-
| pesen
| ready; alert
| ''pea ešen'' "readily act"
|-
| pi
| small thing; trifle
| ''pi'' "fingernail"
|-
| piggał
| main; primary
| ''pigəl'' "first"
|-
| piła
| to send
| ''pila''
|-
| piñña
| chicken
| {{Ndd|piña}}
|-
| pissił
| dead
| ''pišil'' "grey, pale"
|-
| pɨ
| child (collq.)
| ''pir'' "goat"
|-
| pɨdyemis
| understand; realize
| ''piədæmis''
|-
| połge
| orange (fruit)
| ''Palge'', a [[Kasca|Kascan]] city which exports oranges
|-
| ponda
| purple
| {{Ndd|panada}}
|-
| poppu
| disgust; to be disgusted
| ''popu'' "fear"
|-
| potsna
| to count
| ''pačuna''
|-
| potte
| to find; obtain
| ''epáte'' "to investigate; research"
|-
| pryen
| to design
| ''præn''
|-
| pubbɨt
| to attack
| ''pubiət'' "to threaten"
|-
| puwa
| nose
| ''puwə''
|-
| pwekku
| snub; slight; insult
| ''pouku'' "refuse; deny"
|-
| pwen
| island
| ''poun''
|-
| pya
| big; great
| ''pei''
|-
| pyen
| bite; chew; kiss (inf.)
| ''pæn''
|-
| pyodde
| loud
| ''peide''
|-
| Pyołas
| the continent on which Mɨdu is situated
| ''Peilaš''
|-
| pyombu
| (a) bourgeois; business owner
| ''pei meibu'' "big trader", but often explained as ''pyon-bu'' "with-person"
|-
| pyon
| with; having
| ''pein''
|-
| Pyopros
| the Poráš river
| ''pei'' "great" + ''Poráš''
|-
| pyossa [stem ''-epyossa'']
| fish
| ''epéiša''
|-
| pÿeggo
| waterfront
| {{Ndd|pyuego}} "dock"
|-
| pÿen [stem ''-epÿen'']
| ball; lump
| ''epoǽn''
|-
| rał
| to pour
| ''raul'' "to fill"
|-
| re
| smooth; flat; straight
| ''rewŋ''
|-
| rełga
| hot
| ''relga''
|-
| rełgło
| cauldron; cooking pot; stew
| ''relga'' + ''-lo''
|-
| rełsa
| caretaker; nurse
| ''roulə'' "care for" + -''sa''
|-
| reñał
| platform; deck [of a ship]; storey
| ''rewŋəl''
|-
| Reñło
| the plains of SW Huyfárah
| ''rewŋlo'' "plains"
|-
| rettsɨs
| menstruation
| ''rečiəs''
|-
| rezdowa
| to waste time
| {{Aedh|rwezidova}}
|-
| rɨna
| priest (non-Etúgəist)
| ''ruənah''
|-
| ro
| ten
| ''ro''
|-
| rołña
| to be insane
| {{Ndd|rålña}}
|-
| rodda
| to have; own
| ''roda''
|-
| roddu
| possessions; property
| ''rodu''
|-
| rote
| to eat (collq.)
| {{Aedh|rote}}
|-
| roznu
| voter
| ''rozaru''
|-
| rubbo
| to masturbate
| {{Ndd|ruvïvo}}
|-
| rubosso
| to haggle
| {{Ndd|rubåsto}} "be agressive"
|-
| rud
| member; citizen; person; man (arch.)
| ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rudza
| woman (somewhat formal)
| ''rud'' "man" + ''-sa''
|-
| russan [pl. ''rusnek'']
| to slander
| ''rušan'' "blame"
|-
| ryeddeł
| jar; container
| ''rædel''
|-
| ryeł [pl. ''ryełk'']
| to ride [a horse]
| ult. Gezoro *''rɜ̃lɛk''; final -''k'' re-analyzed as pl. suffix
|-
| ryen
| like; alike; as
| ''ræpen'' "instead of"
|-
| ryeñu
| instead of
| ''ræpen'' "instead of" + ''ouŋu'' "without"
|-
| ryeppu
| decoy; substitute
| ''ræpenbu'' "person instead of [someone else]"
|-
| ryettu
| to hear
| ''rætu''
|-
| ryommɨ
| earthquake
| ''reimur''
|-
| sadwa
| flatbread; sandwich
| {{Ndd|saodwa}}
|-
| seggan
| hurricane
| Coastal Ndd. ''segan''
|-
| sek
| name; nickname; word
| ''sek''
|-
| sekka
| to name; call
| ''seka''
|-
| seło
| hearth; cooking fire; stove; home (poetic)
| ''šælo''
|-
| sełsa
| dragonfly
| ''selo'' "spear" + ''-sa''
|-
| senat
| minister; official
| ''sernat''
|-
| sesan
| seventh day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''seošan''
|-
| sessɨ
| to crown a ruler (in a monarchy)
| ''šesuy''
|-
| sestsinte
| genealogy
| ''seziči'' "to be born" + -''nte'' (calque of {{Aedh|sīramĕd}})
|-
| Setek
| a city
| ''Sertek''
|-
| setim
| discuss; argue
| ''eséotim''
|-
| settsin
| profitable; fortunate
| ''sečasin''
|-
| siggił [pl. ''siglek'']
| to urinate
| ''sigil''
|-
| siło
| tooth
| ''silo''
|-
| sipa
| crab-claw sail
| [[Takuña]] ''sîpa''
|-
| sipagas
| type of ship
| ''sipa'' + ''gaos'' "boat"
|-
| sira
| prostitute
| back-formation from ''siralo'' < {{Ndd|siddalo}} "brothel"
|-
| sis
| mangy animal; cur; general insult
| ''sis'' "dog"
|-
| sissa
| general insult/profane exclamation
| ''sissa'' "female dog" and/or {{Ndd|sisha}} "piss"
|-
| sisyozza
| tomorrow [morning]
| ''si-seiza'' "that morning"
|-
| sɨn [pl. ''sɨñk'']
| to drink
| ''siən''
|-
| sɨnsɨ
| the day after tomorrow
| ''sur na-sur'' "the tomorrow of tomorrow"
|-
| sɨs
| good; kind (of actions or temperament)
| ''šuys'' "merciful, compassionate"
|-
| sɨso
| last night
| ''si-išo'' "that night"
|-
| sɨts
| both; each
| ''siəč'' "separate; apart"
|-
| slora
| to briefly forget
| {{Ndd|sloira}}
|-
| smoło
| gossip
| {{Ndd|smalo}} "seamstress' parlor"
|-
| smote
| farm
| irregular abbr. of ''musmate'' "agriculture"
|-
| smotebu
| farmer
| ''smote'' + -''bu''
|-
| snon
| land; ground
| {{Ndd|snan}}
|-
| -so
| causative suffix
| ''soy'' "to cause"
|-
| sobren
| clever person
| {{Aedh|sovren}} "expert"
|-
| sołan
| fat
| {{Ndd|shalan}} "obese"
|-
| sos
| second day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''sos''
|-
| sossa
| woman
| ''sossa'' "nubile girl"
|-
| sotya
| false knowledge (of the physical world - Etúgə terminology)
| ''satugə''
|-
| sozzi
| onion
| {{Ndd|sazi}}
|-
| stobi
| funny appendages on hats - a fashion of the decadent 5th century
| ''s''- pl. + {{Ndd|tobi}} "antler"
|-
| suddzi
| olive oil
| ''suji'' "to press"
|-
| sussilos
| neighboring country
| ''sušin'' "neighbor" + ''los''
|-
| swa
| knee; corner; bend (in a road)
| ''souŋ''
|-
| swebło
| bag; sack
| {{Ndd|swëvlo}}
|-
| syep
| to perform; effect; emit; utter; give (of acts; emotions; etc)
| ''sæp'' "to give"
|-
| syet
| money
| ''sæt'' "gold"
|-
| syetya
| virtue; morality
| ''sætugə''
|-
| syos
| parasite
| ''seiš'' "louse"
|-
| syoskaya
| mist
| "morning-fog"
|-
| syozza
| morning
| ''seiza'' "dawn"
|-
| te
| with; by
| ''eté''
|-
| teg [stem -''eteg'']
| thicket; cluster; patch; scattered group
| ''etéwg'' "forest"
|-
| tekka
| large crowd
| ''teka'' "army"
|-
| tid
| flea; speck
| ''tid''
|-
| tiddin
| small; slight; insignificant
| ''tid'' "flea" + ''-in''
|-
| tikwa
| anchor
| ''tikóu'' "stone"
|-
| tikweł
| stone; rock
| ''tikóu'' + -''l''
|-
| tɨ
| door
| ''tir''
|-
| tɨdu [stem -''etɨdu'']
| metal
| ''etíədu''
|-
| tɨnsał
| moment; second
| ''tiəŋišəl'' dim. of "flash; spark"
|-
| tɨñño
| stone (material)
| {{Ndd|tïño}}
|-
| tɨpas
| frame; doorway
| ''tir'' "door" + ''paš'' "socket"
|-
| toł
| light (n.), lamp; to shine; set alight
| ''tol''
|-
| Toło
| a member of the ethnic subgroup that follows Epɨmya
| ''Talo''
|-
| tos
| lawful; legal
| ''taš''
|-
| tosse
| around; surrounding; during
| ''etáše''
|-
| tottsa
| older sister
| ''tača''
|-
| tsa [pl. ''tsaññek'']
| to walk
| ''čeiŋ''
|-
| tsak
| king
| ''čaok''
|-
| tsanizzu
| outlaw; exile; fugitive
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''čanizzu''
|-
| tsanno
| to ask
| ''čeino''
|-
| tsapso
| to sneeze
| ''tsap'' (imit.) + ''-so''
|-
| tse
| one
| ''če''
|-
| tsebu
| student
| ''čeobu''
|-
| tsek
| to cast; scatter
| ''ček'' "throw''
|-
| tsełts
| danger; risk
| ''čelč''
|-
| tsemmał
| religious school; sect; faction
| ''ičǽməl'' "study; knowledge"
|-
| tsennu
| fire
| ''čæn'' "fire" + -''u''
|-
| tsenso
| to embarrass
| ''čæn'' "to burn" + -''so''
|-
| tsessum
| insignificant; pompous; over-stuffed
| ''čæšum'' "powerful; great" (via sarcastic usage)
|-
| tset
| to go bad (of milk etc.); perish; expire
| ''ečét'' "to wilt"
|-
| tsił
| barley
| ''čil''
|-
| tsiłsɨn
| beer
| "barley-drink" (calque from {{Ndd|sågïl}})
|-
| tsittsi
| lightning
| ''čičih''
|-
| tsɨpał
| denounce; curse
| ''čiəpal'' "whine; rant"
|-
| tsɨssɨnza
| barely make it through
| {{Ndd|cïstïnza}} "rough it"
|-
| tsɨza
| respectful address for a woman (an archaism); "milady"
| ''æč ioza'' "my lady"
|-
| tsoro
| junk; worthless stuff
| {{Ndd|coddo}} "dust"
|-
| tsure
| some other time [to avoid commitment]
| {{Ndd|cure}} "tomorrow"
|-
| twa
| lake
| ''tou''
|-
| twełyo
| duck
| ''tou'' "lake" + ''lei'' "bird"
|-
| twen
| hand
| ''toun''
|-
| twen
| thin; slim
| ''otóun''
|-
| tyeddi
| house; building; dwelling
| ''tædi'' "shelter"
|-
| tyem
| south
| ''tæm''
|-
| tyoñgas
| punt (used for transportation on Mɨdu's canals)
| ''teiŋgas''
|-
| tyossał
| pudenda (polite)
| ''teiš'' "fold" + -''l''
|-
| tyottu
| wide
| ''teitu''
|-
| Uboz
| the Ndak mother goddess (Ombási)
| ''Ubáz''
|-
| uggas
| storm
| ''ugaš'' "be a storm"
|-
| uła
| lift; pick up
| ''ulə''
|-
| ułga
| taste
| ''ulgə''
|-
| uksɨ
| to conspire; plot (a crime)
| ''ukšúy'' "to covet, long for the forbidden"
|-
| uro
| hostile; belligerent
| {{Ndd|uddo}}
|-
| ussa
| hello
| source equivalent to {{Ndd|usa}}
|-
| Usso
| the old capital of Huyfárah
| ''Ussor''
|-
| uyo
| after
| ''ugə''
|-
| wamyeg
| today
| ''wa-mæg'' "this today"
|-
| waso
| tonight
| ''wa-išo'' "this night"
|-
| wasyozza
| this morning
| ''wa-seiza''
|-
| wedde
| vegetable
| ''wede''
|-
| weddɨbye
| pickle (typically of root vegetables)
| ''wede diəbæŋ'' "vegetable-preserve"
|-
| weddza
| vixen; seductress
| ''oudisa'' "witch"
|-
| wegga
| in back of
| ''ougə''
|-
| wemmoł
| younger sister
| ''oumol''
|-
| wemmu
| older or distinguished woman, "lady"
| ''oumu'' "mother"
|-
| weñña
| ugly
| ''ouŋa'' "vulgar"
|-
| weñu
| without; except; but
| ''ouŋu''
|-
| weñÿebu
| tired
| ''ouŋu eobu'' "without sleep"
|-
| weppu
| to remember
| ''oupu''
|-
| wes
| friend
| {{NAis|wêbes}}
|-
| wezzu
| yesterday
| ''ouzu''
|-
| wiło [nom. ''siło'']
| house
| ''wilo''
|-
| wimma [nom. ''simma'']
| marsh
| ''wimə'' "mud"
|-
| wizza
| to make a commotion
| ''wiza'' "to shout"
|-
| wizze
| feast
| {{Ndd|vize}}
|-
| wɨm
| to live
| ''wiəm''
|-
| wɨmba
| papyrus
| {{Ndd|wïmva}}
|-
| wɨnseło
| grill; to grill
| ''wiəmu šælo'' "over the hearth"
|-
| wɨñgwe
| bridge
| ''wiəmu gou'' "over-road"
|-
| wɨñÿeło
| city canal
| ''wiəŋ noulo'' "wet street"
|-
| wobba
| to strike (with an object)
| ''wabə'' "to hit"
|-
| woddeł [pl. ''wodlek'']
| to wear (clothing)
| ''wodel''
|-
| wogga
| peace; quiet
| ''wagah''
|-
| wogyo
| shellfish
| {{Ndd|wogïño}} "shell"
|-
| Wołdulas
| the Fáralo kingdom centered on [[Ussor]]
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''Woldulaš''
|-
| woñoł
| shoe
| {{Ndd|woñol}} "boot"
|-
| wos
| to bury
| ''waš'' "to dig"
|-
| wos
| three
| ''wos''
|-
| wossats
| trireme
| ''wozgatač''
|-
| wosse
| this one; this person
| ''waše''
|-
| wozzon [pl. ''woznek'']
| to mess up
| {{Ndd|wåzon}} "to sneeze"
|-
| wuł
| country villa
| {{Aedh|vul}} "estate"
|-
| wuggu
| to cast blame; find guilty
| ''wugu''
|-
| yak
| all
| ''ege'' "all" + ''ak'' "them"
|-
| yane
| hidden; unclear; bizarre
| ''eione'' "obscure"
|-
| yanente
| esoteric study; mysticism
| ''eione'' "obscure" + -''mate''
|-
| yati
| week; calendar
| ''eioti'' "day"
|-
| yebba
| cool-witted; practical; smart
| ''æba'' "sober"
|-
| yedda
| corpse
| ''æda''
|-
| yedde
| to stand
| ''æde''
|-
| yedłu
| city; town
| ''ædelu''
|-
| yekka
| air
| ''ækə''
|-
| yemmał
| fly (insect)
| ''æməl''
|-
| yenna
| hungry
| ''æna''
|-
| yeñało
| army
| ''æŋéilo'' "military"
|-
| yestsoł
| bird
| {{Ndd|yësco}} "songbird" + ''-l''
|-
| yegwebbu
| rebel; deviant
| ''ægóubu'' "eccentric"
|-
| yettu
| old; former
| ''ætu''
|-
| Yetwa
| a district of Mɨdu
| ''ætu aə'' "old swamp"
|-
| yob
| green
| abbr. of ''yobbał'' < ''eibəl''
|-
| yobbin
| very cold
| ''eib'' "to freeze" + ''-in''
|-
| yobbɨ
| to swim
| ''eibur''
|-
| yodda
| spring (season)
| ''eibidə''
|-
| yodÿetti
| waterfall
| ''eidu æti'' "falling river"
|-
| yog
| put down; put away
| ''egág'' "to put"
|-
| Yogga
| the [[Aiwa|Eigə River]]
| ''Eigə''
|-
| yoha
| stupid
| {{NAis|ixoha}}
|-
| yokka
| animal
| ''eikə''
|-
| yokku
| to slaughter [an animal]
| ''eiku'' "to kill" - meaning influenced by ''yokka''
|-
| yoł [stem -''eyoł'']
| foot, base
| ''egól''
|-
| yorya
| string
| {{Ndd|yaddiga}}
|-
| yossi
| saw (tool)
| {{Ndd|yasi}} or {{Ad|iāsi}}
|-
| yoweł
| west
| ''eiwəl''
|-
| yoz
| to paint
| ''eiz''
|-
| yozzu
| paint, dye (n.)
| ''eiz'' + -''u''
|-
| ÿa
| wrong; no
| ''yeÿá'' < ''ægóu'' "wrong"
|-
| ÿem
| right (side)
| ''oæm''
|-
| ÿeppum
| useless
| ''wæpum'' "hollow"
|-
| ÿere
| to love; enjoy
| ''wære''
|-
| ÿeta
| of; for; about
| ''wætə''
|-
| ÿoł
| below; under
| ''wægól''
|-
| ÿoło
| garden; park
| ''weilo''
|-
| ÿosso
| now
| ''weišo''
|-
| zera
| copper
| {{Ad|zēra}}
|-
| zetsan
| pig
| {{Aedh|zæþṇ}}
|-
| zguruł
| intestines
| (pl. of ''guru'' "intestines" + ''-l'')
|-
| zi
| apple
| Miwan ''zi''
|-
| zin
| wine
| {{Ndd|zin}}
|-
| zmebło
| countryside
| (pl. of ''mebelo'' "farm")
|-
| znyoñɨbɨ
| tea; tisane
| ''zneiŋə hiəbur'' "to boil leaves"
|-
| zodwen
| face
| ''[lu-mabe] zordo-oun'' "the mouth and eyes"
|-
| zułk
| cheese
| {{Aedh|zūlx}}
|-
| zuma
| to loiter
| {{Aedh|zūma}} "to wait"
|-
| zyetya
| immorality
| ''huzyetya'' < ''huzǽtugə''
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-12-12T00:11:28Z

Dunomapuka:

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
| class="bluebg" | '''word'''
| class="bluebg" | '''part of speech'''
| class="bluebg" | '''gloss'''
|-
| đafein || v. || drink
|-
| đaji || v. || not matter; be insignificant
|-
| đaka || v. || be slow
|-
| đan || v. || do; make
|-
| đappa || n. || mushroom
|-
| đaroun || v. || wander; amble; stumble
|-
| đata || num. || four
|-
| đatrəí || post. || across; along
|-
| đatta || v. || fear
|-
| đei || n. || person; human
|-
| đeivu || n. || fool; idiot
|-
| đi || v. || be; exist
|-
| đijan || v. || follow; chase
|-
| đimma || n. || tears
|-
| đjei || n. || child
|-
| đkaki || adj. || slow
|-
| đkasi || n. || effect; outcome
|-
| đkuki || adj. || healthy
|-
| đou || n. || mud; dirt
|-
| đoufa || n. || crawling insect
|-
| đoukein || n. || figurine; doll; statue
|-
| đpəy || n. || wasp; hornet
|-
| đsiki || n. || huge; enormous
|-
| đsou || n. || poem; story
|-
| đtəy || n. || hair
|-
| đukki || adj. || same; aforementioned
|-
| đuku || n. || be healthy
|-
| đumma || v. || take
|-
| đun || v. || be the same
|-
| đutta || n. || the same one; the aforementioned
|-
| đutu || v. || seem; appear
|-
| đviki || adj. || small
|-
| đəiki || adj. || young
|-
| đəy || n. || flying insect
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jaki || n. || silver
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jikađa || n. || city
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| keinasa || n. || iron
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjei || n. || spine; quill
|-
| kjeitsimma || n. || hedgehog
|-
| kjou || n. || sea otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || hole; sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukiru || n. || mayor
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|-
| pakan || n. || disaster; catastrophe
|-
| paki || v. || fail; disintegrate; break down
|-
| pakki || n. || bow (weapon)
|-
| paktəí || v. || go insane
|-
| pakutjéi || n. || insane person; lunatic
|-
| passein || v. || win; succeed; achieve
|-
| patan || n. || milk
|-
| patta || n. || pin; fastener
|-
| paun || conj. || but; however
|-
| pei || n. || sky
|-
| pei || n. || thread; line
|-
| peiji || n. || bivalve; seashell
|-
| peikki || adj. || gray; brown
|-
| peiru || n. || turtle
|-
| peitan || n. || center; abdomen; navel
|-
| pfiji || v. || remain; adhere; join
|-
| pfuru || n. || bear
|-
| pifein || v. || tell (a story); recount; recite
|-
| piji || num. || five
|-
| piki || adj. || thin
|-
| pikka || n. || brother
|-
| pikróun || num. || thirty
|-
| pin || conj. || with
|-
| pira || num. || three
|-
| pitan || n. || finger
|-
| pitein || n. || mesh; netting
|-
| pittu || v. || hang
|-
| pjata || n. || hand
|-
| pjou || n. || main part; majority
|-
| pjəy || n. || thumb
|-
| pkappu || n. || drum
|-
| pkata || n. || twin
|-
| pkəy || n. || clothing
|-
| pkəytta || n. || change; transformation
|-
| pmimmu || n. || toe
|-
| pmuppu || n. || owl
|-
| pmutta || n. || plant
|-
| pnafa || n. || hearth
|-
| pnakoun || n. || cooking pot; cauldron
|-
| pnaroun || n. || chieftan
|-
| pnau || n. || shaman
|-
| pniki || adj. || clean
|-
| pouki || adj. || brown
|-
| pouktəí || v. || wilt; rot
|-
| prafa || n. || beehive; conical hut
|-
| prakkein || n. || bird
|-
| prattaka || v. || combine; mix (tr.)
|-
| Prousoun || top. || a large island
|-
| prəi || n. || think [of what to do]; consider
|-
| prəiki || adj. || secret
|-
| prəu || n. || grass
|-
| psaki || adj. || orderly; secure; normal
|-
| psattan || n. || path; route
|-
| psikki || adj. || strong; powerful
|-
| psummu || n. || vegetation; foliage
|-
| ptafa || n. || wedding
|-
| pteiri || n. || thing; object
|-
| puki || n. || cloth; blanket
|-
| pukka || n. || rough seas
|-
| pummu || v. || spare one's life
|-
| pun || n. || ancestor spirit
|-
| pusein || n. || leaf
|-
| putan || n. || hill
|-
| putta || v. || marry
|-
| puvu || v. || breathe
|-
| pəu || n. || flat surface
|-
| rafi || n. || autumn
|-
| rajoun || v. || open (tr.)
|-
| raka || v. || be shut
|-
| rakki || n. || band; tribe
|-
| rakkoun || adv. || why
|-
| rapmiri || v. || connect; join
|-
| rappan || n. || bridge; connection
|-
| rapsəí || v. || become friends [with]
|-
| rasa || n. || horn
|-
| raun || n. || basket
|-
| rei || n. || powder; flour
|-
| reikki || adj. || angry
|-
| rifa || n. || meat
|-
| riki || adj. || dirty
|-
| rikki || adj. || smooth
|-
| rinni || v. || laugh
|-
| rippein || n. || mountain lion; puma
|-
| rirein || n. || arrow (weapon)
|-
| rissein || v. || open (intr.)
|-
| riti || v. || run
|-
| rjata || n. || side (of the body)
|-
| rjou || n. || border; perimeter
|-
| rjuki || adj. || round; fat
|-
| rjəyn || n. || a mythical beast
|-
| rou || n. || bundle; sack
|-
| roukein || n. || lump; clump; node
|-
| rouvákki || n. || radish
|-
| rufi || v. || smoke; burn
|-
| rujein || n. || picture; image; appearance
|-
| ruji || v. || show up; appear
|-
| rukein || n. || claw; tool; hook
|-
| rumiri || v. || portend; signify
|-
| run || n. || man
|-
| ruppa || n. || bee
|-
| ruttu || n. || fog; mist
|-
| rəi || n. || year
|-
| rəy || n. || tail
|-
| rəyku || v. || release; free
|-
| sajein || v. || perceive; experience
|-
| saku || n. || rat
|-
| sani || n. || rice
|-
| sanipəu || n. || rice paddy
|-
| sapkasi || n. || end (temporal); completion
|-
| sappa || n. || steam
|-
| sassa || n. || eagle
|-
| satein || v. || close; stop using; put away
|-
| sei || num. || six
|-
| sei || n. || head
|-
| sein || n. || family; lineage
|-
| seitan || n. || worm
|-
| sifa || n. || name
|-
| sifein || v. || fly
|-
| sikein || v. || sew
|-
| siki || adj. || short
|-
| sikki || n. || snow
|-
| sikki || adj. || thick
|-
| siknəý || n. || flea
|-
| sin || n. || small island
|-
| sinni || v. || think; remember
|-
| sipkasi || n. || journey
|-
| sita || v. || taste
|-
| sitein || v. || bind; wrap
|-
| sitoun || n. || knot
|-
| sitta || v. || succeed; be fulfilled
|-
| sjei || v. || be different
|-
| sjeiki || adj. || different
|-
| skau || n. || edge; cliff; border
|-
| skou || n. || magic
|-
| skuppa || n. || stitch
|-
| skəyku || n. || blackcurrant
|-
| smujan || v. || be important; be famous
|-
| snata || n. || breast
|-
| spaviki || adj. || renowned; famous
|-
| spifa || n. || end (physical); stump
|-
| spukein || n. || island
|-
| srata || n. || ear
|-
| sriki || adj. || sweet
|-
| srou || n. || snake
|-
| staki || adj. || effective; successful
|-
| stukkoun || n. || blanket; cloak; shroud
|-
| stəy || n. || speech; language
|-
| sujein || v. || give
|-
| sukka || n. || ability; strength
|-
| sukki || n. || fish
|-
| suku || v. || fall
|-
| sura || n. || mouth
|-
| surein || n. || reed
|-
| suru || n. || period; eon
|-
| səikoun || adv. || like this; in this way
|-
| səun || n. || riverbank
|-
| səymmu || n. || louse
|-
| səyn || n. || spring (season)
|-
| taji || n. || front
|-
| takan || n. || blade; leaf; sheaf
|-
| tapkóu || n. || enemy
|-
| tapnitta || n. || footstep; tracks (of animals)
|-
| tappa || n. || hand
|-
| tara || n. || problem; difficulty; failure
|-
| tatta || v. || put down; set down; bring
|-
| tatta || n. || arm
|-
| tattu || v. || be cold (of weather); be cruel
|-
| tatu || num. || seven
|-
| tau || n. || father
|-
| tauki || adj. || deep; full; long
|-
| taun || part. || negative or privative particle
|-
| tauta || n. || parent; living ancestor
|-
| tei || n. || bed
|-
| teijəý || n. || fish eggs; roe; spawn
|-
| tein || n. || wall
|-
| tifi || n. || point; dot
|-
| tijan || v. || shiver
|-
| tika || n. || stick
|-
| tikein || n. || frog
|-
| tiki || num. || one hundred
|-
| tikka || n. || shrimp
|-
| tippa || n. || noise; commotion
|-
| tirein || n. || needle
|-
| tisan || n. || knee
|-
| tissi || v. || be awake; be alert
|-
| tistəí || v. || wake up
|-
| tisu || n. || roof; top; covering
|-
| tita || n. || wing; (of humans) shoulder
|-
| tjakki || adj. || green
|-
| tjaun || n. || spider
|-
| tkari || n. || tripod
|-
| tkousu || n. || oven; kiln
|-
| tkufa || n. || meeting; council
|-
| tkuvu || n. || be true
|-
| tkəu || n. || discussion
|-
| tmata || n. || ear; hearing
|-
| tmauta || n. || river otter
|-
| tmeiri || v. || assemble; gather
|-
| tmou || n. || crowd
|-
| tnau || n. || knife; dagger
|-
| tnippu || n. || large quantity
|-
| tnou || n. || jaw; jawbone
|-
| tnuvu || n. || hoe
|-
| tnəita || adv. || now
|-
| tou || n. || cloud
|-
| toun || n. || egg
|-
| tpafa || n. || plains; lowlands
|-
| tpaki || adj. || flat
|-
| tpakoun || n. || hammer
|-
| tpatan || n. || nut
|-
| tpau || n. || left
|-
| tpikkein || n. || mouse
|-
| trappu || n. || hurricane
|-
| triki || adj. || quick; fast
|-
| tsaki || adj. || warm
|-
| tsaru || n. || crawfish
|-
| tsei || n. || cattle
|-
| tsimma || n. || mole; shrew
|-
| tsukein || n. || stem
|-
| tsuki || adj. || cruel; harsh
|-
| tsukmajein || v. || smell bad
|-
| tsuksita || v. || taste bad
|-
| tsuri || n. || group of three people
|-
| tsuta || n. || couple; pair (of people)
|-
| tsəy || n. || feast; large meal
|-
| tufa || n. || hood; bonnet
|-
| tufi || n. || soul; mind
|-
| tujein || n. || nose
|-
| tuji || n. || dog
|-
| tukki || adj. || dead
|-
| tuku || n. || matter; topic
|-
| tutjaki || adj. || dark
|-
| tutjəí || v. || grow dark; fall (of night)
|-
| tutrəí || v. || perform poorly
|-
| tutti || v. || carry; wield
|-
| tuttəí || v. || die (of people)
|-
| tutu || n. || tree trunk; torso
|-
| tuvein || n. || mosquito; pest
|-
| tvaksəý || n. || earthquake
|-
| tveiri || v. || hold; contain
|-
| tveiréi || n. || bag; sack
|-
| tvou || n. || bad weather
|-
| Təisi || top. || the capital; at the mouth of the Ku
|-
| təuka || n. || frost; winter
|-
| təykkein || n. || flea
|-
| təyra || n. || swallow (bird)
|-
| təytta || n. || testicle
|-
| vaukki || adj. || wet
|-
| vikkein || v. || climb; mount; ascend; overtake
|-
| voun || n. || stomach
|-
| vriki || adj. || new
|-
| vukka || v. || speak with the dead
|-
| vuri || n. || ice
|-
| vuvoun || n. || herb; grass
|-
| vəiki || adj. || weak
|}

Jouki Stəy

2012-12-09T00:03:21Z

Dunomapuka: /* Syntax */

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a [[T2 languages|T2 language]] spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers after the noun ('''kika sei''' "six days") and ordinals come before ('''sei kika''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

Postpositional phrases come right before the auxiliary, after everything else.
*'''kin ti sanipəu đatrəí mjou''' I walked across the rice paddy

===Aspect===
The auxiliary system does not mark tense; it tends to privilege aspect and narrative structure. The '''kin'''-, '''ksiri'''-, and '''mjou'''-series are the more commonly used; they respectively indicate continuous, habitual/repeated, and completed states.
*'''tikan nunna đoufa kin''' I (am/was) eating a bug
*'''tikan nunna đoufa ksiri''' I eat bugs
*'''tikan nunna đoufa mjou''' I ate a bug

The lack of tense markers can be occasionally disorienting; for example while '''mjou''' most often marks a completed past action, it may also indicate a merely incipient one:
*'''tikan nunna đoufa mjou''' I'm about to eat some bugs

This incipient sense is common in the optative forms.
*'''tikan nunna đoufa mjousi''' I'm about to eat some bugs (hopefully); I was planning on eating some bugs

But much of the distinct flavor of the auxiliary system comes from the two "narrative" series '''đsei''' and '''kmei''', referring respectively to continued action after an interruption, and a sudden surprise or reversal of fortune. These are best illustrated in the context of a complete story:
*'''Kin ti sanipəu đatrəí kin. Tikan nuvu kausa kmei! Tikan kau mjou. Kin ti đsei.''' I was walking across the rice paddy. I saw a fox! So I killed it. I kept walking.

The basic perfective '''mjou''' could be substituted for '''kmei''' here, but the effect of surprise would be dulled, as though the speaker were unsurprised or unruffled by the appearance of the fox. Likewise, if '''mjou''' and '''kmei''' were reversed, the narrative structure would be altered:
*'''Tikan nuvu kausa mjou. Tikan kau kmei!''' I saw a fox... but I killed it!

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, tpikkein mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, kika piji đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, sei kika ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''num.'' one 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''koun''' ''num.'' ten 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kufu''' ''num.'' eight 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miki''' ''num.'' two 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nutti''' ''num.'' nine 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pira''' ''num.'' three 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tatu''' ''num.'' seven 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tiki''' ''num.'' one hundred 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tuji''' ''n.'' dog 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đata''' ''num.'' four 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đoufa''' ''n.'' crawling insect 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

{{Article}}
[[Category:T2 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-12-02T08:25:52Z

Dunomapuka:

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
| class="bluebg" | '''word'''
| class="bluebg" | '''part of speech'''
| class="bluebg" | '''gloss'''
|-
| đafein || v. || drink
|-
| đaji || v. || not matter; be insignificant
|-
| đaka || v. || be slow
|-
| đan || v. || do; make
|-
| đappa || n. || mushroom
|-
| đaroun || v. || wander; amble; stumble
|-
| đata || num. || four
|-
| đatrəí || post. || across; along
|-
| đatta || v. || fear
|-
| đei || n. || person; human
|-
| đeivu || n. || fool; idiot
|-
| đi || v. || be; exist
|-
| đijan || v. || follow; chase
|-
| đimma || n. || tears
|-
| đjei || n. || child
|-
| đkaki || adj. || slow
|-
| đkasi || n. || effect; outcome
|-
| đkuki || adj. || healthy
|-
| đou || n. || mud; dirt
|-
| đoufa || n. || crawling insect
|-
| đoukein || n. || figurine; doll; statue
|-
| đpəy || n. || wasp; hornet
|-
| đsiki || n. || huge; enormous
|-
| đsou || n. || poem; story
|-
| đtəy || n. || hair
|-
| đukki || adj. || same; aforementioned
|-
| đuku || n. || be healthy
|-
| đumma || v. || take
|-
| đun || v. || be the same
|-
| đutta || n. || the same one; the aforementioned
|-
| đutu || v. || seem; appear
|-
| đviki || adj. || small
|-
| đəiki || adj. || young
|-
| đəy || n. || flying insect
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jaki || n. || silver
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jikađa || n. || city
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| keinasa || n. || iron
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjei || n. || spine; quill
|-
| kjeitsimma || n. || hedgehog
|-
| kjou || n. || otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || hole; sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukiru || n. || mayor
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|-
| pakan || n. || disaster; catastrophe
|-
| paki || v. || fail; disintegrate; break down
|-
| pakki || n. || bow (weapon)
|-
| paktəí || v. || go insane
|-
| pakutjéi || n. || insane person; lunatic
|-
| passein || v. || win; succeed; achieve
|-
| patan || n. || milk
|-
| patta || n. || pin; fastener
|-
| paun || conj. || but; however
|-
| pei || n. || sky
|-
| pei || n. || thread; line
|-
| peiji || n. || bivalve; seashell
|-
| peikki || adj. || gray; brown
|-
| peiru || n. || turtle
|-
| peitan || n. || center; abdomen; navel
|-
| pfiji || v. || remain; adhere; join
|-
| pfuru || n. || bear
|-
| pifein || v. || tell (a story); recount; recite
|-
| piji || num. || five
|-
| piki || adj. || thin
|-
| pikka || n. || brother
|-
| pikróun || num. || thirty
|-
| pin || conj. || with
|-
| pira || num. || three
|-
| pitan || n. || finger
|-
| pitein || n. || mesh; netting
|-
| pittu || v. || hang
|-
| pjata || n. || hand
|-
| pjou || n. || main part; majority
|-
| pjəy || n. || thumb
|-
| pkappu || n. || drum
|-
| pkata || n. || twin
|-
| pkəy || n. || clothing
|-
| pkəytta || n. || change; transformation
|-
| pmimmu || n. || toe
|-
| pmuppu || n. || owl
|-
| pmutta || n. || plant
|-
| pnafa || n. || hearth
|-
| pnakoun || n. || cooking pot; cauldron
|-
| pnaroun || n. || chieftan
|-
| pnau || n. || shaman
|-
| pniki || adj. || clean
|-
| pouki || adj. || brown
|-
| pouktəí || v. || wilt; rot
|-
| prafa || n. || beehive; conical hut
|-
| prakkein || n. || bird
|-
| prattaka || v. || combine; mix (tr.)
|-
| Prousoun || top. || a large island
|-
| prəi || n. || think [of what to do]; consider
|-
| prəiki || adj. || secret
|-
| prəu || n. || grass
|-
| psaki || adj. || orderly; secure; normal
|-
| psattan || n. || path; route
|-
| psikki || adj. || strong; powerful
|-
| psummu || n. || vegetation; foliage
|-
| ptafa || n. || wedding
|-
| pteiri || n. || thing; object
|-
| puki || n. || cloth; blanket
|-
| pukka || n. || rough seas
|-
| pummu || v. || spare one's life
|-
| pun || n. || ancestor spirit
|-
| pusein || n. || leaf
|-
| putan || n. || hill
|-
| putta || v. || marry
|-
| puvu || v. || breathe
|-
| pəu || n. || flat surface
|-
| rafi || n. || autumn
|-
| rajoun || v. || open (tr.)
|-
| raka || v. || be shut
|-
| rakki || n. || band; tribe
|-
| rakkoun || adv. || why
|-
| rapmiri || v. || connect; join
|-
| rappan || n. || bridge; connection
|-
| rapsəí || v. || become friends [with]
|-
| rasa || n. || horn
|-
| raun || n. || basket
|-
| rei || n. || powder; flour
|-
| reikki || adj. || angry
|-
| rifa || n. || meat
|-
| riki || adj. || dirty
|-
| rikki || adj. || smooth
|-
| rinni || v. || laugh
|-
| rippein || n. || mountain lion; puma
|-
| rirein || n. || arrow (weapon)
|-
| rissein || v. || open (intr.)
|-
| riti || v. || run
|-
| rjata || n. || side (of the body)
|-
| rjou || n. || border; perimeter
|-
| rjuki || adj. || round; fat
|-
| rjəyn || n. || a mythical beast
|-
| rou || n. || bundle; sack
|-
| roukein || n. || lump; clump; node
|-
| rouvákki || n. || radish
|-
| rufi || v. || smoke; burn
|-
| rujein || n. || picture; image; appearance
|-
| ruji || v. || show up; appear
|-
| rukein || n. || claw; tool; hook
|-
| rumiri || v. || portend; signify
|-
| run || n. || man
|-
| ruppa || n. || bee
|-
| ruttu || n. || fog; mist
|-
| rəi || n. || year
|-
| rəy || n. || tail
|-
| rəyku || v. || release; free
|-
| sajein || v. || perceive; experience
|-
| saku || n. || rat
|-
| sani || n. || rice
|-
| sanipəu || n. || rice paddy
|-
| sapkasi || n. || end (temporal); completion
|-
| sappa || n. || steam
|-
| sassa || n. || eagle
|-
| satein || v. || close; stop using; put away
|-
| sei || num. || six
|-
| sei || n. || head
|-
| sein || n. || family; lineage
|-
| seitan || n. || worm
|-
| sifa || n. || name
|-
| sifein || v. || fly
|-
| sikein || v. || sew
|-
| siki || adj. || short
|-
| sikki || n. || snow
|-
| sikki || adj. || thick
|-
| siknəý || n. || flea
|-
| sin || n. || small island
|-
| sinni || v. || think; remember
|-
| sipkasi || n. || journey
|-
| sita || v. || taste
|-
| sitein || v. || bind; wrap
|-
| sitoun || n. || knot
|-
| sitta || v. || succeed; be fulfilled
|-
| sjei || v. || be different
|-
| sjeiki || adj. || different
|-
| skau || n. || edge; cliff; border
|-
| skou || n. || magic
|-
| skuppa || n. || stitch
|-
| skəyku || n. || blackcurrant
|-
| smujan || v. || be important; be famous
|-
| snata || n. || breast
|-
| spaviki || adj. || renowned; famous
|-
| spifa || n. || end (physical); stump
|-
| spukein || n. || island
|-
| srata || n. || ear
|-
| sriki || adj. || sweet
|-
| srou || n. || snake
|-
| staki || adj. || effective; successful
|-
| stukkoun || n. || blanket; cloak; shroud
|-
| stəy || n. || speech; language
|-
| sujein || v. || give
|-
| sukka || n. || ability; strength
|-
| sukki || n. || fish
|-
| suku || v. || fall
|-
| sura || n. || mouth
|-
| surein || n. || reed
|-
| suru || n. || period; eon
|-
| səikoun || adv. || like this; in this way
|-
| səun || n. || riverbank
|-
| səymmu || n. || louse
|-
| səyn || n. || spring (season)
|-
| taji || n. || front
|-
| takan || n. || blade; leaf; sheaf
|-
| tapkóu || n. || enemy
|-
| tapnitta || n. || footstep; tracks (of animals)
|-
| tappa || n. || hand
|-
| tara || n. || problem; difficulty; failure
|-
| tatta || v. || put down; set down; bring
|-
| tatta || n. || arm
|-
| tattu || v. || be cold (of weather); be cruel
|-
| tatu || num. || seven
|-
| tau || n. || father
|-
| tauki || adj. || deep; full; long
|-
| taun || part. || negative or privative particle
|-
| tauta || n. || parent; living ancestor
|-
| tei || n. || bed
|-
| teijəý || n. || fish eggs; roe; spawn
|-
| tein || n. || wall
|-
| tifi || n. || point; dot
|-
| tijan || v. || shiver
|-
| tika || n. || stick
|-
| tikein || n. || frog
|-
| tiki || num. || one hundred
|-
| tikka || n. || shrimp
|-
| tippa || n. || noise; commotion
|-
| tirein || n. || needle
|-
| tisan || n. || knee
|-
| tissi || v. || be awake; be alert
|-
| tistəí || v. || wake up
|-
| tisu || n. || roof; top; covering
|-
| tita || n. || wing; (of humans) shoulder
|-
| tjakki || adj. || green
|-
| tjaun || n. || spider
|-
| tkari || n. || tripod
|-
| tkousu || n. || oven
|-
| tkufa || n. || meeting; council
|-
| tkuvu || n. || be true
|-
| tkəu || n. || discussion
|-
| tmata || n. || ear; hearing
|-
| tmauta || n. || otter
|-
| tmeiri || v. || assemble; gather
|-
| tmou || n. || crowd
|-
| tnau || n. || knife; dagger
|-
| tnippu || n. || large quantity
|-
| tnou || n. || jaw; jawbone
|-
| tnuvu || n. || hoe
|-
| tnəita || adv. || now
|-
| tou || n. || cloud
|-
| toun || n. || egg
|-
| tpafa || n. || plains; lowlands
|-
| tpaki || adj. || flat
|-
| tpakoun || n. || hammer
|-
| tpatan || n. || nut
|-
| tpau || n. || left
|-
| tpikkein || n. || mouse
|-
| trappu || n. || hurricane
|-
| triki || adj. || quick; fast
|-
| tsaki || adj. || warm
|-
| tsaru || n. || crawfish
|-
| tsei || n. || cattle
|-
| tsimma || n. || mole; shrew
|-
| tsukein || n. || stem
|-
| tsuki || adj. || cruel; harsh
|-
| tsukmajein || v. || smell bad
|-
| tsuksita || v. || taste bad
|-
| tsuri || n. || group of three people
|-
| tsuta || n. || couple; pair (of people)
|-
| tsəy || n. || feast; large meal
|-
| tufa || n. || hood; bonnet
|-
| tufi || n. || soul; mind
|-
| tujein || n. || nose
|-
| tuji || n. || dog
|-
| tukki || adj. || dead
|-
| tuku || n. || matter; topic
|-
| tutjaki || adj. || dark
|-
| tutjəí || v. || grow dark; fall (of night)
|-
| tutrəí || v. || perform poorly
|-
| tutti || v. || carry; wield
|-
| tuttəí || v. || die (of people)
|-
| tutu || n. || tree trunk; torso
|-
| tuvein || n. || mosquito; pest
|-
| tvaksəý || n. || earthquake
|-
| tveiri || v. || hold; contain
|-
| tveiréi || n. || bag; sack
|-
| tvou || n. || bad weather
|-
| Təisi || top. || the capital; at the mouth of the Ku
|-
| təuka || n. || frost; winter
|-
| təykkein || n. || flea
|-
| təyra || n. || swallow (bird)
|-
| təytta || n. || testicle
|-
| vaukki || adj. || wet
|-
| vikkein || v. || climb; mount; ascend; overtake
|-
| voun || n. || stomach
|-
| vriki || adj. || new
|-
| vukka || v. || speak with the dead
|-
| vuri || n. || ice
|-
| vuvoun || n. || herb; grass
|-
| vəiki || adj. || weak
|}

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-11-27T08:57:31Z

Dunomapuka:

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
| class="bluebg" | '''word'''
| class="bluebg" | '''part of speech'''
| class="bluebg" | '''gloss'''
|-
| đafein || v. || drink
|-
| đaji || v. || not matter; be insignificant
|-
| đaka || v. || be slow
|-
| đan || v. || do; make
|-
| đappa || n. || mushroom
|-
| đaroun || v. || wander; amble; stumble
|-
| đata || num. || four
|-
| đatrəí || post. || across; along
|-
| đatta || v. || fear
|-
| đei || n. || person; human
|-
| đeivu || n. || fool; idiot
|-
| đi || v. || be; exist
|-
| đijan || v. || follow; chase
|-
| đimma || n. || tears
|-
| đjei || n. || child
|-
| đkaki || adj. || slow
|-
| đkasi || n. || effect; outcome
|-
| đkuki || adj. || healthy
|-
| đou || n. || mud; dirt
|-
| đoufa || n. || crawling insect
|-
| đoukein || n. || figurine; doll; statue
|-
| đpəy || n. || wasp; hornet
|-
| đsiki || n. || huge; enormous
|-
| đsou || n. || poem; story
|-
| đtəy || n. || hair
|-
| đukki || adj. || same; aforementioned
|-
| đuku || n. || be healthy
|-
| đumma || v. || take
|-
| đun || v. || be the same
|-
| đutta || n. || the same one; the aforementioned
|-
| đutu || v. || seem; appear
|-
| đviki || adj. || small
|-
| đəiki || adj. || young
|-
| đəy || n. || flying insect
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjei || n. || spine; quill
|-
| kjeitsimma || n. || hedgehog
|-
| kjou || n. || otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || hole; sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|-
| pakan || n. || disaster; catastrophe
|-
| paki || v. || fail; disintegrate; break down
|-
| pakki || n. || bow (weapon)
|-
| paktəí || v. || go insane
|-
| pakutjéi || n. || insane person; lunatic
|-
| passein || v. || win; succeed; achieve
|-
| patan || n. || milk
|-
| patta || n. || pin; fastener
|-
| paun || conj. || but; however
|-
| pei || n. || sky
|-
| pei || n. || thread; line
|-
| peiji || n. || bivalve; seashell
|-
| peikki || adj. || gray; brown
|-
| peiru || n. || turtle
|-
| peitan || n. || center; abdomen; navel
|-
| pfiji || v. || remain; adhere; join
|-
| pfuru || n. || bear
|-
| pifein || v. || tell (a story); recount; recite
|-
| piji || num. || five
|-
| piki || adj. || thin
|-
| pikka || n. || brother
|-
| pikróun || num. || thirty
|-
| pin || conj. || with
|-
| pira || num. || three
|-
| pitan || n. || finger
|-
| pitein || n. || mesh; netting
|-
| pittu || v. || hang
|-
| pjata || n. || hand
|-
| pjou || n. || main part; majority
|-
| pjəy || n. || thumb
|-
| pkappu || n. || drum
|-
| pkata || n. || twin
|-
| pkəy || n. || clothing
|-
| pkəytta || n. || change; transformation
|-
| pmimmu || n. || toe
|-
| pmuppu || n. || owl
|-
| pmutta || n. || plant
|-
| pnafa || n. || hearth
|-
| pnakoun || n. || cooking pot; cauldron
|-
| pnaroun || n. || chieftan
|-
| pnau || n. || shaman
|-
| pniki || adj. || clean
|-
| pouki || adj. || brown
|-
| pouktəí || v. || wilt; rot
|-
| prafa || n. || beehive; conical hut
|-
| prakkein || n. || bird
|-
| prattaka || v. || combine; mix (tr.)
|-
| Prousoun || top. || a large island
|-
| prəi || n. || think [of what to do]; consider
|-
| prəiki || adj. || secret
|-
| prəu || n. || grass
|-
| psaki || adj. || orderly; secure; normal
|-
| psattan || n. || path; route
|-
| psikki || adj. || strong; powerful
|-
| psummu || n. || vegetation; foliage
|-
| ptafa || n. || wedding
|-
| pteiri || n. || thing; object
|-
| puki || n. || cloth; blanket
|-
| pukka || n. || rough seas
|-
| pummu || v. || spare one's life
|-
| pun || n. || ancestor spirit
|-
| pusein || n. || leaf
|-
| putan || n. || hill
|-
| putta || v. || marry
|-
| puvu || v. || breathe
|-
| pəu || n. || flat surface
|-
| rafi || n. || autumn
|-
| rajoun || v. || open (tr.)
|-
| raka || v. || be shut
|-
| rakki || n. || band; tribe
|-
| rakkoun || adv. || why
|-
| rapmiri || v. || connect; join
|-
| rappan || n. || bridge; connection
|-
| rapsəí || v. || become friends [with]
|-
| rasa || n. || horn
|-
| raun || n. || basket
|-
| rei || n. || powder; flour
|-
| reikki || adj. || angry
|-
| rifa || n. || meat
|-
| riki || adj. || dirty
|-
| rikki || adj. || smooth
|-
| rinni || v. || laugh
|-
| rippein || n. || mountain lion; puma
|-
| rirein || n. || arrow (weapon)
|-
| rissein || v. || open (intr.)
|-
| riti || v. || run
|-
| rjata || n. || side (of the body)
|-
| rjou || n. || border; perimeter
|-
| rjuki || adj. || round; fat
|-
| rjəyn || n. || a mythical beast
|-
| rou || n. || bundle; sack
|-
| roukein || n. || lump; clump; node
|-
| rouvákki || n. || radish
|-
| rufi || v. || smoke; burn
|-
| rujein || n. || picture; image; appearance
|-
| ruji || v. || show up; appear
|-
| rukein || n. || claw; tool; hook
|-
| rumiri || v. || portend; signify
|-
| run || n. || man
|-
| ruppa || n. || bee
|-
| ruttu || n. || fog; mist
|-
| rəi || n. || year
|-
| rəy || n. || tail
|-
| rəyku || v. || release; free
|-
| sajein || v. || perceive; experience
|-
| saku || n. || rat
|-
| sapkasi || n. || end (temporal); completion
|-
| sappa || n. || steam
|-
| sassa || n. || eagle
|-
| satein || v. || close; stop using; put away
|-
| sei || num. || six
|-
| sei || n. || head
|-
| sein || n. || family; lineage
|-
| seitan || n. || worm
|-
| sifa || n. || name
|-
| sifein || v. || fly
|-
| sikein || v. || sew
|-
| siki || adj. || short
|-
| sikki || n. || snow
|-
| sikki || adj. || thick
|-
| siknəý || n. || flea
|-
| sin || n. || small island
|-
| sinni || v. || think; remember
|-
| sipkasi || n. || journey
|-
| sita || v. || taste
|-
| sitein || v. || bind; wrap
|-
| sitoun || n. || knot
|-
| sitta || v. || succeed; be fulfilled
|-
| sjei || v. || be different
|-
| sjeiki || adj. || different
|-
| skau || n. || edge; cliff; border
|-
| skou || n. || magic
|-
| skuppa || n. || stitch
|-
| skəyku || n. || blackcurrant
|-
| smujan || v. || be important; be famous
|-
| snata || n. || breast
|-
| spaviki || adj. || renowned; famous
|-
| spifa || n. || end (physical); stump
|-
| spukein || n. || island
|-
| srata || n. || ear
|-
| sriki || adj. || sweet
|-
| srou || n. || snake
|-
| staki || adj. || effective; successful
|-
| stukkoun || n. || blanket; cloak; shroud
|-
| stəy || n. || speech; language
|-
| sujein || v. || give
|-
| sukka || n. || ability; strength
|-
| sukki || n. || fish
|-
| suku || v. || fall
|-
| sura || n. || mouth
|-
| surein || n. || reed
|-
| suru || n. || period; eon
|-
| səikoun || adv. || like this; in this way
|-
| səun || n. || riverbank
|-
| səymmu || n. || louse
|-
| səyn || n. || spring (season)
|-
| taji || n. || front
|-
| takan || n. || blade; leaf; sheaf
|-
| tapkóu || n. || enemy
|-
| tapnitta || n. || footstep; tracks (of animals)
|-
| tappa || n. || hand
|-
| tara || n. || problem; difficulty; failure
|-
| tatta || v. || put down; set down; bring
|-
| tatta || n. || arm
|-
| tattu || v. || be cold (of weather); be cruel
|-
| tatu || num. || seven
|-
| tau || n. || father
|-
| tauki || adj. || deep; full; long
|-
| taun || part. || negative or privative particle
|-
| tauta || n. || parent; living ancestor
|-
| tei || n. || bed
|-
| teijəý || n. || fish eggs; roe; spawn
|-
| tein || n. || wall
|-
| tifi || n. || point; dot
|-
| tijan || v. || shiver
|-
| tika || n. || stick
|-
| tikein || n. || frog
|-
| tiki || num. || one hundred
|-
| tikka || n. || shrimp
|-
| tippa || n. || noise; commotion
|-
| tirein || n. || needle
|-
| tisan || n. || knee
|-
| tissi || v. || be awake; be alert
|-
| tistəí || v. || wake up
|-
| tisu || n. || roof; top; covering
|-
| tita || n. || wing; (of humans) shoulder
|-
| tjakki || adj. || green
|-
| tjaun || n. || spider
|-
| tkari || n. || tripod
|-
| tkufa || n. || meeting; council
|-
| tkuvu || n. || be true
|-
| tkəu || n. || discussion
|-
| tmata || n. || ear; hearing
|-
| tmauta || n. || otter
|-
| tmeiri || v. || assemble; gather
|-
| tmou || n. || crowd
|-
| tnau || n. || knife; dagger
|-
| tnippu || n. || large quantity
|-
| tnou || n. || jaw; jawbone
|-
| tnuvu || n. || hoe
|-
| tnəita || adv. || now
|-
| tou || n. || cloud
|-
| toun || n. || egg
|-
| tpafa || n. || plains; lowlands
|-
| tpaki || adj. || flat
|-
| tpakoun || n. || hammer
|-
| tpatan || n. || nut
|-
| tpau || n. || left
|-
| tpikkein || n. || mouse
|-
| trappu || n. || hurricane
|-
| triki || adj. || quick; fast
|-
| tsaki || adj. || warm
|-
| tsaru || n. || crawfish
|-
| tsei || n. || cattle
|-
| tsimma || n. || mole; shrew
|-
| tsukein || n. || stem
|-
| tsuki || adj. || cruel; harsh
|-
| tsukmajein || v. || smell bad
|-
| tsuksita || v. || taste bad
|-
| tsuri || n. || group of three people
|-
| tsuta || n. || couple; pair (of people)
|-
| tsəy || n. || feast; large meal
|-
| tufa || n. || hood; bonnet
|-
| tufi || n. || soul; mind
|-
| tujein || n. || nose
|-
| tuji || n. || dog
|-
| tukki || adj. || dead
|-
| tuku || n. || matter; topic
|-
| tutjaki || adj. || dark
|-
| tutjəí || v. || grow dark; fall (of night)
|-
| tutrəí || v. || perform poorly
|-
| tutti || v. || carry; wield
|-
| tuttəí || v. || die (of people)
|-
| tutu || n. || tree trunk; torso
|-
| tuvein || n. || mosquito; pest
|-
| tvaksəý || n. || earthquake
|-
| tveiri || v. || hold; contain
|-
| tveiréi || n. || bag; sack
|-
| tvou || n. || bad weather
|-
| Təisi || top. || the capital; at the mouth of the Ku
|-
| təuka || n. || frost; winter
|-
| təykkein || n. || flea
|-
| təyra || n. || swallow (bird)
|-
| təytta || n. || testicle
|-
| vaukki || adj. || wet
|-
| vikkein || v. || climb; mount; ascend; overtake
|-
| voun || n. || stomach
|-
| vriki || adj. || new
|-
| vukka || v. || speak with the dead
|-
| vuri || n. || ice
|-
| vuvoun || n. || herb; grass
|-
| vəiki || adj. || weak
|}

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-11-27T06:48:16Z

Dunomapuka: p-r

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
| class="bluebg" | '''word'''
| class="bluebg" | '''part of speech'''
| class="bluebg" | '''gloss'''
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjou || n. || otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|-
| pakan || n. || disaster; catastrophe
|-
| paki || v. || fail; disintegrate; break down
|-
| pakki || n. || bow (weapon)
|-
| paktəí || v. || go insane
|-
| pakutjéi || n. || insane person; lunatic
|-
| passein || v. || win; succeed; achieve
|-
| patan || n. || milk
|-
| patta || n. || pin; fastener
|-
| paun || conj. || but; however
|-
| pei || n. || sky
|-
| pei || n. || thread; line
|-
| peiji || n. || bivalve; seashell
|-
| peikki || adj. || gray; brown
|-
| peiru || n. || turtle
|-
| peitan || n. || center; abdomen; navel
|-
| pfiji || v. || remain; adhere; join
|-
| pifein || v. || tell (a story); recount; recite
|-
| piji || num. || five
|-
| piki || adj. || thin
|-
| pikka || n. || brother
|-
| pikróun || num. || thirty
|-
| pin || conj. || with
|-
| pira || num. || three
|-
| pitan || n. || finger
|-
| pitein || n. || mesh; netting
|-
| pittu || v. || hang
|-
| pjata || n. || hand
|-
| pjou || n. || main part; majority
|-
| pjəy || n. || thumb
|-
| pkappu || n. || drum
|-
| pkata || n. || twin
|-
| pkəy || n. || clothing
|-
| pkəytta || n. || change; transformation
|-
| pmimmu || n. || toe
|-
| pmuppu || n. || owl
|-
| pmutta || n. || plant
|-
| pnafa || n. || hearth
|-
| pnakoun || n. || cooking pot; cauldron
|-
| pnaroun || n. || chieftan
|-
| pnau || n. || shaman
|-
| pniki || adj. || clean
|-
| pouki || adj. || brown
|-
| pouktəí || v. || wilt; rot
|-
| prafa || n. || beehive; conical hut
|-
| prakkein || n. || bird
|-
| prattaka || v. || combine; mix (tr.)
|-
| Prousoun || top. || a large island
|-
| prəi || n. || think [of what to do]; consider
|-
| prəiki || adj. || secret
|-
| prəu || n. || grass
|-
| psaki || adj. || orderly; secure; normal
|-
| psattan || n. || path; route
|-
| psikki || adj. || strong; powerful
|-
| psummu || n. || vegetation; foliage
|-
| ptafa || n. || wedding
|-
| pteiri || n. || thing; object
|-
| puki || n. || cloth; blanket
|-
| pukka || n. || rough seas
|-
| pummu || v. || spare one's life
|-
| pun || n. || ancestor spirit
|-
| pusein || n. || leaf
|-
| putan || n. || hill
|-
| putta || v. || marry
|-
| puvu || v. || breathe
|-
| pəu || n. || flat surface
|-
| rafi || n. || autumn
|-
| rajoun || v. || open (tr.)
|-
| raka || v. || be shut
|-
| rakki || n. || band; tribe
|-
| rakkoun || adv. || why
|-
| rapmiri || v. || connect; join
|-
| rappan || n. || bridge; connection
|-
| rapsəí || v. || become friends [with]
|-
| rasa || n. || horn
|-
| raun || n. || basket
|-
| rei || n. || powder; flour
|-
| reikki || adj. || angry
|-
| rifa || n. || meat
|-
| riki || adj. || dirty
|-
| rikki || adj. || smooth
|-
| rinni || v. || laugh
|-
| rippein || n. || mountain lion; puma
|-
| rirein || n. || arrow (weapon)
|-
| rissein || v. || open (intr.)
|-
| riti || v. || run
|-
| rjata || n. || side (of the body)
|-
| rjou || n. || border; perimeter
|-
| rjuki || adj. || round; fat
|-
| rjəyn || n. || a mythical beast
|-
| rou || n. || bundle; sack
|-
| roukein || n. || lump; clump; node
|-
| rouvákki || n. || radish
|-
| rufi || v. || smoke; burn
|-
| rujein || n. || picture; image; appearance
|-
| ruji || v. || show up; appear
|-
| rukein || n. || claw; tool; hook
|-
| rumiri || v. || portend; signify
|-
| run || n. || man
|-
| ruppa || n. || bee
|-
| ruttu || n. || fog; mist
|-
| rəi || n. || year
|-
| rəy || n. || tail
|-
| rəyku || v. || release; free
|}

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-11-20T23:58:39Z

Dunomapuka: m-n

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
| class="bluebg" | '''word'''
| class="bluebg" | '''part of speech'''
| class="bluebg" | '''gloss'''
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjou || n. || otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|}

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-11-20T08:39:33Z

Dunomapuka: k's

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2012-11-18T08:31:45Z

Dunomapuka: a few words ;)

Jouki

2012-11-15T02:07:50Z

Dunomapuka: Created page with "'''Jouki''' is a small nation occupying the peninsula at the easternmost point of Tuysáfa. The majority of the population are subsistence farmers and fishermen, and tend ..."

'''Jouki''' is a small nation occupying the peninsula at the easternmost point of [[Tuysáfa]]. The majority of the population are subsistence farmers and fishermen, and tend to be stereotyped as taciturn but clever rustics. The only large city is the capital, Təisi, at the mouth of the river Ku.

Jouki Stəy

2012-11-15T01:42:10Z

Dunomapuka: /* Sample Text */ ditto

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a [[T2 languages|T2 language]] spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers after the noun ('''kika sei''' "six days") and ordinals come before ('''sei kika''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, tpikkein mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, kika piji đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, sei kika ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''num.'' one 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''koun''' ''num.'' ten 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kufu''' ''num.'' eight 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miki''' ''num.'' two 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nutti''' ''num.'' nine 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pira''' ''num.'' three 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tatu''' ''num.'' seven 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tiki''' ''num.'' one hundred 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tuji''' ''n.'' dog 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đata''' ''num.'' four 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đoufa''' ''n.'' crawling insect 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

{{Article}}
[[Category:T2 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-11-15T01:40:00Z

Dunomapuka: /* Numbers */

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a [[T2 languages|T2 language]] spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers after the noun ('''kika sei''' "six days") and ordinals come before ('''sei kika''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''num.'' one 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''koun''' ''num.'' ten 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kufu''' ''num.'' eight 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miki''' ''num.'' two 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nutti''' ''num.'' nine 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pira''' ''num.'' three 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tatu''' ''num.'' seven 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tiki''' ''num.'' one hundred 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tuji''' ''n.'' dog 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đata''' ''num.'' four 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đoufa''' ''n.'' crawling insect 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

{{Article}}
[[Category:T2 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-11-15T01:36:55Z

Dunomapuka: /* Numbers */ switcharoo!!

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a [[T2 languages|T2 language]] spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers after before the noun ('''kika sei''' "six days") and ordinals come before ('''sei kika''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''num.'' one 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''koun''' ''num.'' ten 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kufu''' ''num.'' eight 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miki''' ''num.'' two 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nutti''' ''num.'' nine 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pira''' ''num.'' three 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tatu''' ''num.'' seven 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tiki''' ''num.'' one hundred 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tuji''' ''n.'' dog 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đata''' ''num.'' four 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đoufa''' ''n.'' crawling insect 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

{{Article}}
[[Category:T2 languages]]
[[Category:Tuysáfa]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-07-31T16:39:51Z

Dunomapuka: /* Lexicon */

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a Dumic language spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers come before the noun ('''sei kika''' "six days") and ordinals come after ('''kika sei''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''num.'' one 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''koun''' ''num.'' ten 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kufu''' ''num.'' eight 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miki''' ''num.'' two 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nutti''' ''num.'' nine 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pira''' ''num.'' three 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tatu''' ''num.'' seven 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tiki''' ''num.'' one hundred 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tuji''' ''n.'' dog 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đata''' ''num.'' four 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đoufa''' ''n.'' crawling insect 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-07-28T22:18:47Z

Dunomapuka:

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a Dumic language spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers come before the noun ('''sei kika''' "six days") and ordinals come after ('''kika sei''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

==Dialects==
Jouki Stəy does not exhibit wide dialect divergence. The main isogloss is between Eastern and Western dialects. This sketch describes the Western standard; Eastern has far fewer speakers, and is spoken only at the very tip of the peninsula, and on the largest offshore island, Prousoun (local ''Proso'').

The Eastern dialects are marked by monophthongal pronunciation of '''ei ou''', loss of final nasals, and reversed order of some clusters, so Western '''pnaroun''' "chief" : Eastern ''nparo''.

[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-07-28T21:02:20Z

Dunomapuka:

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a Dumic language spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers come before the noun ('''sei kika''' "six days") and ordinals come after ('''kika sei''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju ru mrəifa kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein muppa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

==Lexicon==
This is a brief lexicon representing only words used in this article, excluding auxiliary verb forms.

'''kəi''' negative particle 
'''ein''' ''conj.'' and 
'''jau''' ''n.'' door 
'''jiji''' ''n.'' water 
'''jikka''' ''v.'' reciprocate 
'''jitein''' ''v.'' allow 
'''kammu''' ''pron.'' they (masc. abs.) 
'''kan''' ''pron.'' he (abs.) 
'''kanni''' ''pron.'' he (obl.) 
'''kata''' ''v.'' say; speak 
'''kattan''' ''n.'' homeland; native land 
'''kau''' ''v.'' kill 
'''kein''' ''pp.'' by; with (instrumental) 
'''kika''' ''n.'' day 
'''kin''' ''v.'' come; go 
'''kippein''' ''conj.'' without 
'''kmammu''' ''n.'' grain 
'''kmukan''' ''pron.'' they (masc. erg.) 
'''kməy''' ''pron.'' they (masc. obl.) 
'''kseitari''' ''adv.'' later 
'''kura''' ''v.'' live; be alive; exist 
'''kəijunna''' ''v.'' starve'' 
'''ma''' ''pron.'' you (sg. abs.) 
'''maju''' ''v.'' sit 
'''makan''' ''pron.'' you (sg. erg.) 
'''masa''' ''n.'' food 
'''mei''' ''v.'' you (sg. obl.) 
'''mi''' ''post.'' in; at 
'''miji''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' maybe 
'''mikkóun''' ''num.'' twenty 
'''mjəy''' ''adv.'' so it seems; it appears that 
'''mrəifa''' ''n.'' surface; floor 
'''muku''' ''n.'' fruit 
'''mippa''' ''n.'' hole 
'''məi''' ''v.'' have; hold 
'''nasoun''' ''v.'' be surprised 
'''nikan''' ''v.'' worry; be sad; be anxious 
'''nukvissi''' ''n.'' roof opening 
'''nunna''' ''v.'' eat 
'''nusi''' ''conj.''/''adv.'' then; therefore; consequently 
'''nuvu''' ''v.'' see; look 
'''nvakki''' ''adj.'' good; virtuous 
'''paun''' ''conj.'' but; however 
'''pi''' ''conj.'' so; thus 
'''piji''' ''num.'' five 
'''pikróun''' ''num.'' thirty 
'''pin''' ''conj.'' with 
'''pnaroun''' ''n.'' chief; leader 
'''prafa''' ''n.'' thatched-roof hut; beehive 
'''prəi''' ''v.'' think (of what to do); consider 
'''psikki''' ''adj.'' strong; powerful 
'''pummu''' ''v.'' spare one's life 
'''ra''' ''post.'' to; for (dative) 
'''rajoun''' ''v.'' open 
'''rakkoun''' ''adv.'' why 
'''riti''' ''v.'' run 
'''ru''' ''post.'' on; upon 
'''rəyku''' ''v.'' release; liberate 
'''satein''' ''v.'' close; stop using; put away 
'''sei''' ''num.'' six 
'''si''' ''pron.'' this 
'''sipkasi''' ''n.'' journey 
'''skou''' ''n.'' magic 
'''spaviki''' ''adj.'' renowned; famous 
'''səikoun''' ''adv.'' like this; in this way 
'''ta''' ''post.'' on; at 
'''tapkóu''' ''n.'' enemy 
'''tatta''' ''v.'' put down; set down; bring 
'''tau''' ''post.'' to (directional); toward 
'''taun''' negative or private particle 
'''ti''' ''pron.'' I (abs.) 
'''tikan''' ''pron.'' I (erg.) 
'''tnau''' ''n.'' knife; dagger 
'''tpikkein''' ''n.'' mouse 
'''tutti''' ''v.'' carry; wield 
'''đatrəí''' ''post.'' across; along 
'''đijan''' ''v.'' follow; chase 
'''đkasi''' ''n.'' effect; outcome 
'''đuku''' ''v.'' be healthy 
'''đumma''' ''v.'' take 
'''đutta''' ''n.'' the same one; the aforementioned 
'''đviki''' ''adj.'' small

[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Jouki Stəy

2012-07-28T20:45:52Z

Dunomapuka: word order

'''Jouki Stəy''' is a Dumic language spoken 0-200 YP in [[Jouki]], a nation occupying the easternmost point of mainland [[Tuysáfa]]. This resource-poor area developed somewhat in isolation. The terrain, being rather rocky and rugged, did not grow rice effectively at first and population density remained low. Gradually, the development of local rice strains led to higher crop yields, and large towns emerged ca. 100; ironworking caught on soon after.

The form Jouki Stəy literally means "language of Jouki" and perhaps would be used in contrast to another language, for example [[Katatuti]] (typically called '''Kupséi Stəy''' "western language"). In more casual speech the language could be referred to by as '''kəu stəy''' "our language," '''psaki stəy''' "normal language," or some nonce construction.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! labial !! coronal !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
! stop
| p || t || || k
|- align="center"
! fricative
| (f) v || s ð || ʝ ||
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || n || ||
|- align="center"
! liquid
| || r || ||
|-
|}

*After another consonant, the fricatives /v ʝ/ are pronounced [w j].
*/ð/ only occurs initially except in cases of recent compounding.
*/p t k m n s/ can occur geminated in intervocalic position; initially /pp tt kk ss/ surface as [pf ts ks ts].
*[f] only occurs intervocalically and in the initial cluster [pf]; it is best treated as an allophone of /p/.
*Intervocalic single /s/ voices to [z].
*Only /n/ can occur in final position, where it surfaces as nasalization of the preceding vowel.
*Intial and medial clusters can occur quite freely, though consonants exhibit a sonority hierarchy of /ʝ/ < /r/ < /v/ < /m n/ < everything else, where those lower on the hierarchy tend to form the second element of a cluster (i.e. /ʝ/ is always the second element, never the first).

===Vowels===
There are three simple vowels /a i u/, three falling diphthongs /aʊ ɛɪ oʊ/ and three rising diphthongs /əi əu əɨ/. Any vowel can be nasalized, though /a/ backs to [ɑ~].

===Orthography===
/ð ʝ aʊ ɛɪ oʊ əɨ/ are spelled '''đ j au ei ou əy'''. The phone [f] is accorded its own letter '''f'''.

==Morphology==
The language is notable in comparison to its nearest relatives for its lack of inflectional morphology, except in the auxiliary verbal system.

Nouns do not inflect at all. Verbs mark grammatical categories only on a series of auxiliary verbs.

===Pronouns===
Pronouns, unlike nouns, distinguish number (including one dual form) and absolutive, ergative and oblique cases.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! absolutive !! ergative !! oblique
|- align="center"
! I
| ti || tikan || təi
|- align="center"
! you (sg.)
| ma || makan || mei
|- align="center"
! he
| kan || kakkan || kanni
|- align="center"
! she
| tun || tukkan || tunni
|- align="center"
! you and I
| kuta || ktakan || ktei
|- align="center"
! we (excl.)
| təy || təykan || tjəy
|- align="center"
! we (incl.)
| kəu || kəukan || kvəy
|- align="center"
! you (pl.)
| mou || moukan || mvəy
|- align="center"
! they (m.)
| kammu || kmukan || kməy
|- align="center"
! they (f.)
| tummu || tmukan || tməy
|}

===Auxiliary Verbs===
There are five auxiliary verbs, each one marking a category of aspect, further conjugated for voice and mood.
*'''kin''' continuous; basic imperfective
*'''ksiri''' habitual; repeated
*'''mjou''' basic perfective
*'''đsei''' resumptive (referring to continued action after a pause)
*'''kmei''' indicates a sudden change of state or reversal of fortune.

The first two can be grouped together as imperfectives; the other three, as perfectives. The unmarked form of each verb is in the indicative mood and active voice; each can be conjugated of active or antipassive voice, and subjunctive, optative, potential and conditional moods. Each verb also has active and antipassive participles; '''kin''', '''ksiri''' and '''đsei''' also have imperatives. The following tables show the full conjugation of each verb.

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kin || ktatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kissan || kistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kitti || kteitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kissi || kseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kimmu || kmoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ktəi || ktatəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| kikkoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| ksiri || ksireitta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| ksirisan || ksiristatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| ksiriji || ksirijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| ksirisi || ksiriseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| ksirəý || ksirjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| ksitrəí || ksireittəí
|- align="center"
! imperative
| ksikroun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| mjou || mjouvatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| mjousan || mjoustatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| mjouji || mjoujeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| mjousi || mjouseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| mavjóu || mavjóutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| mjoukóu || mjouvatkóu
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| đsei || đseivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| đseisan || đseistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| đseiji || đseijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| đseisi || đseiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| đasjóu || đasjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| đseikóu || đseivatkóu
|- align="center"
! imperative
| đseikoun
|}

{| {{greentable|lightgreenbg}}
|- align="center"
! !! active !! antipassive
|- align="center"
! indicative
| kmei || kmeivatta
|- align="center"
! subjunctive
| kmeisan || kmeistatta
|- align="center"
! optative
| kmeiji || kmeijeitta
|- align="center"
! potential
| kmeisi || kmeiseitta
|- align="center"
! conditional
| kmupjóu || kmupjoutta
|- align="center"
! participle
| kmeikóu || kmeivatkóu
|}

The verbs '''đsei''' and '''kmei''' have "expanded" forms '''đasjéi''' and '''kipméi''', which can be used for emphasis in storytelling or certain ceremonial registers. These are used as the stems for all forms except the conditional (thus '''đasjeisan''', '''đasjeiji''', etc). Otherwise they are rarely used.

===Numbers===
Numbers are base-10. There are no separate cardinal and ordinal forms; cardinal numbers come before the noun ('''sei kika''' "six days") and ordinals come after ('''kika sei''' "the sixth day").
*'''kau''' one
*'''miki''' two
*'''pira''' three
*'''đata''' four
*'''piji''' five
*'''sei''' six
*'''tatu''' seven
*'''kufu''' eight
*'''nutti''' nine
*'''koun''' ten
*'''tiki''' one hundred

==Syntax==
The word order is always Ergative-Verb-Absolutive-Auxiliary; a verb phrase must include at least one noun argument. An auxiliary verb is usually present at the end of the phrase. 
*'''tuji nunna đoufa mjou''' the dog ate a bug
*'''tuji nunna mjou''' the dog ate [something]
*'''nunna đoufa mjou''' the bug was eaten / something ate the bug

The auxiliary can be omitted, but this expresses a feeling of uncertainty, vagueness, hesitation, or displeasure.
*'''tuji nunna...''' the dog is eating...

==Sample Text==
'''Kura spaviki pnaroun ktəi, kan tapkóu tatta taun jau taun nukvissi prafa mei mjou, pi kəijunna kan mavjóu.''' 
A famous chief was once imprisoned by his enemies in a hut without any door or roof-opening, and left to die of starvation.

'''Nikan kan ein maju mrəifa ru kin, paun pnaroun nuvu đviki tpikkein kmei. Riti tpikkein prafa đumma mjou.''' 
As he sat gloomily on the ground, the chief saw a little mouse running across the hut.

'''Tutti pnaroun pin tnau mjouvatta, ein kata mjou "Kəi kəijunna ti mjousan, paun tikan nunna tpikkein kmeiji!"''' 
He seized his knife, exclaiming: “Rather than die of hunger, I will eat this mouse!”

'''Paun prəi kan mjou ein satein pin tnau kmeivatta ein kata mjou "Rakkoun tikan kau tpikkein mjousan? Kseitari kəijunna ti mjou kippein đkasi."''' 
But on second thoughts he put away his knife, saying: “Why should I kill the mouse? I shall starve later on, just the same.”

'''Kata tpikkein kanni ra kmei: "Nvakki pnaroun! Makan pummu ti mjou, ein pi tikan pummu ma mjoukóu, jikka ti mjou."''' 
To his surprise the mouse said to him: “Noble Chief! You have spared my life, and in return I will spare yours.”

'''Pi kin tpikkein mippa kein mrəifa mi mjou. Kseitari kin tpikkein đsei, mikkóun miji pikróun đijan đutta ein tutti kmammu ein đviki muku kin.''' 
The mouse then disappeared into a hole in the ground, and returned some time afterwards followed by twenty or thirty other mice, all bearing grains and small fruits.

'''Səikoun nunna kan kməy kin mjou, piji kika đatrəí. Nusi rajoun prafa kan tapkóu mjou, kika sei ta. Kura ein đuku pnaroun mjoukóu, nasoun kammu mjou.''' 
For five days they fed him in this manner, and on the sixth day the hut was opened by the chief’s captors, who were astonished to find him still alive and in good health.

'''"Məi si pnaroun psikki skou kissan mjəy!" kata kammu mjou. "Kika kan taun masa taun jiji kin kissi mjəy!"''' 
"This chief must have a powerful charm!” they declared. “It appears that he can live without eating or drinking!”

'''Pi rəyku kmukan kan ein jitein kan kattan tau sipkasi mjou.''' 
So they released him and let him return in freedom to his own country.

[[Category:Dumic languages]]